CHAPTER 2

Open System Interconnection (OSI) model (Application, Presentation and

Session layers)

What is OSI reference model?

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing functions
into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability between different
products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications between a computing
systems are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application.

Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984 by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map directly
to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network Architecture.

It is conceptual frame work internet architecture which comprises 7 different layers. It was
developed by a non-governmental organization that forms a bridge between the public and private
sectors an international standardization organization (ISO) for simplification of network
understand.

The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the
digital communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to
promote a clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunications
system that's in use.

The objectives of layered communication (OSI)

 To reduce complexity of communication task

 Assists for protocol design
 In order not to affect other layers when change of one layer
 For enabling us to easily understand the big picture of network.

1 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
  For understanding how hardware and software work together.
 To understand new technologies as they are developed.
 For easily troubleshooting of separate networks.
 To understand basic functional relationships on different networks.
1. Motivation

When communication is desired among computers from different vendors, the software
development effort can be very difficult. Different vendors use different data formats and data
exchange protocols that do not allow computers to communicate with one another. Recognizing
the problem, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops a communications
architecture known as the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model that defines standards for
linking heterogeneous computers.

2. The seven (7) OSI Layers

In this chapter we will try to see the upper three layers functions and protocols.

Application layer

It is most upper layer of OSI reference model and provides services to the users of the OSI
environment. It provides services for FTP, transaction server, network management, etc.

1. Service providing

It support services such as email, remote file access and transfer. It facilitates the user to use the
services of the network. It is used to develop network-based applications such as telnet, DHCP,
FTP, SNMP.

2 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
2. The Client-Server Model

Computer runs a program to either request a service from another computer (client) or to provide
a service to another computer (server). So that, client-server model describes how a server provides
resources and services to one or more clients. Examples of servers include web servers, mail
servers, and file servers. Whereas client devices such as desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and
smartphones. Therefore, these all activities or tasks controlled or manage by application layer.

3. Addressing

A client and a server communicate with each other using addresses Some examples of application
layer address or they are server name

 Mail server address: http://mail.obu.edu.et

 SRS server address: http://srs.obu.edu.et

 Web page (host name): http://www.obu.edu.et

It is not directly used by the user but by application programs to mapping is performed. So,
application layer protocols have responsible to map these address with its respective IP address
with DNS. DNS is server or service provided at application layer to resolve IP addresses from
hostnames (URL),

Presentation layer

Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the OSI model. This layer is also known as translation layer,
b/c this layer serves as a data translator for the network. The data which it receives from the
application Layer is extracted and manipulated here at presentation layer required format to
transmit over the network. The main responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data
format and encryption. It formats and encrypts data to be sent across the network and decryption
at the receiver. It also carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to be
transmitted (goal of data compression is to reduce the number of bits which is to be transmitted).
It is also responsible for interoperability (ability of computers to exchange and make use of
information) between encoding methods as different computers use different encoding methods.

3 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
It is also responsible for translation, formatting, and delivery of information for processing or
display.

Session layer

The session layer provides the mechanism for opening, closing and managing a session between
end-user application processes. Session-layer services are commonly used in application
environments that make use of remote procedure calls (RPCs). Therefore, session layer defines
how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications It is
responsible for establishing, managing and terminating sessions between end-user application
processes.

Generally when data is sent from one device to another, the data must travel down through each
layer on the sending device and then up through the layers on the receiving end.

4 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
Encapsulation
For example, a TCP/IP packet contained within an ATM frame is a form of encapsulation. Also it
define as adding of protocol information the data. Its main advantage is taking data from one
protocol and translating it into another protocol, so the data can continue across a network. On the
other hand, de-encapsulation refers to a process in which information added through the
encapsulation process is removed. Data that should be transferred to a new location must go
through each layer. When each layer is reached, the information is added to the data. This is called
encapsulation. When the data reaches the destination, the added information is decompressed in
each layer. This process is called de-capsulation. Generally, Encapsulation is a process by which
a lower-layer protocol receives data from a higher-layer protocol and then places the data into the
data portion of its frame. Thus, encapsulation is the process of enclosing one type of packet using
another type of packet.

5 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
6 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
3. Internetworking with TCP/IP suits

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet because TCP and
IP are the two main protocols, though others are included in the suite. The two main protocols in
the IP suite serves specific functions. TCP defines how applications can create channels of
communication across a network. It also manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets
before they are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the
destination address. On the other hand, IP defines how to address and route each packet to make
sure it reaches the right destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address
to determine where to forward the message. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in
a private computer network (an intranet or extranet).

TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end communications
that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at
the destination. TCP/IP requires little central management and is designed to make networks
reliable with the ability to recover automatically from the failure of any device on the network.

It is a model defines how devices should transmit data between them and enables communication
over networks and large distances. The model represents how data is exchanged and organized
over networks. It is split into four layers, which set the standards for data exchange and represent
how data is handled and packaged when being delivered between applications, devices, and
servers.

Why is TCP/IP important?

TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company. Therefore, the
IP suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with all operating systems (OSes), so it can
communicate with any other system. The IP suite is also compatible with all types of computer
hardware and networks.

7 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient path through
the network. It is widely used in current internet architecture.

The four layers of the TCP/IP model are as follows:

3.1.Data link layer: The data link layer defines how data should be sent, handles the physical act
of sending and receiving data, and is responsible for transmitting data between applications or
devices on a network. This includes defining how data should be signaled by hardware and
other transmission devices on a network, such as a computer’s device driver, an Ethernet cable,
a network interface card (NIC), or a wireless network. It is also referred to as the link layer,
network access layer, network interface layer, or physical layer and is the combination of the
physical and data link layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which
standardizes communications functions on computing and telecommunications systems.
3.2.Internet layer: The internet layer is responsible for sending packets from a network and
controlling their movement across a network to ensure they reach their destination. It provides
the functions and procedures for transferring data sequences between applications and devices
across networks.
3.3.Transport layer: The transport layer is responsible for providing a solid and reliable data
connection between the original application or device and its intended destination. This is the
level where data is divided into packets and numbered to create a sequence. The transport layer
then determines how much data must be sent, where it should be sent to, and at what rate. It
ensures that data packets are sent without errors and in sequence and obtains the
acknowledgment that the destination device has received the data packets.

3.4. Application layer: The application layer refers to programs that need TCP/IP to help them
communicate with each other. This is the level that users typically interact with, such as email
systems and messaging platforms. It combines the session, presentation, and application layers
of the OSI model.

8 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
 The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) defines and codifies the concept of
layered network architecture. Abstraction layers are used to subdivide a communications
system further into smaller manageable parts. A layer is a collection of similar functions that
provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it

4. What are protocols and standards?

It is set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network as language.
Also, it is a standard set of rules that allow electronic devices to communicate with each other. A
network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate
with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.
Network protocols are the reason you can easily communicate with people all over the world, and
thus play a critical role in modern digital communications.

Similar to the way that speaking the same language simplifies communication between two people,
network protocols make it possible for devices to interact with each other because of predetermined
rules built into devices’ software and hardware. Neither local area networks (LAN) nor wide area
networks (WAN) could function the way they do today without the use of network protocols.
These rules includes: What type of data may be transmitted, what commands are used to send and
receive data, and how data transfers are confirmed.

The key features of protocol are:

 Syntax – data block format

 Semantics - control info. & error handling

 Timing - speed matching & sequencing

It is also defined that is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network protocols are
like a common language for computers. The computers within a network may use vastly different

9 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables them to communicate with each
other regardless.

Standardized protocols are like a common language that computers can use, similar to how two
people from different parts of the world may not understand each other's native languages, but they
can communicate using a shared third language. Protocols make these networking functions
possible. For instance, the Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for routing data by indicating where
data packets come from and what their destination is. IP makes network-to-network
communications possible. Hence, IP is considered a network layer (layer 3) protocol.

As another example, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures that the transportation of
packets of data across networks goes smoothly. Therefore, TCP is considered a transport layer
(layer 4) protocol.

A packet is a small segment of data; all data sent over a network is divided into packets.

Application layer protocols

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

SMTP governs the transmission of mail messages and attachments. SMTP is used to manage the
outgoing messages in transmission. But POP3 and IMAP4 are needed and available to manage
incoming messages. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is the older protocol. IMAP4 (Internet
Mail Access Protocol version 4) is the more advanced protocol.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

It is actually lets us to transfer files, and it can accomplish this between any two machines using
it. Authentication need to be done initially to validating users by username and password to restrict
access. When a FTP client requests to connect to the FTP server, a TCP connection is being
established to the FTP server’s port 21. After authentication is done, another TCP connection is
being established for the actual data transfer on port number 20. So, FTP depends on TCP, is
connection oriented, and provides reliable control communication.

10 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

It is fast and easy protocol to use that FTP b/c of UDP and it does not provide user authentication
and other useful features supported by FTP. Since TFTP uses UDP while FTP uses TCP. As TFTP
is unreliable protocol due to UDP with port number 69.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

It a protocol that collecting and organizing information about managed devices on networks with
UDP port 161. SNMP is widely used in network management for network monitoring. It uses
network management system (NMS) that are a piece of software that can communicate with the
SNMP agent (such as Nagios or Icinga). So, SNMP polling information about devices from the
network by NMS and alert to administrator to take necessary measurement. Generally, this
protocol can also stand as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying managers of any sudden
problems happen to network devices.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

It’s used to manage communications between web browsers and web servers and

It helps to open the right resource when you click a link, wherever that resource may actually
reside.

Your browser can understand what you need when you enter a Uniform Resource Locator (URL),
which we usually refer to as a web address, e.g. http://www.google.com/

Web browser
Internet Web server
E.g. Firefox protocols E.g. google
E.g. http
Facilitate communication

11 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is also known as Secure Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. It uses Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). Sometimes you’ll see it referred to as SHTTP or S-
HTTP, which were slightly different protocols, but since Microsoft supported HTTPS, it became
the de facto standard for securing web communication.

Some presentation layer protocols

Apple Filing Protocol (AFP):

AFP protocol is designed by Apple Company for sharing all files over the entire network. External
Data Representation (XDR):

This protocol provides the description and encoding of entire data, and its main goal is to transfer
data in between dissimilar (different) computer architecture.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL):

The SSL protocol provides security to the data that is being transferred between the web browser
and web server. (Encryption and decryption)

Some session layer protocols

AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP): for self-configuring in network for apple machines
at OSI model.

Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP): Real-time data is that it is data that is not kept
or stored, but is passed along to the end user as quickly as it is gathered.

Since real time data such as video, audio is need high quality of service (QoS) in media distribution
for streaming multimedia session it is done by RTCP.

Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP):

Used to provide a method for implementing virtual private networks (VPN) since VPN is used
protect data traffic online from external access. This protocol is developed by Microsoft Company
for creating VPN for dial up networks.

12 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP): It is password-based authentication protocol which
occurs only one time at the beginning of a session establishment process.

Similarities b/n OSI model and TCP/IP suits

Similarities include:

 Both have layers.

 Both have application layers
 Both have comparable transport and network layers.
 Both assume packets are switched.
 This means that individual packets may take different paths to reach the same destination.

Differences include:

 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer
(network interfaces).
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.

13 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
5. Network Architecture
Network architecture is a design of communication networks for specification of a network’s
physical components and their functional organization and configuration of this network,
Operation principles and procedures of this network as well as data formats use. Examples: peer
to peer and client/server. Based on designing model there are two types of architecture such as flat
model and hierarchical model

1. Flat model– it is single collision domain and not hierarchical divided.

It has some advantage:

 Easy to design

 Easy to implement
 It good for small network
 East to maintain and diagnosis

Fig: Flat switch network

 It has some disadvantage:

 Poor security
 No redundancy
 Less speed
 No scalability
 No networks layers (such as access, core or distribution)

14 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.
2. Hierarchical model– it is a network model that has three network layers or divisions and
each layers has their own specific functions

Fig: hierarchical design model

 The three layers are:

1. Access layer: used for service availably port security on layer 2 switch

2. Distribution layer:

 Aggregate data received from access layer and switches from sending to core layer,

 Has redundancy and load balancing functions

 Control broadcast domain from core layer

3. Core layer: it is network backbone, its fast speed layer it connects multiple campus
network and data center.
Some advantage of hierarchical model:
 more security
 Better speed or performances
 Facilitate scalable performance of network
 Good for big network
 Easy to troubleshoot

Some disadvantage of hierarchical model:

 Difficult to design

 Difficult to implement

15 | P a g e : SOURCES: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 4th and 5th
Edition Book; Data Communications and Networking fourth edition By Behrouz A; Data & Computer
Communications 8 edition by William Stallings.
Compiled by Endale M.