HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Module 1: Introduction to Highway and Railroad time, administrative divisions, and topography.
Engineering Jointly, they confer friction to any movement,
commonly known as the friction of distance (or
Introduction friction of space). In an ideal world, transportation
Transportation has always been an would come at no effort in terms of cost and time
important aspect of human civilization. In this
and would have unlimited capacity and spatial
module, the student will learn the overview and
reach. Under such circumstances, geography
development in transportation sectors including
would not matter. In the real world, however,
the different modes of transportation,
characteristics of road transport. This module will geography can be a significant constraint to
also explain the transportation engineering transport since it trades space for time and money
profession and the scope of highway and railroad and can only be partially circumscribed. The
engineering, which is the focus of this course. extent to which this is done has a cost that varies
significantly according to factors such as the
Topic Outcomes length of the trip, the capacity of modes and
At the end of this module, the student will be able infrastructures, and the nature of what is being
to: transported. Transport geography can be
1. explain the timeline of development of understood from a series of eight core principles:
transportation sector, development of
transportation infrastructure 1. Transportation is the spatial linking of derived
2. present the evolution of transportation demand.
engineering profession, its various specialization 2. Distance is a relative concept involving space,
and the scope of highway and railroad time, and effort.
engineering 3. Space is at the same time the generator,
support, and a constraint for mobility.
This module will be divided into different 4. The relation between space and time can
topics to ensure that the outcomes will be converge or diverge.
attained:
5. A location can be central, where it generates
1. The development and significance of
and attracts traffic, or an intermediate element
transportation
where traffic transits through.
2. Different Modes of Transportation
6. To overcome geography, transportation must
3. Different Transportation Infrastructures consume space.
4. Transportation Engineering: evolution and its 7. Transportation seeks massification but is
specialization constrained by atomization.
8. Velocity is a modal, intermodal, and
Topic 1: The Development and Significance of
managerial effort.
Transportation

Transportation is a means in which

Topic 2: Different Modes of Transportation
people and goods are moved from one place to
another. It is considered as the circulatory system
The earliest form of transportation is by foot. Now,
of a society. The increasing transportation
transportation may vary from land travel to space
demand for systematized mobility of people,
travel. Listed below are some examples of
goods and services as part of rural development
different modes of transportation:
and urbanization all over the country indicates
1. Land
the need to increase specialists for the
transportation sector. a. By foot
One of the advocates of transportation, b. Animal-pulled wagons
Prof. Rodrigue, in his book on transportation c. Bicycle
geography, highlighted how transportation d. Cars
shapes the development of the world. The e. Buses
economic and social development of people f. Trains
evolve with how transportation is being shaped in
its locale. To quote:
The unique purpose of transportation is to
overcome space, which is shaped by a variety of 2. Water
human and physical constraints such as distance, a. Boats
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
b. Ships With recent concerns of mobility specifically in
c. Submarines urban areas, mode of transportation is being
d. Hovercrafts (fig. 1.2.1) reviewed and revisited by transport experts and
travel enthusiasts. Figure below presents the New
3. Air Reverse Traffic Pyramid presented by Bicycle
Network in Australia. This pyramid aims to suggest
a. Airplanes
an approach to city and urban planning that
b. Helicopters
appropriately prioritizes active travel and aims to
decrease the congestion and pollution of a car-
4. Others
centric city.
a. Ski lifts (cable transport) (fig. 1.2.2)
b. Spacecrafts (space transport) Topic 3: Different Transportation Infrastructures
The innovation of modes of transportation comes
hand in hand with different transportation
infrastructures. The following are examples of
common transportation infrastructures:

● Roads
- Highways
- Walkways
- Bicycle lanes
- Bridges
- Tunnels

● Railways
● Stations
● Ports
● Airports

In the Philippines, the road infrastructures are

managed and monitored by the Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH). The DPWH is
mandated to undertake (a) the planning of
infrastructure, such as national roads and bridges,
flood control, water resources projects and other
public works, and (b) the design, construction,
and maintenance of national roads and bridges,
and major flood control systems. The Department
of Transportation (DOTr), on the other hand,
focuses on other modes of transportation such as
railway (PNR, MRT, and LRT), airport, and ports
(PPA).

Topic 4: Transportation Engineering: Evolution and

Its Specialization

Application of technology and scientific

principles to the planning, functional design,
operations and management of facilities for any
mode of transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods. - Institute of
Transportation Engineering (ITE)
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Transport engineers plan, design and 20th century built upon McAdams' methods by
operate the large public and private adding tar as a binder.
infrastructure systems that connect our physical
world. - University of New South Wales (UNSW), The actual process of road building has changed
dramatically over the past century, going from
Australia
large gangs of workers with picks and shovels to
Transportation engineering is the enormous specialized machines. Rebuilding
application of technology and scientific existing roads starts with peeling up existing
pavement, grinding it and dumping it straight into
principles to the design, operation, planning and
trucks for reuse later as aggregate for new roads.
management of transportation infrastructure,
After grading the surface, pavers come in and lay
mobility service, traffic, and travelers for various
down fresh, continuous sheets of asphalt followed
travel modes, in order to provide for the safe, directly by the rollers.
efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally sustainable
movement of people and goods. - Columbia
University, New York

Evolution

Mobility of people can be traced as early

as the paleolithic age when people sought to
travel to different continents. Pathways created
by animals are also considered as the start of
transportation networks. Evidence showed how
humans followed animal tracks for walking which
eventually evolved into a clear path for humans
to move from one location to another. With the
introduction of the wheel about 7,000 years ago,
the larger, heavier loads that could be
transported showed the limitations of dirt paths
that turned into muddy bogs when it rained. The
earliest stone paved roads have been traced to
about 4,000 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent and
Mesopotamia (see figure).

The roadway construction, on the other

hand, can be traced to Roman civilization
wherein roads are made of blocks of rocks Figure 4.1 Ancient Road in Greece
embedded on soil and are used as carriageways. (Archaeological Site of Dion, Macedonia,
The Romans developed techniques to build Greece; taken June 2015)
durable roads using multiple layers of materials
In the pre-industrial revolution, transport
atop deep beds of crushed stone for water
technology was mainly limited to harnessing
drainage. Some of those roads remain in use
animal labor for land transport and to wind for
more than 2,000 years later, and the fundamental
maritime transport. Initially, ships were propelled
techniques form the basis of today's roads.
by rowers, and sails were added around 2,500
Modern road-construction techniques BCE as a complementary form of propulsion. Most
can be traced to a process developed by of the technical innovations that modified the
Scottish engineer John McAdam in the early 19th transportation sector took place in a short period
century. McAdam topped multi-layer roadbeds of industrial era, mainly between 1760 and 1800. It
with a soil and crushed stone aggregate that was was during this industrial revolution that massive
then packed down with heavy rollers to lock it all modifications of transport systems occurred in two
together. Contemporary asphalt roads capable major phases: the first, centered along with the
of supporting the vehicles that emerged in the development of canal systems and the second,
centered along railways. This period marked the
development of the steam engine, an external
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
combustion engine that converted thermal Ports and Harbor Engineering handle the design,
energy into mechanical energy, providing an construction, and operation of ports, harbors,
important territorial expansion for maritime and canals, and other maritime facilities. Recently, this
railway transport systems. is also termed as navigation engineering, a civil
engineering specialty that involves the life-cycle
planning, design, construction, operation, and
Figure 4.2 demonstrates the evolution of different maintenance of safe, secure, reliable, efficient,
transportation sectors from the 18th century. and environmentally sustainable navigable
waterways (channels, structures, and support
systems) used to move people and goods by
waterborne vessels.

Figure 4.2 Evolution of Transport Technology since

the 18th Century (Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2020),
The Geography of Transport Systems, Fifth Edition,
New York: Routledge)

Subdisciplines in Transportation Engineering

Traffic Engineering is the subdiscipline of

transportation engineering that addresses the
planning, design and operation of streets and
highways, their networks, adjacent land uses and
interaction with other modes of transportation
and their terminals (ITE)

Highway Engineering involved in the planning,

design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to
ensure safe and effective transportation of
people and goods.

Railway Systems Engineering a field of

engineering which deals with the design,
construction, and operation of all railway systems.
This specialization is a multifaceted science as it
involves different engineering disciplines such as
mechanical engineering, computer engineering,
civil engineering, electrical engineering,
production engineering and industrial
engineering.

Airport Engineering is the field responsible for

engineering standards and research for design,
equipment, and airfield development at civil
airports. It is

also responsible for airport data, safety-related

airport airspace issues, and facilitating innovative
methods of improving airport infrastructure
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 2:
3. Provincial Roads
Topic 1: Road Classifications and Hierarchy Provincial roads connect cities and municipalities
without traversing National Roads. They also
In general, highways are based upon two primary connect National Roads to major provincial
functions: infrastructures as well as to barangays through
rural areas.
a. MOBILITY: Continuous, high-
speed travel
4. Municipal and City Roads
b. ACCESSIBILITY: Ability to get to Roads within a Poblacion that provide inter-
destination. Direct access to adjoining barangay connections to major municipal and
property city infrastructures without traversing Provincial
Roads.

5. Barangay Roads
Other roads within the barangay and not
covered in the above definitions

6. Expressways
These are highways with limited access, normally
with interchanges. They may include facilities for
levying tolls for passage in an open or closed
system.

Other highway classifications by functions:

7. By-passes
These are roads or highways that avoid a built-up
area, town or city proper to let through traffic flow
without interference from local traffic reduce
In the Philippines, roads and highways are congestion and improve road safety where a toll
classified and named according to their for passage is levied in an open or closed system
functions. Based on DPWH D.O. No. 133, s. 2018,
Philippine roads are classified as follows: 8. Parkways
These are arterial highways for non-commercial
1. National Roads (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary) traffic with full or partial control of access, usually
National roads are continuous in extent that form located within a park or a ribbon of park-like
part of the main trunk line system. development.
• Primary roads - connect major cities (at
least around 100,000 population) and Topic 2: Considerations for Highway Planning
comprise the national road system
• Secondary roads - connect cities to Along with its highway classifications, roads have
National Primary Roads, except in different planning considerations based on their
metropolitan areas; connect major functions.
airports to National Primary Roads; 1. National Roads
connect tourist service centers to • Limited frontage access
National Primary Roads or other National • Development set well back from the
Secondary Roads; connect cities not highway
classified as major cities; connect • All access to premises provided via
provincial capitals within the same provincial roads
region; connect National Primary Roads • Number of intersections are minimized
to National Government Infrastructures • Suitable at-grade channelized
• Tertiary roads - other existing roads under intersections for minor flows and other
DPWH which perform a local function elements

2. Bypass/Diversion Roads 2. Expressways

These roads divert through traffic away from the • No frontage accesses
city/municipality business centers.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• Development set well back from the • Through-movements should be made
highway awkward and inconvenient to
discourage them
• Grade-separated intersections for
extremely high flows and other
intersecting expressways
• Number of intersections are minimized
• Where necessary or for emergency
purposes, parking/stopping to be
provided clear of the main carriageway

3. Provincial Roads
• Limited frontage access. In exceptional
circumstances, large individual
developments may have direct access
when a high level intersection is provided
• Development set back from the highway
• Most development to be given access
via intersections with local distributor Summary of Minimum Requirements of different
roads of roads in the Philippines
• All intersections will normally be at-grade
• Turning traffic should be separated out In addition to these considerations, the following
from the through traffic design data are necessary in planning and design
• Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote of highways and railroads:
from the carriageway
• Pedestrian crossing points should be a. Field Survey Information
clearly defined and controlled Topography is a major factor in determining the
• Parking on the road should not be
physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
permitted
distance, cross sections and other design
• Bus stops and other loading areas should
be in separate well designed lay bys elements of a highway. Hills, valleys, steep slopes,
• Regular stopping places should be rivers and lakes often imposed limitations upon
identified and safe stopping places location and design. In the case of flat-land
established areas, topography in itself may exercise little if any
control on location but it may cause difficulties in
4. City/Municipal Roads some design elements such as drainage or grade
• The road is only for local traffic; through separation.
traffic is adequately accommodated on
an alternative more direct main road b. Highway Location
• Where possible, an industrial traffic route
should not pass through a residential area Highway location is concerned with gathering of
• Vehicle speeds should be kept low so pertinent data for more effective highway
long straight roads should be avoided planning, design, construction and operation. It
• Parking is allowed, but alternative off- consists mainly of reconnaissance, topographic
road provision should be made if possible surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical
• Non-motorized traffic is of equal controls, centerline staking, centerline profile and
importance to motor traffic and separate cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey,
should be provided if possible parcellary survey, and other surveys related to
• Where non-motorized traffic needs to use highway engineering. The survey shall be under
a local distributor, it should be separated
the direct supervision of a Locating Engineer.
from motorized traffic
• The road width can be varied to provide ▪ Reconnaissance
for parking or to give emphasis to crossing
points depending upon traffic flows Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the
• Bus stops and other loading areas should best possible horizontal and vertical alignments.
be in separate well-designed lay-bys Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes,
slides and other controls are identified. Bridge
crossings, expensive buildings and structures are
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
also noted. Reconnaissance is substantiated by
the study of available maps, and stereoscopic
examination of the site on foot, all of which aid in
the elimination of costly locations to limit the
choice to one or two possible routes.

▪ Preliminary Survey

In the preliminary survey the topography of the

strip or strips flagged is obtained and from which
a topographic map will be prepared to be utilized
as the basic framework for projection of the line in
the office. The required preliminary borings shall
include review of available topographic and Typical Roadway section for a National Road in
geologic information, plus aerial photographs, in Rural Areas showing Underground Service Utilities
addition to site examination.
▪ Office Projection
▪ Utility Service Records
In the office, the proposed highway line is
Depending on the location of a project, the projected on the topographic map which is fitted
utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers, as close as possible into the terrain within the
(2) water supply lines, (3) oil, gas and petroleum desired standards. Many lines should be tried so
product pipelines, (4) overhead and as to obtain the most economical line without
underground power and communication lines increasing the cost of surveys. This is a trial-and-
including fiber optic cables, (5) cable television error process to obtain the best line, in
lines, (6) wireless communication towers, (7) consideration of constraints such as alignment,
drainage and irrigation lines, and (8) special grades, sight distances and compensation.
tunnels for building connections.
▪ Final Location Survey
Utility service providers should be consulted and
Final location survey is done to transfer the office
records obtained for all services in a project area,
projection of the best line to the actual site in the
including exact locations and depths. Obtaining
field. Whenever possible, video logs of a site with
Utility service records benefits both highway
chainages are a useful tool to assist the process of
agencies and the impacted utilities in the
designing upgrading and rehabilitation schemes.
following ways.

• Unnecessary utility relocations are

avoided
• Unexpected conflicts with utilities are
reduced
• Safety is enhanced

Typical Roadway section for a National Road in

Urbanized Areas showing Underground
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 3: Design Criteria for Highways and Properly designed highways that provide positive
Railways guidance to drivers can operate at a high level of
efficiency and with relatively few crashes.
The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe
roads for all road users, and not just those in motor The World Health Organization recorded 1.35
vehicles. The principle that ‘man is the reference million people died due to road traffic crashes.
standard’ implies that roads must be adapted to More than 90% of this recorded fatal road crashes
the limitations of human capacity. This leads to occur in low-and middle-income countries. More
what is called the ‘safe systems approach’ which so, 2019 statistics showed that the leading cause
encourages: of death for children and young-adults aged 5 to
29 years is road traffic injuries (WHO). The
• Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less organization tackles road safety through Decade
reliance on traffic signs). of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020.
• Designing roads that encourage /
enforce safe speeds (the safe speed In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total
being the one that guarantees the safety of 116,906 incidents of road traffic crashes in
of the most vulnerable road user). Metro Manila alone. On average there were 334
• Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ reported accidents per day with one resulting in
idea about unobstructed, traversable fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to
space beyond the edge of the travelled damages to property (topgear.com). This leads to
way for recovery of errant vehicles). the Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-2022,
• The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road a program developed by the Department of
Design Manual also discusses. Transportation adopting a vision of zero road
• Functionality – developing a hierarchy of traffic death, with an interim target to reduce
mono-functional roads (e.g. truck, road death rate by at least 20% by 2022. The
distributor and access). interventions are organized according to the
• Homogeneity – avoiding differences in Action Plan of the Decade of Action for Road
speed, direction of travel, and mass of Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the following: (1)
vehicles (with segregation of road safety management, (2) safe roads and
incompatible road users). mobility; (3) safe vehicles; (4) safe road users; and
• Predictability – ensuring that roads are (5) post-crash care.
easy to understand and there are not
nasty surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ 2.Vehicles
roads). Four general classes of design vehicles are (1)
The characteristics listed below are controls in passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4)
optimizing or improving the design of the various recreational vehicles. In the design of any
highway and street functional classes. highway facility, the designer should consider the
largest design vehicle that is likely to use that
1. Human Factors and Driver Performance facility with considerable frequency or a design
vehicle with special characteristics appropriate to
The suitability of a design rests as much on how a particular location in determining the design of
effectively drivers are able to use the highway as such critical features as radii at intersections and
on any other criteria. Considerations include; radii of turning roadways (refer to Table 2.3.1 and
• Driver tasks that include vehicle control Table 2.3.2). As a general rule;
(such as simultaneous multiple tasks and • A passenger car may be selected when
reaction time), guidance (such as road the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
following, lane placement, car following, • A two-axle single unit truck may be used
passing maneuvers and response to for intersection design of residential
traffic control devices) and navigation. streets and park roads.
• Use of the facility by older drivers and • A three-axle single-unit truck may be
older pedestrians. used for the design of collector streets
• Errors due to driver deficiencies and and other facilities where larger single-
situational demands. unit trucks are likely.
• Speed.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• A bus may be used in the design of properly fit a planned highway to traffic
highway intersections that are demands. Access control to manage
designated bus routes and that have interference with through traffic is achieved
relatively few large trucks using them. through the regulation of public access rights to
and from properties abutting the highway
facilities, and can comprise full control, partial
Design Vehicle Dimension
control, access management or
driveway/entrance regulations. Pedestrian
facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic
control features, curb cuts, ramps, bus stops,
loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators
warrant due attention in both rural and urban
areas. Existing streets and highways provide most
of the network used by bicycle travel, making
bicycle traffic an important element for
consideration in highway design. Because the
number of crashes increases with the number of
decisions that need to be made by the driver, it is
Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles in the interest of safety that roadways should be
designed to reduce the need for driver decisions
and to reduce unexpected situations.

3.Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should
explicitly cover traffic volumes and traffic
characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from
field studies (such as hourly and daily traffic
volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic
trends) can indicate the need for improvement
and directly influence the selection of geometric
design features, such as number of lanes, widths,
alignments and grades. Relevant studies include
average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic,
directional distribution, composition of traffic,
projection of future traffic demands, speed and
traffic flow relationships characterized by the
volume flow rate in vehicles per hour, the average
speed in kilometers per hour, and the traffic
density in vehicles per kilometer.

4.Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity,
access control and management, pedestrians,
bicycle facilities, safety, and environment.
Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 4.1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS
AND RAILWAYS

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

In its simplest description, horizontal

alignment of a roadway is all about road
corners/cornering. Horizontal curves provide a
directional transition between two straight
sections of a roadway. The main concern in
designing a horizontal curve is considering the
cornering capabilities of the vehicle.

In connecting two straight roads, the

most common is using a simple circular curve.
Other options may be reverse curves, compound
curves, and spiral curves. Reverse curves are just
two simple circular curves that turn in opposite
directions. Compound curves are circular curves
in succession. Spiral curves have continuously
changing radius.

IMPORTANCE

–To reduce speed of vehicles (for safety driving)

TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

1. Simple
2. 2. Compound
3. 3. Reverse
4. 4. Spiral

SIMPLE CURVES

In designing a simple circular curve, the following

factors are considered:

R = radius of the curve, usually measured to the

centerline of the road, in meters
DEGREE OF CURVE: ARC DEFINITION
I (Δ)= central angle of the curve, in degrees
From the figure,
T = tangent length, in meters 𝐷 1 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
=
E = external distance, in meters 360 2𝜋𝑅

Full station:
M = middle ordinate, in meters
20 meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the
horizontal curve) 100 feet
PI = point of tangent intersection R=
3600
meters
𝜋𝐷
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the 18000
horizontal curve) R= feet
𝜋𝐷

L = length of curve, in meters

HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Solution:

Solving for middle ordinate, M

M = R − Rcos I/2

M = 9.71 m

Solving for the degree of the curve, D

D =20I/L

D = 0.90°

COMPOUND CURVES

EXAMPLE: A horizontal curve is to be designed

with PI located at STA 23+000. The radius of the
curve is 500 meters and the length of its tangent
is 100 m. Determine the location of PT, external
distance, middle ordinate, and degree of curve.
1 station = 20 meters

Given:

R = 500 meters; T = 100 meters; PI @ STA 23 + 00

Required:

Location of the PT, external distance, middle

ordinate, degree of curve

Solution:

Use the formula for length of tangent to

determine I

T = R tan I/2

100 = 500tan I/2

I = 22.62°

We can now solve for the length of the curve, L

L = (πRI)/180

L = 197.40 m

Location of PT is @ STA 32 + 17.40

Solving for external distance, E

E = (Rsec I/2) - R

E = 9.90 m
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
SOLUTION:

Solve for the 𝑅2 and 𝐼2 simultaneously

𝐼2
𝑇2 = 𝑅2 tan
2

𝐼2
300 = 𝑅2 tan
2

𝐼
𝑀2 = 𝑅2 (1 − cos 2 )
2

𝐼
30 = 𝑅2 (1 − cos 2)
2

𝑅2 = 1453.73m

𝐼2 = 23.32ͦͦ

Solve for Radius of 1st curve

3600 3600
𝑅1 = = = 286.479m
𝜋𝐷 𝜋(4)

Solve for the Angle of Intersection of the first

curve:
o PCC – Point of Compound
Curvature 𝑇1 = 𝑅1 tan
𝐼1

o T – Common Tangent 2

o I – Angle of Intersection 200 = 286.479 tan

𝐼1

o Other parts of simple curve 2

𝐼1 = 69.84 ͦ

Solve for the Stationing of PT

EXAMPLE: The forward tangent of a 4-degree
curve is 200 m. If the length of common tangent 𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝑇 =𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
of the two curves is 500 m and the middle
𝜋𝑅1 𝐼1
ordinate of the second curve is 30 m, find the 𝐿1 =
180
stationing of the PT if the stationing of PC is STA
𝜋(286.479)(69.84)
1+200. =
180

SOLUTION 𝐿1 = 349.20m
Strategy: Get length of curve L1 and L2, add that 𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝑇 =𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
to our station in PC.
𝜋𝑅2 𝐼2
𝐿2 =
Solve for the 2nd Tangent 180

𝜋(1453.73)(23.32)
𝑇2 = T - 𝑇1 = 500 – 200 =
180

𝑇2 = 300m 𝐿2 = 591.684m

𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝑇 =𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑃𝑇 = (1+200) + 349.20 + 591.684

𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑷𝑻 = 2 + 140.884
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
REVERSED CURVES

• PRC – Point of Reverse Curvature

• T – Common Tangent
• I – Angle of Intersection
• Other parts of simple curve

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑇

1. 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐶

𝑺𝒕𝒂 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑺𝒕𝒂 𝑷𝑪 + 𝑳𝑪𝟏 + 𝑳𝑪𝟐

VERTICAL CURVES
2. 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑉1
IMPORTANCE :
𝑺𝒕𝒂 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑺𝒕𝒂 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑻𝟏 + 𝑳𝑪𝟏 + 𝑳𝑪𝟐
To provide a smooth transition between two
vertical tangent roads

TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

1. Symmetrical

a. Summit curve
b. Sag curve
2. Unsymmetrical
• Forward and Backward Tangents
• PI or VPI – Vertical Point of
Intersection
• PC or VPC – Vertical Point of
Curvature
• PT or VPT – Vertical Point of
Example : Two parallel tangents 12 m apart are Tangency
connected by a reverse curve of equal radii. If the • L – Length of the curve
length of the chord from PC to PT is 140 m, • S1 – Horizontal distance from PC
determine the total length of the reversed curve. to summit or low point
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• S2 – Horizontal distance from PT
to summit or low point
• h1 – vertical distance from PC to
summit or low point
• h2 – vertical distance from PT to
summit or low point
• g1 – grade of the first tangent
from PC to PI (%)
• g2 – grade of the second
tangent from PI to PT (%)
• A – change in grade from PC to
PT
• a – vertical distance of PC to PI
• b – vertical distance of PT to PI
• H – distance of PI to the curve

PROPERTIES OF VERTICAL CURVES

• Length of parabolic curve L is the

horizontal distance between VPC and
VPT
• VPI is midway between VPC and VPT
• The vertical distance between any two
points on the curve is equal to area under
the grade diagram. c = Area.
• Vertical curves are parabolic in nature
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
SPIRAL CURVES

Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change

in curvature and super elevation that occurs
between tangent and circular curve. The spiral
curve is used to gradually change the curvature
and super elevation of the road, thus
called transition curve.

Elements of Spiral Curve

• TS = Tangent to spiral
• SC = Spiral to curve
• CS = Curve to spiral
• ST = Spiral to tangent
• LT = Long tangent
• ST = Short tangent
• R = Radius of simple curve
• Ts = Spiral tangent distance
• Tc = Circular curve tangent
• L = Length of spiral from TS to any point
along the spiral
• Ls = Length of spiral
• PI = Point of intersection
• I = Angle of intersection
• Ic = Angle of intersection of the simple
curve
• p = Length of throw or the distance from
tangent that the circular curve has been
offset
• X = Offset distance (right angle distance)
from tangent to any point on the spiral
• Xc = Offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to SC
• Y = Distance along tangent to any point
on the spiral
• Yc = Distance along tangent from TS to Formulas for Spiral Curves
point at right angle to SC
• Es = External distance of the simple curve Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:
• θ = Spiral angle from tangent to any point
on the spiral
• θs = Spiral angle from tangent to SC
• i = Deflection angle from TS to any point
on the spiral, it is proportional to the
square of its distance
• is = Deflection angle from TS to SC
• D = Degree of spiral curve at any point
• Dc = Degree of simple curve
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Offset distance from tangent to any point on the Tangent distance:
spiral:

Angle of intersection of simple curve:

External distance:

Length of throw:

Degree of spiral curve:

Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral

(in radian):

1145.916 3
𝐷= 𝑥 = 2.86 deg
𝑅𝑐 4

BANKING CURVES

Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral:

This angle is proportional to the square of its Using the concepts of mechanics, one can come
distance up with the following equation:
𝑉2
𝑅𝑉 = (Eq. 3.3.1)
𝑔(𝑓𝑠+𝑒)

where,

• fs = coefficient of side friction

• g = gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
EXAMPLE: A roadway is designed to have a 4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and
maximum speed of 75 kilometers per hour. One of of the driver
its horizontal curves is designed to be simple
circular having a radius of 195 meters. What A cross section design generally offers the
should be the angle the roadway makes with the expected level of service for safety and a recent
horizontal so that the vehicles will not overturn? study showed that:
The coefficient of side friction is set at 0.15. 1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less
Given: accident compared with pavement
narrower than 5.50 m. wide.
• v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
• Rv = 195 meters 2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4%
• fs = 0.15 fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters
wide roadway.
Required:
2. Accident records showed no difference
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20
meters wide pavement.

3. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters

wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide
shoulder, recorded accident decreases
by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide
shoulder. And 20% compared with a .90
to 1.20 meters wide shoulder.

FIGURE 2-3 DIVIDED HIGHWAYS

CROSS SECTION OF TYPHICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude

of variables to consider such as:

1. The volume of traffic.

2. Character of the traffic.
FIG 2
3. Speed of the traffic.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
VOLUME APPROXIMATION METHODS IN
EARTHWORKS

Volume using END AREA METHOD:

𝑉𝐸 = L/2 (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )

Volume using PRISMOIDAL FORMULA:

𝑉𝑃 = L/6 (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑀 + 𝐴2 )

FIG 3

Example: The cross section notes shown below are

for a ground excavation.

Sta. 25+100 Sta. 25+150

7.85 0 8.45 𝑥 0 10.7
1.90 3.20 2.30 2.90 2.60 𝑦

What is the volume of excavation between the

two stations using.

a. Find x
b. Find y
c. End Area Method
d. Prismoidal Formula

UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS

The method of plotting the existing cross section

perpendicular to a particular line for the purpose
of obtaining quantities such as volumes. The
procedure involves staking the centerline then
elevations are obtained at strategic points on the
right angle to the centerline at intervals of full or
half stations. Cross- sectional data is needed in
estimating the amount of cut or fill needed for a
given strip of roadway. SIGHT DISTANCE

Station Notes • distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see

𝑥𝐿 𝑥𝑅
an object of specified height on the road ahead,
0
𝑦𝐿 𝑦𝐶 𝑦𝑅 assuming adequate sight and visual acuity and
clear atmospheric conditions.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Total reaction time of driver:

• It is the time taken from the instant the

object is visible to the driver to the instant
the brake is effectively applied.

• It is divided into types

(a) Perception time

It is the time from the instant the object

comes on the line of sight of the driver to the
instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be
stopped.

(b) Brake reaction time.

The brake reaction also depends on

Types of Sight Distances
several factor including the skill of the driver, the
1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance type of the problems and various other
(SSD) environment factor. Total reaction time of driver
can be calculated by “PIEV” theory.
Minimum sight distance available on a
highway at any spot should be of sufficient length PIEV Theory: P-perception, I-intellection, E-
to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely Emotion, V-Volition Theory
without collision with any other obstruction.
Analysis of SSD
It depends on
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
a. Feature of road ahead distance and the braking distance
b. Height of driver’s eye above the road
1. Lag Distance
surface (1.2m)
c. Height of the object above the road - The distance the vehicle travelled during
surface (0.15m) the reaction time

Criteria for measurement - If “V” is the design speed in m/s, ‘t’ is the
total reaction time of the driver in seconds
a. Height of driver’s eye above road
surface (H) lag distance = v ∙ t
b. Height of object above road surface
(h) - If “V” is in kph,

lag distance = 0.278 v ∙ t

- AASHTO recommended reaction time is 2.5

seconds

2. Breaking Distance

- Distance travelled by the vehicle after

the application of brake.
Factors affecting SSD - For a level road, this is obtained by
equating the work done in stopping the
• Total reaction time of driver
vehicle and
• Speed of vehicle
- the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• Efficiency of brakes
- Work done against friction force in
• Frictional resistance between road
stopping the vehicle is
and tire
▪ F∗L=f∙W∙L
• Gradient of road
- where W is the total weight of the vehicle
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
- The kinetic energy at the design speed of obstruction, will he hit the wall? The road is
v in m/s will be 1⁄2 m𝑣 2 perfectly horizontal.

Given:

- v = 35 kph = 9.72 m/s

- t = 2 seconds
The stopping sight distance - f = 0.35
- G=0

Required:

If SSD > 30, will the vehicle hit the wall?

Note that in this equation, v is in m/s, t is the SSD and Crest Vertical Curve
reaction time, g is the gravity (9.81m/𝑠 2 ), f is the
coefficient of longitudinal friction, G is the
roadway grade.

• Using typical units for velocity (kph) and

considering the braking action of the driver, the
stopping sight distance may also be written as Figure shows SSD and crest vertical curve (Image
taken from ascelibrary.com)
where v is in kph
and a is the braking The equations used in designing a crest vertical
action deceleration in m/𝑠 2 curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L:

Assuming SSD > L

Braking Action where,

- Based on the driver’s ability to decelerate the - Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in
vehicle while staying within the travel lane and meters
maintaining steering control during the braking - S = stopping sight distance, in meters
maneuver. A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 is - H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway
comfortable for 90% of the drivers. surface, in meters
- H2 = height of obstruction above
Example : A vehicle is travelling at 35 kilometers
roadway surface, in meters
per hour. Its driver is about to hit a 2-meter high
- A = absolute value of the difference in
wall 30 meters away if he did not react
grades, in percentage
accordingly. Assuming the coefficient of friction
between the road and tires is 0.35 and the driver
steps on the brakes 2 seconds after seeing the
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
SSD and Sag Vertical Curve 2. Safe overtaking (OSD) or passing sight distance
(PSD)

- The minimum distance open to the vision of

the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of
opposite direction is known as the minimum
overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe
passing sight distance
Figure shows SSD and sag vertical curve (Image
taken from ascelibrary.com) - In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways, vehicles
may overtake slower moving vehicles, and the
The equations used in designing a sag vertical
passing maneuver must be accomplished on a
curve are as follows:
lane used by opposing traffic
Assuming SSD < L:

Assuming SSD > L

where,

- Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in

meters
- S = stopping sight distance, in meters
- H = height of headlight above roadway,
in meters Where:
- α = inclined angle of headlight beam, in
degrees - 𝑑1 = initial maneuver distance (m)
- A = absolute value of the difference in - 𝑑2 = distance while passing vehicle
grades, in percentage occupies left lane (m)
- 𝑑3 = clearance length (m)
EXAMPLE 1 - 𝑑4 = distance traversed by the opposing
vehicle (m)
Determine the length of the vertical curve with a
stopping sight distance of 230 meters. Its initial and These values are determined using the AASHTO
final grades are +1.75% and -2.05% respectively. Policy on geometric design of highways and
The driver’s eye level above the roadway surface streets.
is 150 centimeters and the height of obstruction is
100 centimeters.

EXAMPLE 2:

A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping

sight distance of 310 m. Its initial and final grades
are -1.2% and +2.1% respectively. The average
height of the headlights of the vehicles that will
pass through this road is 60 centimeters and α is
set at 1°. Determine the length of the curve.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
For Rural Areas, the guideline considers the terrain
in which road is being constructed. Table below
shows the recommended values

3. Safe sight distance for entering an intersection,

Intersection Sight Distance

- Driver entering an uncontrolled

intersection (particularly unsignalized
intersection) has sufficient visibility to
enable him to take control of his vehicle
and to avoid collision with another
vehicle.

- The corner sight distance available in

intersection quadrants that allows a
driver approaching an intersection to
observe the actions of vehicles on the
crossing leg(s)

- Evaluations involve establishing the

needed sight triangle in each quadrant
by determining the legs of the triangle on
the two crossing roadways

- Clear sight triangle must be free of sight

obstructions such as buildings, parked or
turning vehicles, trees, hedges, fences,
retaining walls, and the actual ground
line.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE 5: FUNDAMENTALS OF RAILWAY - Yellow – MRT 3
ENGINEERING - Orange – PNR

RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Historical Notes in Railways

1769 – Nicolas Carnot, carried out the pioneering

work of developing steam energy

1804 – Richard Trevithick designed and

constructed a steam locomotive

1814 – George Stephenson, produced the first

steam locomotive used for traction in railways

1825 – Recorded first public railway in the world

was opened to public, between Stockholm and
Darlington

1833 – First railway line in USA between Mohawk

and Hudson

1835 – First railway in Germany was opened from

Nuremberg to Furth

1875 – King Alfonso XII of Spain promulgated a

Royal Decree directing the Office of the Inspector
of Public Works of the Philippines to submit a
general plan for railroads on Luzon (June 25,
1875). The plan, was entitled Memoria Sobre el
Plan General de Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzón.

History of Philippine Railways

1876 – Memoria Sobre el Plan General de

Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzón Grand Master Plan
Greater Tokyo Railway Networks
1891 – First rail tracks laid

1892 – Openned for commercial use, from

Ferrocarril de Manila to Dagupan

▪ Before series of wars engulfed Philippines,

more than a thousand route-kilometers were
built.

▪ Only 452 km were operational after the war.

▪ Only 129 km remain operational (2021).

▪ The government aims to expand railway

network to 1900 km by 2022

PHILIPPINE RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT

Greater Manila Railway Networks

- Green – LRT 1
- Blue – LRT 2
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Ongoing Rail Projects MetroManila Subway Project – expected to serve
370,000 daily passengers.
LRT 1 Cavite Extension – expected to reduce the
travel time between Baclaran and Bacoor to
around 20 minutes from the usual one hour.

North South Commuter Rail Project

– Clark-Calamba Railway, expected to be full

operational by 2025

LRT 2 East Extension – to add new

stations: Marikina-Pasig and Antipolo

MRT 7 – elevated railway from North Ave. to

SJDM, Bulacan. Expected to serve 350,000 daily
commuters.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Mindanao Railway System – Phase 1 construction Track Components
expected to begin Q4 in 2021

The track is the railroad on which trains run.

RAILS

▪ Rails are the members of the track laid in

two parallel lines to provide an
unchanging, continuous, and level
surface for the movement of trains.

RAIL VERSUS ROAD TRANSPORT ▪ To be able to withstand stresses, they are

made of high-carbon steel.

Functions

1. Rails are similar to steel girders. These are

provided to perform the following
functions in a track.

2. Rails provide a continuous and level

surface for the movement of trains.

3. Rails provide a pathway which is smooth

and has very little friction.

4. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the

wheels.

5. Rails bear the stresses developed due to

vertical loads transmitted to them
through axles and wheels of rolling stock
as well as due to braking and thermal
forces.

6. Rails carry out the function of transmitting

the load to a large area of the formation
through sleepers and the ballast.

Types of Rails
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
SLEEPERS

▪ Sleepers are the transverse ties that are

laid to support the rails.

▪ They have an important role in the track

as they transmit the wheel load from the
rails to the ballast.

Rail Gauge

▪ Gauge is defined as the minimum

distance between two rails. Functions

▪ The gauge is measured as the clear 1. Holding the rails in their correct gauge and
minimum distance between the running alignment
faces of the two rails 2. Giving a firm and even support to the rails
3. Transferring the load evenly from the rails to
a wider area of the ballast
4. Acting as an elastic medium between the
rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads
5. Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to
the permanent way
6. Providing the means to rectify the track
geometry during their service life.

Sleeper Density and Spacing

Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail

length. It is specified as M + x or N + x

M or N is the length of the rail in meters and x is a

Rail Specification number that varies according to factors such as

Every rail has a brand on its web, which is a) axle load and speed,
repeated at intervals b) type and section of rails,
c) type and strength of the sleepers,
IRS-52kg – 710 – TISCO – II 1991 –> OB
d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
a. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, i.e., e) nature of formation.
52 kg
Example: If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad-
b. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880
gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, It
c. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g., Tata
means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per
Iron and Steel Co.
rail on that route.
d. II 1991: Month and year of manufacture
(February 1991) BALLAST
e. ->: An arrow showing the direction of the
top of the ingot ▪ The ballast is a layer of broken stones,
f. OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open gravel, or any other granular material
hearth basic (OB) placed and packed below and around
sleepers for distributing load from the
sleepers to the formation.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
▪ It provides drainage as well as Broken stone ballast – made from hard stones,
longitudinal and lateral stability to the normally used for high- speed tracks.
track.

BALLAST
BALLAST
Functions
Moorum ballast - It normally used as the initial
ballast in new constructions and as sub-ballast. 1. Provides a level and hard bed for the
sleepers to rest on.
2. Holds the sleepers in position during the
passage of trains.
3. Transfers and distributes load from the
sleepers to a large area of the formation.
4. Provides elasticity and resilience to the
track for proper riding comfort.
5. Provides the necessary resistance to the
track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
BALLAST 6. Provides effective drainage to the track.
7. Provides an effective means of maintaining
Coarse sand ballast – used primarily for cast iron the level and alignment of the track.
rails.
Ballast Gradation

BALLAST

Coal ash cinder – normally used in yards as initial

TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS
ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap

TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS

BALLAST For joining rail to rail - Fish plates, combination fish

plates, bolts, and nuts
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
➢ Loss of binding action
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ Congestion
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake
etc.)
➢ Accidents
➢ Poor Maintenance

Type of Road Failures

The four major types of pavement failure are:
TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS
1. Cracking
For joining rails to sleepers – Cast-iron bearing
screws, plate screws, pandrol clifts, rubber pads ➢ Fatigue Cracking
➢ Longitudinal Cracking
➢ Transverse Cracking
➢ Block Cracking
➢ Slippage Cracking
➢ Reflective Cracking
➢ Edge Cracking

2. Surface Deformation

➢ Rutting
➢ Corrugations
➢ Shoving
➢ Depressions
LESSON 6: FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND ➢ Swell
REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION
3. Disintegration
INFRASTRUCTURES
➢ Pot Holes
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES
➢ Patches
Transportation infrastructures are foundational
4. Surface Defects
structures and systems for transporting people
and goods. ➢ Ravelling
➢ Bleeding
Common Types of Transportation Infrastructures
➢ Polishing
➢ Roads ➢ Delamination
➢ Railways
➢ Bridges and Tunnels
Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation Includes
➢ Ship Canals
➢ Ports Physical Maintenance:
➢ Airports Runways
Activities such as sealing, patching, filling joints
ROADS etc.
Roads such as streets, avenues and highways. Traffic Service activities:
Includes paved roads, unpaved roads and roads
with unique surfaces like cobblestone and such. Including painting pavement markings, removing
snow ice and litter
Roads Failure Causes
Rehabilitation:
➢ Rutting due to high variation in ambient
temperature Includes restoring or betterment of roadway such
➢ Uncontrolled heavy axle loads as resurfacing.
➢ Inadequate Stability
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
4. Horizontal Fissure
Types Road Maintenance

1. Surface maintenance
2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
3. Shoulder and approaches maintenance
4. Snow and ice control
5. Traffic service

RAILWAYS

Railways including high speed rail, subways and 5. Square of

elevated railway such as cable car Angular Breaks

Railways Failure Causes 6. Rail Misalignment

➢ Impact of moving loads

➢ Effect of acceleration and deceleration
➢ Constant reversal of stresses
➢ Defects in manufacture
➢ Braking of wheels
➢ Fatigue caused by shearing stresses
➢ Effect of weather and Temperature
➢ Maintenance of rail joints
➢ Axle load of locomotive Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation Includes
➢ Design of rail joints
➢ Frequency of rail renewal 1. Ballast Checking
➢ Corrosion 2. Lubricating Places such as curves on the side
➢ Poor Maintenance of the head of the rails
3. Tightening of joints and Fittings
Type of Railway Failures
4. Use of special alloy rails where wear is more
1. Crushed Head 5. Renewal of Rails

BRIDGES AND TUNNELS

A bridge is a structure to cross an open space or

gap. Bridges are mostly made for crossing rivers,
valleys, or roads. While a tunnel is an underground
passageway, dug through the surrounding
soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance
2. Transverse and Compound Fissure and exit, commonly at each end.

Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes

➢ High variation in ambient temperature

➢ Uncontrolled heavy axle loads.
➢ Inadequate Stability
➢ Effect of seawater/water especially to the
3. Split Head bridge columns
➢ Inadequate ground Investigation
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ Congestion of Vehicles
➢ Environmental Hazard ( Flood, Earthquake,
Tsunami etc.)
➢ Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash, Train Crash
etc.)
➢ Inadequate Support method of excavation
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Type of Bridge and Tunnel Failures vessels specifically designed for river
and/or canal navigation.
1. Steel Materials
Ports and Ship Canal Failure Causes
➢ Corrosion of Steel
➢ Paint Deterioration ➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ Loose Connections ➢ High variation in ambient temperature
➢ Effect of seawater to the construction
2. Concrete Material materials
➢ Collapse ➢ Severe Corrosion
➢ Spalling ➢ Congestion of Ships
➢ Wear/Abrasion ➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake,
➢ Material Deterioration Tsunami etc.)
➢ Surface Defect ➢ Accidents (Boat Crash)
➢ Delamination ➢ Poor Maintenance
➢ Water Leak at Deck

3. Expansion Joint Type of Ports and Ship Canal failures

➢ Abnormal Spacing ➢ Material Deterioration

➢ Difference in Level ➢ Damage of components
➢ Rupture ➢ Scouring
➢ Drainage Blocked ➢ Sedimentation
➢ Collapsing of wharf / Settlement of
4. Drainpipe Foundation

Bridge and Tunnel Maintenance and Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and
Rehabilitation Includes Rehabilitation includes

➢ Exposed steel work must be cleaned and ➢ Steel repair and painting
repainted ➢ Implementation of coatings for corrosion
➢ Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint protection
➢ Damage to guard rail, must be repaired ➢ Epoxy injection into small Cracks on deck and
and strengthened supported beams
➢ Resurfacing of deck ➢ Removal of plastered concrete and cleaning
➢ Scour around and under piers and of surface
abutments should be removed ➢ Subject rebars replacement and re-
➢ Sealing, patching, filling joints and such. concreting of damage section
➢ Checking of steel cables for corrosion. ➢ Placement of anti scouring devices.
➢ Checking of supports
AIRPORT RUNWAYS
PORTS
A complex of runways and buildings for the take-
A port is a maritime facility which may comprise off, landing, and maintenance of civil aircraft,
one or more wharves where ships may dock to with facilities for passengers.
load and discharge passengers and cargo.
Although usually situated on a sea coast, some Airport Runways Failure Causes
ports can be miles inland, with access to the sea ➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
via river or canal. ➢ High variation in ambient temperature
SHIP CANALS ➢ Poor Maintenance
➢ Degradation
A ship canal is a canal especially intended to ➢ Congestion of Aircrafts
accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas or ➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood, Earthquake,
lakes to which it is connected, as opposed to a Tsunami, Bird Strikes etc.)
barge canal intended to carry barges and other ➢ Accidents
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Type of Airport Runways failures ➢ Corner repair
➢ Repair of other pavement surface
1. Cracking deficiencies
2. Surface Deformation
3. Disintegration 5. Sweeping
4. Surface Defects
5. Rubber Deposits ➢ Purpose of sweeping
➢ Surface monitoring
➢ Cleaning of surfaces
Airport Runways Maintenance and Rehabilitation ➢ Purpose of cleaning pavements
Includes ➢ Removal of rubber deposits
➢ Fuel and oil removal
Airport maintenance means any work carried out
to keep airports runways excellent condition, 6. Removal of snow and ice
keep their operations running smoothly and meet
the high safety standards ➢ Procedures for snow removal
➢ Surface de-icing
1. Maintenance of Visual Aids ➢ Surface anti-icing

➢ Airport Light maintenance 7. Drainage

➢ Basic maintenance programme for
approach, runway and taxi way lighting ➢ Cleaning of slot drains
systems ➢ Drain pipes or culverts between surfaces and
➢ Special types of lights collector basins
➢ Cleaning procedures for lights ➢ Oil and fuel separators
➢ Light measurement ➢ Water hydrants
➢ Lamp replacement 8. Maintenance of Unpaved Areas
2. Signs ➢ Maintenance of green areas within strips
➢ Markings ➢ Maintenance of grass on unpaved runways
and taxiways
3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems ➢ Maintenance of green areas outside strips
➢ Treatment of cut grass
➢ Power cables and distributors in field
➢ Transformers and regulators (including SUMMARY
standby units)
➢ Transformer stations for electric power supply ▪ Transportation infrastructure plays a vital
➢ Relay and switch cabinets (including switch role in helping our transportation remain
cabinets in sub-stations) its function, transportation is important
➢ Control cables, monitoring units, control desk because it enables communication,
➢ Secondary power supplies (generators) trade and other forms of exchange
➢ Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies between people, that in turn establishes
➢ Apron floodlighting civilizations.

4. Maintenance of Pavements ▪ Though over time some of this

infrastructure experience failures due to a
➢ Surface repair lot of factors.
➢ Repair of cracks
➢ Portland cement concrete pavements ▪ That’s why Maintenance and
➢ Bituminous pavements rehabilitation is being carried out
➢ Repair of joints and cracks regularly to these transportation
➢ Joints in concrete pavements infrastructure at a fixed interval or as and
➢ Concrete joint maintenance when damage is observed.
➢ Joints in bituminous pavements ▪ This maintenance might scale to minor
➢ Repair of pavement edge damage inspection, repairs to major rehabilitation
➢ Edge repair and as such.
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
▪ It is important to know that maintenance -is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of
of transportation infrastructures ensures vehicles passing a point within a given interval of
safety to users, improves its performance, time.
reduce possible repair cost, extend its
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑢𝑖
expected life span and provide 𝑢𝑖 =
information for future engineers, 𝑛
designers & constructors for future Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed
designs and builds of Transportation
Infrastructures. -is used to describe the rate of movement of a
traffic stream within a given section of road. It is
LESSON 7: TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS the speed based on the average travel time of
vehicles in the stream within the section.
Traffic Analysis
𝑛
➢ Traffic analysis provides basis in measuring the 𝑢𝑖 =
1
operating performance of the highway ∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝑢 𝑖
➢ Primary function of a highway system is
providing high level of transportation service
(LOS) and safety DENSITY
Various dimensions used in traffic analysis Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a
➢ Number of vehicle per unit time (traffic given length of road at an instant point in time.
volume) 𝑛
𝑘=
➢ Vehicle types and speeds 𝐿
➢ Variation in traffic volumes over
➢ time (e.g., Peak Hour) TIME HEADWAY

Other dimensions that influenced traffic Time headway is defined as the time interval
operations between passage of consecutive vehicles at a
specified point on the road with a unit of time per
➢ Traffic control device (i.e., traffic signals, signs vehicles.
and markings)
1
➢ Types of pavements and geometric design ℎ𝑡 =
𝑞
➢ Selection of the number of lanes

Most used numerical dimensions oftraffic flow

SPACING
➢ Speed (km/ hr)
Spacing is the distance between two vehicles
➢ Flow/flowrate/volume (veh hr)
measure from the front bumper of a vehicle to
➢ Density (veh /km)
that of another.
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME
1
𝑠=
Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles 𝑘
passing a point during a specified period of time. TIME OCCUPANCY
𝑁
𝑞= It can only be measure, however, if a detector is
𝑇
installed at a specific point on the carriageway. It
SPEED is defined as the total time of a detector is
occupied divided by the total time of
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per observation.
unit time. When describing traffic stream, two
types of speed are used: time mean speed and
space mean speed.

Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed

HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
wish to go, origin destination (O D) survey data
can be useful.

ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY

The OD survey asks questions about each trip that

is made on a specific day such as where the trip
begins and ends, the purpose of the trip, the time
of day, and the vehicle involved (auto or and
RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND DENSITY about the person making the trip age, sex,
income, vehicle owner, and so on.
A relationship exists among the three most
important traffic variables: flow rate, space mean The OD survey may be completed as a home
speed, and density. A dimensional analysis of the interview, or people may be asked questions
units will show that flow rate (veh/hr) is simply the while riding the bus or when stopped at a
product of density (veh/km) and space mean roadside interview station. Sometimes, the
speed (km/hr), or information is requested by telephone or by return
postcard. O D surveys are rarely completed in
𝑞 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑢𝑠 communities where these data have been
As mentioned earlier, density is the most difficult previously collected.
variable to measure. It can be obtained indirectly OD data are compared with other sources to
using this relation. ensure the accuracy and consistency of the
results. For example, the number of cars observed
crossing one or more bridges might be compared
with the number estimated from the surveys. It is
also possible to assign trips to the existing network
to compare how well the data replicate actual
travel. If the screen line crossings are significantly
different from those produced by the data, it is
possible to adjust in the O D results so that
conformance with the actual conditions is
assured. Following the O D checking procedure,
a set of trip tables is prepare that shows the
number of trips between each zone in the study
area.

PARKING STUDIES

Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one

time or another be parked for either a relatively
short time or a much longer time, depending on
the reason for parking The provision of parking
facilities is therefore an essential element of the
highway mode of transportation The need for
ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY parking spaces is usually very great in areas where
land uses include business, residential, or
TRAVEL SURVEYS commercial activities In areas of high density,
where space is very expensive, the space
Travel surveys are conducted to establish a
provided for automobiles usually has to be
complete understanding of the travel patterns
divided between that allocated for their
within the study area For single projects (such as a
movement and that allocated for parking them
highway project), it may be sufficient to use traffic
counts on existing roads or (for transit) counts of Parking studies are therefore used to determine
passengers riding the present system However, to the demand for and the supply of parking
understand why people travel and where they facilities in an area, the projection of the demand,
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
and the views of various interest groups on how METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES
best to solve the problem
A comprehensive parking study usually involves
TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES
1. inventory of existing parking facilities
On Street Parking Facilities 2. collection of data on parking
accumulation, parking turnover and
These are also known as curb facilities Parking parking duration
bays are provided alongside the curb on one or 3. Identification of parking generators
both sides of the street These bays can be 4. collection of information on parking
unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of demand
parking is unlimited and parking is free, or they
can be restricted parking facilities if parking is Information on related factors, such as financial,
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum legal, and administrative matters, also may be
duration Parking at restricted facilities may or may collected.
not be free Restricted facilities also may be
provided for specific purposes, such as to provide INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING FACILITIES
handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading An inventory of existing parking facilities is a
bays detailed listing of the location and all other
Off Street Parking Facilities relevant characteristics of each legal parking
facility, private and public, in the study area. The
These facilities may be privately or publicly owned inventory includes both on and off street facilities.
they include surface lots and garages Self parking The relevant characteristics usually listed include
garages require that drivers park their own the following:
automobiles attendant parking garages maintain
personnel to park the automobiles • Type and number of parking spaces at
each parking facility
A space hour is a unit of parking that defines the • Times of operation and limit on duration
use of a single parking space for a period of 1 hour of parking, if any
• Type of ownership (private or public)
Parking volume is the total number of vehicles • Parking fees, if any, and method of
that park in a study area during a specific length collection
of time, usually a day • Restrictions on use (open or closed to the
Parking accumulation is the number of parked public)
vehicles in a study area at any specified time • Other restrictions, if any (such as loading
These data can be plotted as a curve of parking and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi
accumulation against time, which shows the ranks)
variation of the parking accumulation during the • Probable degree of permanency (can
day the facility be regarded as permanent or
is it just a temporary facility?)
The parking load is the area under the
accumulation curve between two specific times The information obtained from an inventory of
It is usually given as the number of space hours parking facilities is useful both to the traffic
used during the specified period of time engineer and to public agencies, such as zoning
commissions and planning departments. The
Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is inventory should be updated at regular intervals
parked at a parking bay When the parking of about four to five years.
duration is given as an average, it gives an
indication of how frequently a parking space COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA
becomes available Accumulation. Accumulation data are obtained
Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking by checking the amount of parking during regular
space It is obtained by dividing the parking intervals on different days of the week The checks
volume for a specified period by the number of are usually carried out on an hourly or 2 hour basis
parking spaces between 6 00 a m and 12 midnight The selection
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
of the times depends on the operation times of The analysis required to obtain information on the
land use activities that act as parking generators first two items is straightforward it usually involves
The information obtained is used to determine simple arithmetical and statistical calculations
hourly variations of parking and peak periods of Data obtained from these items are then used to
parking demand determine parking space hours

Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover The space hours of demand for parking are
and duration is usually obtained by collecting obtained from the expression
data on a sample of parking spaces in each
block This is done by recording the license plate
of the vehicle parked on each parking space in
the sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the
study period The length of the fixed intervals
depends on the maximum permissible duration
For example, if the maximum permissible duration
of parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a suitable
interval is every 20 minutes If the permissible The space hours of supply are obtained from the
duration is 2 hours, checking every 30 minutes expression
would be appropriate Turnover is then obtained
from the equation.

𝑻= 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅

/𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING GENERATORS

This phase involves identifying parking generators The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time
(for example, shopping centers or transit lost in each turnover. It is determined on the basis
terminals) and locating these on a map of the of the best performance a parking facility is
study area. expected to produce. Efficiency factors for curb
parking, during highest demand, vary from 78
PARKING DEMAND percent to 96 percent; for surface lots and
garages, from 75 percent to 92 percent. Average
Information on parking demand is obtained by
values of f are 90 percent for curb parking, 80
interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities
percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface
listed during the inventory An effort should be
lots.
made to interview all drivers using the parking
facilities on a typical weekday between 8 00 a m INTERSECTION DESIGN
and 10 00 p m Information sought should include
1 trip origin, 2 purpose of trip, and 3 driver’s Intersections play an important role in any
destination after parking The interviewer must also network system. They are the points where traffic
note the location of the parking facility, times of flow converges and where direction of travel
arrival and departure, and the vehicle type changes. Intersections may be categorized
according to shape, type of structure, and type
Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, of operation.
coding, and interpreting the data so that the
relevant information required for decision making Shape
can be obtained The relevant information
This refers to the configuration of the intersection
includes the following
and would depend largely on the number of legs.
• Number and duration for vehicles legally Carefully planned and properly designed road
parked networks often lead to intersections with simpler
• Number and duration for vehicles illegally shape having lesser number of legs.
parked
• Space hours of demand for parking • Three-leg: T or Y
• Multileg: intersection with more than 4
• Supply of parking facilities
legs
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• Four-leg: normal crossing, oblique, or almost head to head collision of vehicles An
skewed/staggered angle of 60 degrees must be considered as the
• Rotary or roundabout minimum, optimum is 90 deg

Type of Structure Two intersections should be as far as possible from

each other In addition to the reason cited in 2
Most of the intersections are either designed as at adequate weaving sections may not be provided
grade intersection or grade separation such as As a rule of thumb, the distance between the two
flyovers or interchanges Almost all intersections intersections must be
are initially designed at grade and are planned to
be grade separated in the future to cope with distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes
high traffic volume The type of grade separation x2
depends largely on the extend of improvement it
would provide in terms of easing congestion or For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and
reducing traffic accidents three are four lanes in one direction, the distance
between the two intersections must be at least 30
Type of Operation x 4 x 2 = 240 m.

Rules and regulations applied to a given INTERSECTION DESIGN ELEMENTS

intersection depend largely on the type of control
which is in operation at that intersection The main Turning geometry
objective is to simplify traffic flow This is often ▪ The principal purpose of an intersection is to
achieved by reducing the number of conflicts of provide change in the direction of travel. As a
vehicles vehicle approaches an intersection, the driver
An intersection operates as unchannelized or has to decide whether to go straight or to turn to
channelized, and unsignalized or signalized left or right. For turning movements, a number of
Channelization often leads to simplified turning geometries may be considered, the most
movements of vehicles as it leads drivers to one direct of which is highly preferred. Configurations
conflict at a time On the other hand, signalization of turning geometries are shown below:
greatly crossing conflicts at the intersection area

BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

When designing or improving an intersection, it is DIRECT & INDIRECT

very important to follow some basic principles to
avoid costly mistakes that lead to lack of the
intersection’s capacity or to its being accident
prone

• The maximum number of legs should be SEMIDIRECT

four It has been shown that the number
of conflicts increases exponentially as the These types of turning movements may be found
number of intersection legs increases as elements of the interchanges shown below
• Staggered intersections should be
avoided Due to proximity of the two side
roads, inadequate length of storage lane
for left vehicles often causes blockage of
the through traffic
• Main traffic flow should be near straight
as possible Sharp turns, such as left and
right turns, cause unnecessary reduction
in traffic speeds The different elements of an intersection are
shown in Figure 5.1. The adequacy in design of
Roads should not intersect at a small angle each element must be carefully checked,
Oblique intersections pose potential hazards and
cause high severity of accidents due to the
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
considering traffic flow and availability of right of
way.

Conflicts may be classified as merging, diverging,

or crossing conflicts. The table below gives a
summary of these conflicts. The total number
increases exponentially with the number of legs of
the intersection. Most of the problems at
intersections, like congestion and accidents, are
caused by crossing conflicts.

For the left turn storage bay, the recommended

length is = 2 x no. of left turners in one cycle x
spacing in queue.

The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m to 7.0

m depending on the type of vehicles using the
intersection.

A factor of 2 is used to take into account

randomness of traffic flow.

METHODS OF CONTROL OF INTERSECTIONS

Depending on the traffic volume using the

intersection and the severity of conflicts,
intersection control may fall under any of the
following categories:

a) Unsignalized
b) Signalized
c) Grade separation
The number of lanes for through, right, and left
turn vehicles would depend on traffic volume,
saturation flow rates, a simple circular curve may
be adequate for the design of the intersection
corners and the turning roadway. However,
simple curve may not be enough for large
intersections. The most common type of
geometry for these intersections is the three-
centered curve as shown in the figure.

METHODS OF CONTROL OF INTERSECTIONS

Conflicts often occur at intersections. The more

the number of legs an intersection has, the more
the number of conflicts it has. Conflict diagrams for different types of control for
a four-leg intersections
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Comparison of types of control for a four leg road or minor road. In addition, the left turn
intersection movements from the major road are also
considered minor. But in terms of hierarchy, these
left turn movements have higher priority than the
movements coming from the minor road.

The method requires that the traffic movements

be dealt with in the following order:

a. Right turns into the major road

Grade separation or interchanges
b. Left turns off the major road

c. Traffic crossing the major road

d. Left turns into the major road

Structure of Major Road Traffic

Critical Gap

• The source of capacity of the minor road

flows is the available gaps between
major road flows The critical gap used to
describe the minimum gaps needed by
drivers of minor road vehicles Values of
critical gaps are given in the table for
different vehicle maneuvers, speed limits,
and highway type

ANALYSIS OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS Capacity

A large number of intersections all over the ▪ In the estimation of capacity of the minor road
country are still without traffic signals It is therefore flow, the basic capacity is initially determined.
necessary to have a means of analysis of the Based on the major road flows given by Mh, and
performance of this type of intersection so as to values of critical gap tg, the value of the basic
find appropriate measures to minimized capacity Mno is read from the graph shown in the
congestion and reduce the occurrence of traffic figure.
accidents
The basic capacity is the maximum minor road
The method calculates the maximum flow in any flow, assuming that the following conditions are
given minor road traffic stream It is them true:
compared with the existing traffic flow to estimate
the reserve capacity The probable delay and a. The traffic on the major road Mh does not block
level of service are determined based on this the major road.
reserve capacity
b. A turning lane is provided for the exclusive use
Consider the four-leg intersection below. Minor of the minor road traffic stream.
movements are movements coming from the side
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
If these conditions are not met, correction overloaded, it is important that they have
factors have to be implied based on the adequate reserve capacity.
following considerations:
LESSON 8: PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND DESIGN
• Congestion on the major road
• Shared lanes PAVEMENT

where • This is a universal defining the

carriageway of vehicles, pedestrians and
o Mn-capacity of all streams using bicycles.
the shared lane • Based on the traffic loading and
o Mna , Mnb , Mnc- capacity of materials used, design of pavement
individual streams varies
o a, b, c-contribution of the • Similar terms used in the field: highway,
individual streams to the total road
volume using the shared lane.
• Passenger Car Equivalents. Since the PAVEMENT DESIGN
calculated capacity is in pcu hr the • Field Investigation
existing flow has to be converted to the
same unit • Traffic Surveys
• Reserve capacity
• Curvature Surveys
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ROTONDAS OR
ROUNDABOUTS • Laboratory Testing

▪The elements of the roundabout are shown in • Soil Classification

figure 5.10. Roundabout with large central island • Subgrade
are known to operate better as they provide
ample weaving sections that normally dictate the • Pavement Design
capacity of the intersection.
• Traffic Load
For the analysis and design of roundabouts, British
practice will be discussed in this section (Salter • Subgrade Support
1976 The focus is the capacity of the weaving Characterization
section, which is given by the equation
• Pavement Structural Section

• Minimum Pavement Sections

• Alternative Pavement Design

The capacity formula is valid under the following • Construction Materials Specifications
conditions, although there is no reason to believe • Soil Preparation
that the formula does not hold if any variable lies
a little outside the values given • Sub-Layer Materials

𝒘=𝟗.𝟏−𝟏𝟖.𝟎𝒎 • Wearing Course Preparation

𝒆/𝒘=𝟎.𝟔𝟑−𝟎.𝟗𝟓 • Other Utilities

𝒘/𝒍=𝟎.𝟏𝟔−𝟎.𝟑𝟖 • Pedestrian and Bicycle Lane

𝒆𝟏/𝒆𝟐=𝟎.𝟑𝟒−𝟏.𝟏𝟒 • Drainage

The design of roundabouts is usually done by trial • Presence of Service Utilities

and error Weaving width and length are assumed
and then checked for adequacy of capacity As • Road Right of Way
roundabouts have a tendency to lock when
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• Placement of New Road Road System

• Road Widening • Subgrade Materials

• Road base Materials
• Pavement Monitoring and • Surface Material
Maintenance Process • Asphalt concrete
• Monitoring Systems, Process and • Portland Cement Concrete
• Drainage Materials
Schemes • Pedestrian Surface Layer Materials

• Pavement Maintenance ROAD SYSTEM MATERIAL TESTING

• Bridges Material Specification

• Subgrade Course
• Subbase Course
TYPES OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENT • Base Course
Flexible Field Density Requirements
• Asphalt Concrete • Subgrade Course
• Bitumen Binder • Subbase Course
• Base Course
Rigid
Material Specification for Surface Layer
• Portland Cement Concrete
• Asphalt Concrete
• Portland Cement Binder • Portland Cement Concrete

FIELD INVESTIGATION Material Specification for other materials

Traffic Surveys • Drainage pipe/culvert

• Precast materials for gutter
• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) • Concrete mixture
• Vehicle Classification/Type • Special material pedestrian pavement
• Speed and Density
• Routes and Intersections PAVEMENT DESIGN
• Level of Service of roads
Highway Designer
Curvature Survey
• Location design
• Vertical Curve/Elevation • Alignment design
• Horizontal Curves and • Cross-sectional design
• Superelevation • Access design
• Mass Diagram
• Road grades Pavement Designer

MATERIAL TESTING • Pavement thickness

• Material quality
Soil • Soil Structural Stability
• Life Cycle / Pavement Life Analysis
• Soil
• On-site HIGHWAY DESIGN: LOCATION DESIGN
• Embankment
• Excavation • takes place at the earlier stage of project
• Treatment planning
• General Soil Parameters • refers to the macro-level routing of a planned
• California Bearing Ratio Test highway connecting two points through the
existing highways, communities, natural terrain
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
• Essential inputs are lane-use master plan, capacity for the design storm, but at the same
existing and projected population distribution, time, avoid the tendency for vehicles traveling
survey maps; maps of existing infrastructure; straight to drift towards the low point of the cross
geology, ecological, biological, and section (unless corrected by steering control)
environmental information; and aerial
photographs resulting to road routes overlaid in Shoulder
contour maps • part of the highway near the edges of the
paved surface that is designed to provide
structural lateral support for the pavement.
HIGHWAY DESIGN: ALIGNMENT DESIGN
• provides additional space for drivers to make
• alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional corrective actions, for stopped vehicles and for
problem because the highway itself negotiates bicycle use, to increase sight distance on
through the terrain in connecting two points horizontal curves, and to provide clearance for
placement of road signs and guardrails.
• visualized as segments of connected horizontal
and vertical curves (or their combination) • width of a shoulder is measured from the
pavement marking of the outermost lane to the
• best represented by its center line in a three- intersection of the shoulder slope and fore slope
dimensional coordinate system (e.g., longitude, planes and may not be paved
latitude, and elevation) but in practice,
convention of plan and profile views are • Additional lane in case of congestion and must
adopted. be continuous along the roadway

HIGHWAY DESIGN: CROSS-SECTION DESIGN Curb

• A typical cross section of a highway consists of • a steep raised element of a roadway that
the following components: traveled way (traffic provides the following functions: drainage
lanes), shoulders (on both edges, paved or control, roadway edge delineation, right-of-way
unpaved) control and delineation of pedestrian walkways

• Important elements in the geometric design are • Used extensively in low-speed urban streets, but
cross slope of travel lane, lane width, width and not on high-speed rural highways and freeways
slope of shoulder, and curb (if it is used) because a vehicle may overturn when hitting a
curb at high speed. Two types: vertical curbs and
• The cross-sectional design considered the sloping curbs
volume, characteristics, and speed of the traffic it
will service. In addition, motor vehicle and the • Vertical curbs - Either vertical or nearly vertical,
driver characteristics are also considered. with a height of 150 to 200 mm which may prevent
or discourage vehicles from leaving the roadway.
• Presents the thickness of each layer of road
section, its material type, the lane width and the • Sloping curbs - have slopes that range from 1V :
cross-slope directing to the drainage system on 2H to 1V : 1H and height between 100 to 150 mm;
each side, and the shoulder designed such that a vehicle in emergency may
go over the curve
Cross-slope / road slope
HIGHWAY DESIGN: ACCESS DESIGN
1. a crown or high point in the middle and a cross
slope downward toward both edges • Includes design of intersection, frontage roads

2. a high point at one edge, and a cross slope • Considerations

across slope across the entire width
1. ensuring adequate visibility of a connection to
• slope should be steep enough to direct the drivers, including the appropriate location,
rainfall runoff to flow towards the edge of the signing, and lighting, are also addressed
roadway (instead of along the slope of a vertical
curve), provide sufficient drainage
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING
2. Identification of intended operations of a VEHICLE CLASSIFICATIONS
specific connection
In order to allow the determination of the
3. the importance of providing a smooth transition cumulative design traffic for the highway in
between the roadway and the area question, therefore, the total flow of commercial
vehicles per day in one direction at the day of
• Checklist for Intended Operations opening(or, for maintenance purposes, at the
a. Is it acceptable for a passenger car to wait in present time) plus the proportion of vehicles in the
the traffic lane if an exiting vehicle is present in the OGV2 category must be ascertained. If all flow
driveway? data is two-directional, then a 50-50 split is
assumed unless available data demonstrates
b. Is simultaneous exit and entry by passenger cars otherwise.
desired?
OGV = Other Goods Vehicles
c. Is simultaneous entry and exit by trucks, buses,
or other large vehicles desired? DPWH VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

Transition Parameters • Classified vehicles allowed to pass through

specific highways especially those with bridges.
(a) change in grade between the pavement
cross slope and driveway apron for an • Provided a matrix for the maximum allowable
appropriate transition gross vehicle weight per RA NO. 8794

(b) driveway profiles for urban (curbed) and rural • Based on the maximum allowable axle load of
(open ditch) areas that illustrate the use of vertical 13,500 kgs.
curves to provide smooth transitions • Focus on trucks and its maximum allowed
Alternatives to direct access to major roadways vehicle based on their number of axles
include • Trailers have different registration permit from
i. frontage roads, LTO; thus, it is not allowed to upgrade/downgrade
without permit
ii. service roads where the separation from the
major roadway permits development between DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
the service road and the major roadway, and Reinforcement
iii. a supporting circulation system where access is to reduce the amount of cracking that occurs, as
provided as part of the site development a load transfer mechanism at joints, or as a means
of tying two slabs together

TRAFFIC LOADING DESIGN Temperature steel - To control cracks

• Estimation of traffic levels at opening is of central Dowel bars - For load transfer mechanism
importance to the structural design of the upper Tie bars- Connect two slabs together
layers of the road pavement.
Joints
• Commercial vehicles are defined as those with
an unladen weight of 15kN. They are the primary Expansion joints - usually placed transversely, at
cause of structural damage to the highway regular intervals, to provide adequate space for
pavement, with the damage arising from private the slab to expand.
cars negligible in comparison.
Contraction joints - placed transversely at regular
• Unladen weight is the weight of the vehicle intervals across the width of the pavement to
when it is not carrying any passengers, goods or release some of the tensile stresses that are so
other items. It includes the body and all parts induced
normally used with the vehicle or trailer when it's
used on a road. Hinge joints - used mainly to reduce cracking
along the center line of highway pavements.
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Construction joints - placed transversely across • Mud boils at the edge of the pavement ▪
the pavement width to provide suitable transition Pavement surface discoloration
between concrete laid at different times. • (caused by the subgrade soil)
• Breaking of pavement at the corners

Prevention:
TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
• Joints
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) • Avoid fine-grained soils in subsurface
Plain concrete pavement has no temperature Stress Considerations
steel or dowels for load transfer used mainly on
low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized developed in rigid pavements as a result of
soils are used as subbase several factors, including the action of traffic
wheel loads, the expansion and contraction of
Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement the concrete due to temperature changes,
have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across yielding of the subbase or subgrade supporting
joints, with these joints spaced at larger distances, the concrete pavement, and volumetric changes
ranging from 30 to 100 ft. Assumptions
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement 1. Concrete pavement slabs are
(CRCP) considered as unreinforced concrete
no transverse joints, except construction joints or beams. Any contribution made to the
expansion joints when they are necessary at flexural strength by the inclusion of
specific positions, such as at bridges pavements reinforcing steel is neglected.
have a relatively high percentage of steel, with 2. The combination of flexural and direct
the minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross tensile stresses will inevitably result in
section of the slab. transverse and longitudinal cracks. The
provision of suitable crack control in the
form of joints, however, controls the
occurrence of these cracks, thereby
RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN maintaining the beam action of large
Pumping Considerations sections of the pavement.
3. The supporting subbase and/or subgrade
• the discharge of water and subgrade (or layer acts as an elastic material in that it
subbase) material through joints, cracks, deflects at the application of the traffic
and along the pavement edges
• caused by the repeated deflection of
the pavement slab in the presence of
accumulated water beneath it
• formation of void space beneath the
pavement due to plastic deformation of
the soil, due to imposed loads and the
elastic rebound of the pavement after it
has been deflected by the imposed load,
or warping of the pavement, which
occurs as a result of temperature
gradient within the slab.

RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN

Pumping Effect visual manifestations

• Discharge of water from cracks and joints

• Spalling near the centerline of the
pavement and a transverse crack or joint
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load and recovers at the removal of the
load.