SS symmetry

Article
Optimal Location and Sizing of Photovoltaic-Based Distributed
Generations to Improve the Efficiency and Symmetry of a
Distribution Network by Handling Random Constraints of
Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
Muhammad Abid Ali 1 , Abdul Rauf Bhatti 1, * , Akhtar Rasool 2, * , Muhammad Farhan 1
and Ebenezer Esenogho 2

1 Department of Electrical Engineering and Technology, Government College University Faisalabad,

Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; [email protected] (M.A.A.); [email protected] (M.F.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Botswana, Gaborone UB0061, Botswana;
[email protected] or [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (A.R.B.); [email protected] (A.R.)

Abstract: Distributed generators (DGs) are increasingly employed in radial distribution systems ow-
ing to their ability to reduce electrical energy losses, better voltage levels, and increased dependability
of the power supply. This research paper deals with the utilization of a Particle Swarm Optimization
algorithm by handling its random constraints to determine the most appropriate size and location
of photovoltaic-based DG (PVDG) to keep the asymmetries of the phases minimal in the grid. It is
thus expected that this algorithm will provide an efficient and consistent solution to improve the
overall performance of the power system. The placement and sizing of the DG are done in a way
that minimizes power losses, enhances the voltage profile, i.e., bringing symmetry in the voltage
profile of the system, and provides maximum cost savings. The model has been tested on an IEEE
Citation: Ali, M.A.; Bhatti, A.R.; 33-bus radial distribution system using MATLAB software, in both conditions, i.e., with and without
Rasool, A.; Farhan, M.; Esenogho, E. PVDG. The simulation results were successful, indicating the viability of the proposed model. The
Optimal Location and Sizing of proposed PSO-based PVDG model further reduced active power losses as compared to the models
Photovoltaic-Based Distributed
based on the teaching–learning artificial bee colony algorithm (TLABC), pathfinder algorithm (PFA),
Generations to Improve the Efficiency
and ant lion optimization algorithm (ALOA). With the proposed model, active power losses have
and Symmetry of a Distribution
reduced to 17.50%, 17.48%, and 8.82% compared to the losses found in the case of TLABC, PFA, and
Network by Handling Random
ALOA, respectively. Similarly, the proposed solution lessens the reactive power losses compared to
Constraints of Particle Swarm
Optimization Algorithm. Symmetry
the losses found through existing TLABC, PFA, and ALOA techniques by an extent of 23.06%, 23%,
2023, 15, 1752. https://doi.org/ and 23.08%, respectively. Moreover, this work shows cost saving of 15.21% and 6.70% more than
10.3390/sym15091752 TLABC and ALOA, respectively. Additionally, it improves the voltage profile by 3.48% of the power
distribution system.
Academic Editors: Yi Zhang and
Ying Wang
Keywords: distributed generator; PVDG; PSO algorithm; voltage profile improvement; cost savings;
Received: 7 July 2023 power losses; radial distribution network; constraints handling
Revised: 1 August 2023
Accepted: 8 September 2023
Published: 13 September 2023

1. Introduction
Electrical energy demand is increasing because of the world’s rising population and
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the usage of more electrical-based appliances in human life. It is required to generate
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. more electrical power to fulfill these demands. Electrical power should be generated from
This article is an open access article sources that are neither depleting nor causing global warming. Thus, renewable-based
distributed under the terms and electrical power generation (PV, wind turbines, microturbines, biomass, etc.) is one of the
conditions of the Creative Commons preferred choices. Among renewable-based electrical power generation, electrical power
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// generation from solar power-based DGs is on a rising trend.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Currently, the integration of DGs has become an attractive choice for technical, eco-
4.0/). nomic, and environmental benefits in power distribution networks [1,2]. The distributed

Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15091752 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 2 of 16

generator is used to generate electrical power on a small scale (1 kW to 50 MW) and is

generally embedded in the electrical power distribution networks [3]. The DG unit assists
in improving the efficiency of the electrical system by decreasing power losses, stabilizing
system oscillation, and improving voltage profile, reliability, and security. This is accom-
plished by injecting active and reactive power into the load side, as reported in several
research studies [4–6]. The advantages of integrating DGs at the distribution side are clear;
they require less time and money to install than traditional centralized generators [7–9].
This research aims to use a biogeography-based optimization algorithm to join multiple
power voltage distributed generators (PVDGs) in the power distribution system. It is
expected to reduce power losses and total harmonics distortion while improving the effi-
ciency of the system [10]. The integration of PVDG in RDS can yield a range of advantages,
such as decreased power losses, improved voltage profile, and increased voltage stability
index. This integration can also reduce global warming by decreasing the greenhouse
effect. In [11], the FFA algorithm was used to identify the optimal position and size of
DG in the RDS. In [12], the GA technique was used to determine the optimal location
and size of solar-based DG in RDS for minimizing power losses. Similarly, [13] proposed
a PSO technique for integrating PVDG at the optimal position and size to reduce actual
power losses and improve the voltage profile. The Whale optimization algorithm for
multi-objective optimization is proposed for inserting distributed generators in RDS [14].
The renewable-based DGs are in sub-transmission and distribution systems to compare
their impacts on Voltage profile and power losses [14]. The enactment of renewable-based
DGs into the distribution network has been incorporated by using multi-state modeling
through probability density function [15]. A hybrid technique known as TLABC has been
employed to determine the most suitable position and size of PV and wind DGs in RDS,
to reduce power losses and reduce costs. This technique is based on active power loss
reduction [16]. The paper introduces an intelligent augmented social network seeking
power dispatch (ORPD) in energy networks. It outperforms the social network seek (ASNS)
algorithm for the best reactive (SNS) algorithm with the aid of attaining as much as a
22% power loss discount and up to a 93% development in voltage profiles on tested IEEE
fashionable grids [17]. This article offers an improved primarily Heap-based optimizer
with a Deeper Exploitative development (HODEI) set of rules for power distribution feeder
reconfiguration (PDFR) and allotted generator (DG) allocation; it outperforms conventional
techniques in voltage profiles and health metrics [18]. The paper offers an advanced hybrid
evolutionary algorithm (PODESCA) and a primarily sensitivity-based decision-making
technique for the optimal planning of shunt capacitors in radial distribution structures,
reaching higher effects than preceding techniques [19]. This paper introduces a unique
mixed-evolutionary technique, the quasi-oppositional differential evolution Lévy flights
method (QODELFM), for solving the ideal making plans of distribution generators in ra-
dial distribution networks, demonstrating its superiority over existing techniques phrases
of robustness and efficiency [20]. This paper proposes an international framework for
short-time collection modeling with a rolling mechanism, gray model, and meta-heuristic
algorithms. It outperforms popular models and enhances the accuracy and speed of com-
plex structure prediction. Dragonfly and whale optimization boost performance [21]. This
paper introduces the Quasi-opposition-based studying and Q-learning-based Marine Preda-
tors set of rules (QQLMPA) to beautify the overall performance of the traditional Marine
Predators algorithm (MPA) for solving optimization troubles. Q-learning enables better
utilization of beyond iteration facts, at the same time as quasi-opposition-based studying
improves populace diversity, decreasing convergence to neighbored optima [22]. This
study introduces QLADIFA, a novel optimization algorithm combining Q-learning with
the adaptive logarithmic spiral-Levy flight firefly algorithm. QLADIFA leverages fireflies’
environmental awareness and memory, leading to improved performance compared to
existing methods. Numerical experiments validate its effectiveness on benchmark functions
and various engineering problems [23]. This paper examines a 150.7 kW grid-connected PV
system at GCU Faisalabad. the use of PVSyst 7.4 and Metronome, it carried out an average
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 3 of 16

yearly PR of 79.64%, with a peak of 85.4% in January. The PV array produced 218.12 MWh
of DC electricity, injecting 211.70 MWh of AC power into the grid yearly [24].
Incorrect siting and sizing of Distributed Generation (DG) can have a negative ef-
fect on the existing system’s technical balance. To improve the radial distribution system
performance, a single or hybrid technique for optimal siting and sizing of DG is essen-
tial. Recently, a combination of Real Power Loss Sensitivity Index (RPLSI) and Artificial
Ecosystem-based Optimization (AEO) was proposed to identify the optimal placement
of photovoltaic and wind-powered DG units in a radial distribution system, to improve
the voltage profile and reduce power losses [25]. The accurate PV array-based DGs siting
in RDS by using a differential evolution (DE) algorithm is presented in [26] to obtain the
optimal reduction in actual power losses and voltage improvement. Recently, an innovative
pathfinder algorithm (PFA) has been developed to identify the best possible locations
for incorporating solar-based distributed energy resources (DERs) in a radial distribution
system (RDS) [27]. This algorithm leverages a backtracking search optimization technique
to reduce active power losses [28]. Moreover, an ALOA algorithm has been proposed to
identify the most suitable size and position of photovoltaic (PV) and wind-based DERs,
which would ultimately reduce power losses, enhance the voltage profile, and improve
voltage stability, thus maximizing cost savings [29].
Previous research has highlighted the capacity for the reduction in power losses and
improvement in the voltage profile, execution time, and cost savings. This provides an
opportunity for further reduction in real power losses, execution time, cost savings, and
DG size. To this end, the integration of solar-based DG using Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) has not been addressed in detail. This study used the Backward Forward Sweep
Method (BFSM) to compare the power losses and voltage profile in the IEEE 33-bus system
with and without PVDG. Moreover, PSO was deployed to identify the most suitable location
and size for photovoltaic-based distributed generators in a radial distribution network.
Simulation of the proposed optimized algorithm in MATLAB has been used to generate
the results.
The PSO algorithm was first introduced in 1995. Meanwhile, it has been used as
a robust technique for solving optimization issues in a wide variety of applications. It
is becoming very popular for its simplicity of implementation and also for its ability to
quickly converge to a good solution. It requires no information about the gradient of the
function to be optimized and uses only primitive mathematical operators. Compared to
other optimization methods, it is faster, cheaper, and more efficient [30–32]. In addition,
there are a few parameters to adjust in PSO. Thus, PSO is well suited to solving non-linear,
non-convex, continuous, discrete, and integer variable problems. On the other hand, this
algorithm does not always work well and there is still room for development. In compar-
ison to other optimization techniques, along with Genetic Algorithms (GA), Differential
Evolution (DE), or Simulated Annealing (SA), PSO frequently reveals faster convergence,
superior international exploration capabilities, and ease of implementation. But the choice
of optimization technique relies upon on the unique characteristics and complexity of
the hassle, and in a few cases, other algorithms may additionally outperform PSO below
positive situations. Consequently, it is far more crucial to remember the problem’s nature
and necessities earlier than deciding on the maximum appropriate optimization method
for a given radial disbursed strength machine.
This research’s main aims are to compute the optimal size and position of single and
multiple PVDG units for reducing the real power losses, boosting the voltage profile, and
maximizing cost savings by using the PSO algorithm. In this work, the PSO is utilized by
handling the random constraints of the original PSO algorithm to improve the efficiency
and symmetry of a distribution network. Moreover, Improvement in the voltage profile,
Reduction in Active Power Loss (%), Reduction in Reactive Power Loss (%), Execution
Time (Sec), and Maximum Cost Savings (USD) of the radial distribution system have
been achieved through proposed work by handling the random constraints. On the other
 achieved through proposed work by handling the random constraints. On the other han
no existing published work has achieved all five above-mentioned improvements sim
taneously. The main contributions of this paper are listed below precisely.

Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752

i. Photovoltaic PV distributed generation, as well as constant load, is all4 offactored 16
in
the RDG sizing and allocation problem.
ii. The stochastic characteristics are achieved by using appropriate probability dens
functions (PDFs).
hand, no existing published work has achieved all five above-mentioned improvements
simultaneously.
iii. The The main
Particle Swarm contributionsalgorithm
optimization of this paper(PSO),
are listed below precisely. algorithm, is us
a metaheuristic
to
i. determine
Photovoltaic thePVoptimal solution
distributed with
generation, as high
well asexploitation
constant load,potential andinto
is all factored explorati
the
aptitude. RDG sizing and allocation problem.
ii. The stochastic characteristics are achieved by using appropriate probability density
iv. The FBSM load flow approach is used to calculate the number of power losses a
functions (PDFs).
voltage
iii. The profiles or symmetry/asymmetry
Particle Swarm in thea metaheuristic
optimization algorithm (PSO), voltages. algorithm, is used
v. PVDG is injected into the RDS at its optimal location
to determine the optimal solution with high exploitation potential and sizing to minimize the
and exploration
tive power
aptitude.loss, reactive power loss, cost savings, and improve the voltage profile
iv.
vi. To showThe FBSM load flow approach
the effectiveness and is used to calculate
performance the number
of the proposedof power
model, losses
an and
IEEE 33 R
voltage profiles or symmetry/asymmetry in the voltages.
is
v.
considered.
PVDG is injected into the RDS at its optimal location and sizing to minimize the active
vii. The simulation resultspower
power loss, reactive of theloss,
proposed technique
cost savings, are compared
and improve the voltage with those of recen
profile.
available
vi. To show algorithms in theand
the effectiveness literature.
performance of the proposed model, an IEEE 33 RDS is
considered.
This paper is structured in a way to cover the research work in its entirety. Sectio
vii. The simulation results of the proposed technique are compared with those of recently
talks about the problem
available andinthe
algorithms the relevant
literature. constraints for optimal PVDG placement. Secti
3 explainsThis
thepaper
proposed optimization technique for the placement and sizing of the PVD
is structured in a way to cover the research work in its entirety. Section 2
Section 4 about
talks evaluates the simulation
the problem results
and the relevant obtained
constraints from PVDG
for optimal the procedure. Finally,
placement. Section 3 Sectio
sumsexplains
up the the
article withoptimization
proposed the appropriate conclusion.
technique for the placement and sizing of the PVDG.
Section 4 evaluates the simulation results obtained from the procedure. Finally, Section 5
sums up the article with the appropriate conclusion.
2. Methodology
Solar-based
2. Methodology DGs at their optimal size and location in the radial distribution syst
are shown in FigureDGs
Solar-based 1. This figure
at their optimalillustrates that allinthe
size and location the data
radialare provided
distribution to the cont
system
are shown in Figure 1. This figure illustrates that all the data are provided
system, which decides the optimal location and size of DGs by using PSO. Additiona to the control
system, which decides the optimal location and size of DGs by using PSO. Additionally, it
it calculates the voltage profile, active and reactive power losses, and annual cost savin
calculates the voltage profile, active and reactive power losses, and annual cost savings in
in radial distribution systems.
radial distribution systems.

Figure 1. Electric
Figure power
1. Electric distribution
power system
distribution system with
with PVDGS.
PVDGS.

This proposed work is dedicated to inserting the DG at its optimal location and sizi
in the radial distribution network and improving its technical and economic benefits.
The proposed system involves the layout and development of a model using the P
approach in MATLAB software. Initially, the existing system is studied, and various te
nical and economic values can be calculated. Eventually, the particle swarm optimizati
approach could be applied to decide the optimal location and size of PVDG. Once t
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 5 of 16

This proposed work is dedicated to inserting the DG at its optimal location and sizing
in the radial distribution network and improving its technical and economic benefits.
The proposed system involves the layout and development of a model using the PSO
approach in MATLAB software. Initially, the existing system is studied, and various techni-
cal and economic values can be calculated. Eventually, the particle swarm optimization
approach could be applied to decide the optimal location and size of PVDG. Once the opti-
mal places and sizes in its RDS are calculated. For making sure the accuracy and reliability
of results obtained from MATLAB, a comparison among the numerous techniques has been
accomplished, theory cross-checking the validity of the findings.

3. Problem Formulation
The objective of this study is to optimize the active power losses, reactive power losses,
voltage profile improvement, and cost savings. Additionally, the minimum and maximum
voltage magnitudes and power balance were used as constraints to ensure the desired
outcome of the problem.

3.1. Objective Function

The statistics presented in [33] have shown that the distribution system contains about
13% of electrical power losses from the total power generation. The main purpose of the
optimal position and size of PVDGs in a power distribution network is to achieve the
maximum possible benefits by increasing the efficiency of the system in terms of reduction
in power losses, improvement in the voltage profile, and cost savings. BFSM has been used
to compute electrical power losses and voltage profiles [34]. The objectives of minimizing
the active (PL ) and reactive (Q L ) power losses have been mathematically formulated as in
Equations (1) and (2) [35].
N N
Minimize PL = ∑i=1 Ploss = ∑i=1 Ibr,i 2 × Ri f or i = 1, 2 . . . N (1)

where Ibr,i and Ri is the ith branch current and the branch resistance, respectively.

N N
Minimize Q L = ∑i=1 Qloss = ∑i=1 Ibr,i 2 × Xi f or i = 1, 2 . . . N (2)

where Ibr,i and Xi is the ith branch current and the branch impedance, respectively.
The voltage profile problem of the distribution network is again related to power
quality. This is normally less important than the power losses from the utility point of view.
However, in the recent era, it looks like due to the penetration of highly intermittent natural
renewable-based DGs in power distribution systems, the interest in voltage profiles at the
distribution level is increasing. The voltage at different nodes may differ due to sudden
changes in load and generation requirements.
ni
VPro f ile = ∑ (V i − Vrated ) where i = 1, 2 . . . n (3)
i =1

Vi is the voltage at bus i and Vrated is a rated voltage of the distribution system and selected
as 1 p.u. in this study.
where ∆V = total change in voltage profile

∆V = 1.05p.u. ≤ v ≥ 0.95p.u. (4)

3.2. Constraints
There are two types of constraints: equality constraints, and inequality constraints.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 6 of 16

3.2.1. Equality Constraints

The following operating conditions must be fulfilled during the optimization process.

PGrid + PDG = PLoss + PLoad (5)

QGrid + Q DG = Q Loss + Q Load (6)

where, PGrid and QGrid are the total active and reactive power inserted by the grid into the
system. PDG and Q DG are active and reactive power injected by the distributed generator.
PLoss and Q Loss are active and reactive power losses. PLoad and Q Load are active and reactive
power consumed, respectively.

3.2.2. Inequality Constraints

• Voltage Limitation.
• For keeping a proper stable voltage magnitude or voltage symmetry of the whole
IEEE 33-bus network, the absolute voltage value at all nodes of the distribution system
should meet the defined constraints.
Vmin ≤ |Vi | ≤ Vmax (7)
• Current Limitation.
• For keeping a proper current flow in all branches, it should not exceed the rated limit.
The absolute value of the current at all nodes of the RDS should meet the defined
constraints.
max
Iij ≤ Iij (8)

• Thermal line restriction:

• The thermal line restriction condition is mentioned in Equation (9).
|Sli | ≤ | Ili |max (9)

3.3. Photovoltaic (PV)-Based DG Model

Solar-based DGs or PV modules convert sunlight directly into electrical power. The
amount of power generation is directly dependent on the sunlight intensity. This power
generation is in the form of DC and the demand side consumes power in the form of
AC. An inverter is a device that is used to transform direct current (DC) power from a
solar generator into alternating current (AC). The converter would provide compatible
AC output power with the AC utility distribution system. According to a paper [36], the
output power capacity (Pcpv ) of the PVDG is as follows.


Pcpv → f Asp , Isolar , µsp (10)

where Asp is the area of solar panels; Isolar is solar irradiance, which is the function of
time; and µsp is solar cells’ efficiency in the PVDG. The calculation of the Pcpv (∆t ) at a time
instance using the equation is given below.

Pcpv (∆t) = Asp × Isolar × µsp (∆t) (11)

Therefore, the power generated from solar photovoltaic panels can be considered
power generated from a non-dispatchable source. Another important feature of this source
is that it provides active and reactive power (either stable or unity power factor depending
on the usage of the converter). If this source needs to provide power with a constant power
factor, then a static electronic converter is used. The PVDG model is generally considered a
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 7 of 16

constant power factor model. The maximum power evaluation of the PVDG (Pmax) has
been computed using the equation given below.

n=24
1
m → n m∑
Pmax = Pcpv (∆t)mn (12)
=1

4. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) Algorithm

The Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm is a powerful tool for solving optimization
problems in a stochastic manner. It mimics the behavior of animals that search for food
in groups, such as a school of fish or a flock of birds. This technique is useful in finding
the optimal solution in each search space. Many researchers have considered the use of
this technique due to its substantiated strength, ease of implementation, and universal
examination ability in many applications. This optimization technique was introduced
by Kennedy and Ebert in 1995, in which a group of the swarm (named population) was
randomly created. Every particle inside the search space had an individual momentum
and speed in correlation with the object. This speed and direction would be adjusted
based on the particle’s history of the best experiences and the collective best experiences
of its surroundings. Due to this, the particle has the tendency to move in a particular
direction toward the desired goal in the search region [30–32]. Each particle moves in an
N-dimensional search space with the position and velocity of a particle could be updated
by using Equations (13) and (14) as given.
   
Vkp+1 = ωVkp + c1 ∗ rand1 ∗ pbest − Tpk + c2 ∗ rand2 ∗ gbest − Tpk (13)

Tpk+1 = Tpk + γ ∗ Vpk+1 (14)

• T k is the present search point and Tk+1 is the changed search point.
• Vk is the present velocity and Vk+1 is the changed velocity.
• c1 and c2 are weighing coefficients.
• rand1 and rand2 are random numbers [0, 1]; c1 = c2 = 2; inertia weight is ω =
ωmax − k(ωmax − ωmin )/k max and ωmin = 0.4, ωmax = 0.9 [37]. K and k max are present
and the maximum iteration number, respectively.
The proposed model is illustrated in Figure 2, which utilizes the Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) technique to identify the best location and size of PVDG. This method
enables the model to achieve an optimal solution. The algorithm begins by setting the input
parameters and selecting the line and bus data of the IEEE 33-bus system. The FBSM is used
to evaluate the number of power losses and voltage profiles (symmetric or asymmetric
voltages) before the integration of the DG (Distributed Generation). The PSO (Particle
Swarm Optimization) algorithm is then applied to identify the appropriate placement and
size of the PVDG (Photovoltaic Distributed Generation). In each round, the FBSM is again
used for computing the voltage profiles and power losses. The proposed model obtains the
best position and size of PVDG, which lessens power losses, reduces cost, and improves
the voltage profile for the target issues. The conforming DG fitness value represents the
improvement for the mentioned problems.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752
Symmetry 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 16
8 of 17

Figure 2. Flowchart of proposed PSO algorithm.

Figure 2. Flowchart of proposed PSO algorithm.
 Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 9 of 16

5. Results and Discussion

In the first stage, a base distribution system without DG was considered for analysis.
Hereafter, a comparative study of the RDS with and without PVDG
Symmetry 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17 was considered. The
proposed metaheuristic method was executed in MATLAB 2018a software. The simulation
was been performed on a laptop with specifications of Intel® Core (TM) i7-3720 QM
5. Results and Discussion
[email protected] GHz and 4 GB RAM.
In the first stage, a base distribution system without DG was considered for analysis.
Hereafter, a comparative study of the RDS with and without PVDG was considered. The
5.1. Performance Analysis of IEEE 33-Bus Power System without PVDG
proposed metaheuristic method was executed in MATLAB 2018a software. The simula-
tion was
The been performed on
efficiency of athe
laptop with specifications
suggested approachof Intel® Core (TM) i7-3720 QM
was validated by using the IEEE 33-bus
[email protected] GHz and 4 GB RAM.
system, which is the benchmark for testing the performance of any system. The following
performance parameters
5.1. Performance Analysis havePower
of IEEE 33-Bus been selected
System withoutforPVDGcomparison, i.e., active (Ploss), reactive
(Qloss) power losses,
The efficiency and voltage
of the suggested approachprofile (V). The
was validated 33 kV
by using bus33-bus
the IEEE networksys- was selected without
tem, which
PVDG andis the
thebenchmark
input data for of
testing
the the performance
proposed of anywas
model system.
takenThe from
following
the line and load data of
performance parameters have been selected for comparison, i.e., active (Ploss), reactive
the IEEE 33-bus system.
(Qloss) power losses, and voltage profile (V). The 33 kV bus network was selected without
PVDGThe IEEE
and the 33-bus
input data of RDS, shown
the proposed in Figure
model was taken 3 from
[38],the
isline
composed
and load dataof 33
of buses and 32 lines. It
the IEEE 33-bus system.
is a standard type of network and is widely used in power sector research. The impedance
The IEEE 33-bus RDS, shown in Figure 3 [38], is composed of 33 buses and 32 lines.
of each line has different values, and this power distribution system is connected to a
It is a standard type of network and is widely used in power sector research. The imped-
centralized
ance of each line power gridvalues,
has different system. Different
and this power sources
power distribution system is like hydro,
connected to coal, nuclear, ocean,
wind, PV, power
a centralized and geothermal power
grid system. Different plants
power arelikeconnected
sources to the ocean,
hydro, coal, nuclear, grid as centralized power
wind, PV, and geothermal power plants are connected to the grid as centralized power
sources. The maximum and minimum voltage limits have been considered at ±5 for all
sources. The maximum and minimum voltage limits have been considered at ±5 for all
buses of the network.
buses of the network. The level
The voltage voltage levelisof12.66
of all buses all kVbuses is 12.66
the load kV active
of the total the load of the total active
power
power is is 3.715
3.715 MW,MW,and theandloadthe load
of total of total
reactive powerreactive power is 2.3 MVAR.
is 2.3 MVAR.

Figure
Figure 3. 3. IEEE
IEEE 33 radial
33 radial distribution
distribution network. network.

The
The realreal
power of the system
power of thewith the loadwith
system can bethe
seenload
in Figure
can4. be
It is seen
noted that the
in Figure 4. It is noted that
initial active (Pi) and reactive (Qi) powers were zero at bus one and they changed from
the initial active (Pi) and reactive (Qi) powers were zero at bus
bus two to bus thirty-three. The total active power load was 3715 kW, and the total reactive one and they changed
from
power bus two2300
load was to kVAR.
bus thirty-three. The
The highest active total
power active
values were power loadtwenty-
found at buses was 3715 kW, and the total
four and twenty-five,
reactive power load both having 420 kW,
was 2300 and theThe
kVAR. highest reactiveactive
highest power waspowerat busvalues
thirty were found at buses
with 600 kVAR. The minimum active and reactive powers were both zero at bus one.
twenty-four
Symmetry 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW and twenty-five, both having 420 kW, and the highest reactive power
10 was
of 17at
bus thirty with 600 kVAR. The minimum active and reactive powers were both zero at
bus one.

Figure 4. 4.
Figure AA load data
load plot
data (active
plot and
(active reactive
and power)
reactive forfor
power) IEEE 33-bus
IEEE system.
33-bus system.

The impedance of the bus system is demonstrated in Figure 5, which was derived
from the IEEE 33-bus network. This figure provides a graphical representation of the re-
sistance and reactance of the line. The maximum resistance is observed at 1.542 ohms at
line 19 and reactance is observed at 1.7210 ohms at line 16. The minimum resistance is
0.0922 ohms and a reactance of 0.0470 ohms has been observed at line one.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 10 of 16
Figure 4. A load data plot (active and reactive power) for IEEE 33-bus system.

The impedance of the bus system is demonstrated in Figure 5, which was derived
The impedance
from the IEEE of the bus
33-bus network. Thissystem
figureisprovides
demonstrated in Figure
a graphical 5, which wasofderived
representation the re-from
the IEEE 33-bus network. This figure provides a graphical representation
sistance and reactance of the line. The maximum resistance is observed at 1.542 ohms of the resistance
at
line 19 and reactance is observed at 1.7210 ohms at line 16. The minimum resistance 19
and reactance of the line. The maximum resistance is observed at 1.542 ohms at line is and
reactance is observed at 1.7210 ohms at line 16. The minimum resistance is 0.0922 ohms
0.0922 ohms and a reactance of 0.0470 ohms has been observed at line one.
and a reactance of 0.0470 ohms has been observed at line one.

Figure 5. A plot
Figure 5. Aof take-out
plot load data
of take-out load (Resistance and reactance)
data (Resistance for the
and reactance) forIEEE 33-bus
the IEEE network.
33-bus network.

The computation
The computation of the
of the basebase
impedance (𝑍 ()Zhas
impedance b ) has been
been performed
performed byby assumingthe
assuming the kV
kV andandMVA
MVAofofthe
the IEEE
IEEE 33-bus
33-bus network. Base impedance is is calculated
calculatedusing
usingEquation
Equation(15).
(15).
V2
Z𝑉b = (15)
𝑍 = MVA
𝑀𝑉𝐴 (15)

Furthermore,
Furthermore, the per-unit
the per-unit value
value (p.u.)
(p.u.) of resistance
of resistance “( R. )”p.uand
“(𝑅) ” and reactance
reactance “( X.) p.u
“(𝑋) ” ” of
each
of each line
line is is calculated
calculated asas given
given in in Equations
Equations (16)
(16) and
and (17).
(17).
𝑅 R
(𝑅) (. R=
) p.u =𝑍 i (16) (16)
Zb
where 𝑅 represents the preliminary value of resistance obtained from the line database
of thewhere Ri represents the preliminary value of resistance obtained from the line database of
network.
the network.
X
( X ) p.u = i (17)
Zb
where Xi represents the preliminary value of reactance also obtained from the line database
of the network. 
Figure 6 shows a graph of the obtained value of resistance ( R p.u and reactance ( X ) p.u
against thirty-two lines of the 33-bus system. It is observed in the plot that the highest
resistance is 0.93850849 shown in line number 19 and the highest value of reactance is
1.073775 shown in line 16. In line number 1, the lowest resistance of 0.057525912 along with
the reactance value of 0.029324 is observed.
 base of the network.
Figure 6 shows a graph of the obtained value of resistance (𝑅 . ) and reactance
(𝑋) . against thirty-two lines of the 33-bus system. It is observed in the plot that the
highest resistance is 0.93850849 shown in line number 19 and the highest value of reac-
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 tance is 1.073775 shown in line 16. In line number 1, the lowest resistance of 0.057525912
11 of 16
along with the reactance value of 0.029324 is observed.

Figure 6. IEEE 33-bus network (per unit value of resistance and reactance for each line).

Figure 6. IEEE
Figure
Figure 7 demonstrates 6. 33-bus
IEEE network
the 33-bus
graph (per unit
network
for (pervalue
the unit of resistance
value
analysis of of and reactance
resistance
active andand for
reactanceeach
for line).
reactive eachpower
line). loss
without a solar-basedFigure
DGFigure
unit. 7It is indicated
demonstrates
7 demonstrates the that
the graph graph bus
for the 33 analysis
hasofpeak
foranalysis
the active
of active
active andpower
and reactivereactive
powerlosses
power of
loss loss
206.95 kW and reactive
without power
without losses
a solar-based DGof
a solar-based DG137.46
unit. unit. ItkVAR.
is indicated
It is indicated that33
that bus bus 33peak
has has peak
activeactive
power power
losseslosses
of of
206.95
206.95 kWreactive
kW and and reactive
powerpower
losseslosses of 137.46
of 137.46 kVAR.kVAR.

Figure 7. Active and reactive power losses without PVDG.

7. Active losses
Figure power
Figure 7. Active and reactive and reactive powerPVDG.
without losses without PVDG.

5.2. Performance Analysis of IEEE 33-Bus Power System with PVDG

This section investigates the effect of the optimum placement and size of PVDG in a
radial distribution system. All the bus bars of the network are taken into consideration
as possible candidates for the integration of PVDG, apart from bus number 1 which is
regarded as a slack bus to relate to an external grid utility.
 5.2. Performance Analysis of IEEE 33-Bus Power System with PVDG
This
5.2. section investigates
Performance Analysis of IEEEthe 33-Bus
effect of the System
Power optimum withplacement
PVDG and size of PVDG i
radial distribution
This section investigates the effect of the optimum placement andinto
system. All the bus bars of the network are taken size consideration
of PVDG in a
possible candidates for the integration of PVDG, apart from bus
radial distribution system. All the bus bars of the network are taken into considerationnumber 1 which as is
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 12 of 16
garded as a candidates
possible slack bus to forrelate to an external
the integration grid utility.
of PVDG, apart from bus number 1 which is re-
Figureas8 aillustrates
garded slack bus to the optimal
relate to anlocation
external and size of a solar-based distributed gene
grid utility.
Figure
tor in a 33-bus 8 illustrates
Figure 8 system.
illustrates The
the optimal
RDS system
the optimal
location
location and
and size
is connected ofto
a solar-based
a centralized
size of a solar-based
distributed
distributed power
generator
genera-w
utility
tor
in ain33-bus
conventionala 33-bus
and system.
TheThe
renewable
system. RDS
RDSpower system
system sources.is connected
When
is connected to atheto proposed
a centralized
centralized power
model
power utility
is with
utility executed,withi
conventional
conventional
noticed and
that minimum renewable
and renewable power
power
electrical sources.
sources.
power When
Whenand
losses the proposed
the proposed
improved model model is executed,
is executed,
voltage levels itare it is
is observ
noticed
noticed
at the optimalthatplacement
that minimum
minimum electrical
electrical
(nodepower power
number losseslosses
9) and and
sizeimproved
andimproved voltage
(2440 kW) voltage
levels are
of PVDG.levels are observed
observed at
atthe optimal
the placement
optimal (node
placement number
(node 9) and9)size
number and(2440
sizekW) of PVDG.
(2440 kW) of PVDG.

Figure 8. IEEE 33 radial distribution system with PVDG.

Figure 8. IEEE
Figure 33 33
8. IEEE radial
radialdistribution system
distribution system with
with PVDG.
PVDG.
The optimized locationand
andsize
sizeofof the PVDG have enabled a significant decrease in
TheThe
active
optimizedlocation
optimized location and size ofthe PVDG
the PVDG have enabled
have a significant
enabled decreasedecrease
a significant
in active and reactive power losses. The active power loss decreased from 206.95 kW toto 91.75
and reactive power losses. The active power loss decreased from 206.95 kW
active
kW,and
91.75andreactive
kW,the
and thepower
reactive
reactivelosses.
power lossThe
power active
decreased
loss power
from
decreased loss
137.46
from decreased
kVAR
137.46 to to
kVAR from
64.79 206.95
kVAR,
64.79 kW
kVAR,asas to 91
demon-
kW,strated
and the reactive
in Figure
demonstrated 9. power
in Figure 9. loss decreased from 137.46 kVAR to 64.79 kVAR, as dem
strated in Figure 9.

Figure
Figure 9. Active andreactive
Active and reactive power
power losses
losses with
with PVDG.
PVDG.

The effect of the PVDG unit on the voltage profile of a system is shown in Figure 10.
The effect of the PVDG unit on the voltage profile of a system is shown in Figure 10.
The comparison between the system voltage profile with and without the PVDG system is
Figure
The 9.comparison
Active and reactive
betweenpower lossesvoltage
the system with PVDG.
profile with and without the PVDG system
visible. It is observed that the voltage profile improved when solar-based DG is integrated
isinto
visible. It is observed that the voltage profile
the 33-bus system. At node 18, the voltage was improved
observed when
to besolar-based DG is inte-
0.9116 per unit,
The effect
grated
which was of 33-bus
the PVDG
into improved
the unit
tosystem.
0.9575 Aton
per the
node
unit voltage
18,
when the profile
thevoltage
PVDG of observed
was
systema was
system toisbe
shown
0.9116
incorporated. inper
The Figure
unit,
The highest
comparison
voltagebetween the atsystem
was observed voltage
node one, which profile
was 1 perwith
unit. and withoutthe
Incorporating thePVDG
PVDG syst
is visible. It is observed that the voltage profile improved when solar-based DG is in
grated into the 33-bus system. At node 18, the voltage was observed to be 0.9116 per u
mmetry 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of

Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 13 of 16

which was improved to 0.9575 per unit when the PVDG system was incorporated. T
highest voltage was observed at node one, which was 1 per unit. Incorporating the PVD
system, the overall
system, voltage
the overall voltageprofile ofthe
profile of thesystem
system
waswas improved
improved by 3.48%,
by 3.48%, providing
providing better bett
performance.
performance.

FigureFigure 10. Voltage

10. Voltage profilewithout
profile without PVDG
PVDGand
andwith PVDG.
with PVDG.
The total electrical power losses in the RDS before the integration of the solar-based
The total electrical
distributed generators power losses
were 206.95 in active
kW of the RDS
powerbefore the integration
and 137.46 kVAR of reactiveof the solar-bas
power.
distributed generators
Table 1 provides were of206.95
the results kW which
the model, of active
point power
out that and 137.46
total active andkVAR of reacti
reactive
power. Table 1 provides the results of the model, which point out that total aactive a
power losses decreased by 55.66% and 52.85%, respectively after the integration of
2440power
reactive kW PVDG unit. decreased
losses Additionally,bythe55.66%
voltage level
andincreased
52.85%,from 0.9116 p.u. to
respectively 0.9575
after p.u.,
the integrati
providing better overall performance. The execution time is just 3.254238 s.
of a 2440 kW PVDG unit. Additionally, the voltage level increased from 0.9116 p.u.
0.9575Table
p.u., providing
1. Main better
results found overall
by the performance.
proposed The system).
model (IEEE 33-bus execution time is just 3.254238 s.
Subject without PVDG with PVDG
Table 1. Main results found by the proposed model (IEEE 33-bus system).
Total Active Power loss (kW) 206.95 91.75
Total Reactive Power loss (kVAR)
Subject 137.46
without PVDG 64.79
with PVDG
Loss decrement in Pi - 55.66%
Total Active Powerinloss
Loss decrement Qi (kW) - 206.95 52.85% 91.75
Minimum Voltage
Total Reactive PowerVloss(p.u.)(kVAR) 0.9116@bus 18
137.46 0.9575@bus 64.79
18
Maximum Voltage V (p.u.) 0.9970@bus 2 0.9985@bus 2
LossCost
decrement
of losses ($)in Pi 108,772.92- 48,223.455.66%
Saving ($/year) in Qi
Loss decrement - - 60,549.12
52.85%
Total DG (Size@Location) - 2440 kW@bus 9
Minimum Voltage
Execution time (s)V (p.u.) 0.9116@bus
- 18 0.9575@bus 18
3.254238
Maximum Voltage V (p.u.) 0.9970@bus 2 0.9985@bus 2
TheCost of losses
proposed system($) 108,772.92
energy cost savings results are shown in Figure 11, which 48,223.4
shows
that power losses annual
Saving ($/year) saving cost has been increased.- If the cost of electric power energy
60,549.12
is taken at $0.06, the annual energy saving cost is $60,527.12, which is higher than the
Total DG (Size@Location) - 2440 kW@bus 9
annual cost savings presented in [12,16,38].
Execution time (s) - 3.254238

The proposed system energy cost savings results are shown in Figure 11, whi
shows that power losses annual saving cost has been increased. If the cost of electric pow
energy is taken at $0.06, the annual energy saving cost is $60,527.12, which is higher th
the annual cost savings presented in [12,16,38].
Symmetry 15, 1752
2023,2023,
Symmetry 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17 14 of 16

Figure Comparison
11.Comparison
Figure 11. of annual
of annual savingsaving
cost of cost
poweroflosses.
power losses.

Theproposed
The proposed metaheuristic
metaheuristic algorithm
algorithm improves improves
convergence convergence
features using features
less using less
computation time in addition the execution period for the proposed
computation time in addition the execution period for the proposed model system is 8.62 model system is 8.62 s
to
s tocomplete andgetget
complete and optimized
optimized results
results Thishas
This study study has established
established that the PVDG that
unitthe
is PVDG unit
most
is mosteffective when when
effective placed placed
at the 9thatbus
thein 9th
the system
bus inwith the asystem
capacitywithof 2.44a MW. This of 2.44 MW.
capacity
significant decrease in power losses has been noted, with a drop of 55.66%
This significant decrease in power losses has been noted, with a drop of 55.66% in activein active power
losses and 52.78% in reactive power losses. This is an impressive achievement. The pro-
power losses and 52.78% in reactive power losses. This is an impressive achievement.
posed results have less active power losses in RDS as compared with the firefly technique
The proposed results have less active power losses in RDS as compared with the firefly
presented in [11] as shown above in Table 2. The results comparison has also been carried
technique presented
out with the GA technique in[12],
[11]inas shown
which DG’sabove in Table
size is 2.89 MW with2. The results
a power comparison has also
loss reduction
been carried
of 46.65%. out withmodel
The proposed the GA technique
provides better [12],
resultsinfor
which
active DG’s size ispower
and reactive 2.89 MWwhenwith a power
loss reduction
compared of 46.65%. The
with [16,25–27,38] proposed
as given in Tablemodel
2. Toprovides
evaluate thebetter resultsresearch,
proposed for activea and reactive
comparison
power when wascompared
made with awith PSO-based optimization
[16,25–27,38] technique
as given [13]. This
in Table 2. technique
To evaluate onlythe proposed
considered athe
research, optimal sizing
comparison andmade
was locationwith
in terms of reduced active
a PSO-based power losstechnique
optimization and im- [13]. This
proved voltage profile. On the other hand, the proposed model considers additional pa-
technique only considered the optimal sizing and location in terms of reduced active power
rameters as listed in Section 2.
loss and improved voltage profile. On the other hand, the proposed model considers
additional parameters
Table 2. Comparison as listed
of the proposed in Section
technique 2.
with existing control algorithms.

Reduction in Ac- Reduction in Re- Maximum

Control
Table Min. Voltage Im-
2. Comparison of the proposed technique with existing Execution
control algorithms.
Author Year tive Power Loss active Power Loss Cost Savings
Algorithm proved@Bus Time (Sec)
(%) (%) (USD)
Reduction in Reduction in Execution Maximum
Remha
Authoret al. [11] Year
2017 FFAControl Min.
0.9412@18 Voltage 47.39%Active Power - Reactive Power - - Cost Savings
Algorithm Improved@Bus Time (s) (USD)
T. Matlokosti [12] 2017 GA 0.9175@18 46.65% Loss (%) - Loss (%) - -
RemhaE.S.et al.
Ali[11]
[38] 2017 ALOAFFA [email protected]@18 51.15% 47.39% 42.88% - - -
$56,726.5 -
M. Khasanov
T. Matlokosti [12] 2017 GA 0.9175@18 46.65% - - -
2019 TLABC 0.94237@18 47.37% 42.891% - $52,536.3
[16]
E.S. Ali [38] 2017 ALOA 0.9503@18 51.15% 42.88% - $56,726.5
M. Khasanov
M. Khasanov [16] 2019
2020 AEO TLABC 0.94237@18 0.94237@18 47.37% 47.37% - 42.891% - - - $52,536.3
[25]
M. Khasanov [25] 2020 AEO 0.94237@18 47.37% - - -
V Janamala [27] 2020 PFA 0.9424@18 47.38% 42.89% 25.342 -
V Janamala
J. Urinby [26] 2020
[27] 2021 DE PFA 0.95836@18 0.9424@18 47.38% 47.38% - 42.89% - 25.342
- -
J. Urinby
Rekha C.[26]M. [13] 2021
2022 PSO DE 0.95836@18 49.28% 47.38% 32.38%
0.9180@17 - - - - -
Rekha System 2022
C. M. [13]
Proposed 2023 PSO PSO [email protected]@17 55.66% 49.28% 52.78% 32.38%
3.254238 -
$60,527.12 -
Proposed System 2023 PSO 0.9575@18 55.66% 52.78% 3.254238 $60,527.12

6. Conclusions
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is employed to effectively position and adjust the
size of a solar-based Distributed Generator (DG) to minimize power losses and improve
the voltage profile. To assess the performance of this model, the IEEE 33-bus system was
used. The results show that power losses were minimized, the voltage profile improved,
and cost savings were maximized when using PVDG units. The results show that the
PVDG PSO-based model offers less active power losses as compared to the non-PVDG one.
The proposed solution has proved to be superior to other techniques, as it can accurately
pinpoint the optimal location and size of the PVDG. This makes it an invaluable tool for
Symmetry 2023, 15, 1752 15 of 16

the purpose. Furthermore, the insertion of the solar PVDG into a 33-bus system can lessen
energy (active and reactive power) losses to 55.66% and 52.78% when compared with the
base case. So, it can be concluded that solar-based DGs with PSO algorithm can be a better
choice for decreasing electrical power loss, improving in voltage profile, and increasing cost
savings in the power RDS system. Additionally, the overall efficiency of the RDS network
has been improved. The proposed model can ease the dependency of the utility system
during the load demand. PVDG units can be installed in the area where sunlight intensity
is adequate.
Future research could focus on the effects of combining PV and wind turbines in RDS
along with the addition of energy storing systems. Additionally, the development of a
wind-based DG model and the comparison of solar and wind DG results could be explored.
Finally, future efforts should be devoted to addressing the uncertainty in load requirements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R.B. and M.A.A.; methodology, M.A.A.; software,

M.A.A.; validation, A.R.B., A.R., M.F. and E.E.; formal analysis, M.A.A.; investigation, M.A.A.;
resources, A.R.B., A.R. and E.E.; data curation, A.R.B.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.A.
and M.F.; writing—review and editing, A.R.B. and A.R.; visualization, A.R.B.; supervision, A.R.B.;
project administration, A.R.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: IEEE 33-bus data was utilized in this study and is publicly available
on the IEEE website.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support of IEEE for the provision of the 33 bus
data publicly utilized for research purposes.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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