1.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture:

o Developed by DARPA for ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet.

o Acts as the foundation for global Internet communication.

o It lacks an official model but is practically categorized into four layers:

▪ Application Layer: For user interaction and high-level protocols.

▪ Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transport between systems.

▪ Internet Layer: Responsible for addressing and routing data packets.

▪ Host-to-Network Layer: Manages hardware interface and data

transmission.

2. Host-to-Network Layer:

o Corresponds to the Physical and Data Link Layers of the OSI model.

o Manages:

▪ Connection between the system and the transmission medium (e.g., LAN,
WAN).

▪ Physical link activation, signal levels, and data rates.

▪ Data exchange, destination addressing, and network details like priorities.

3. Internet Layer:

o Focuses on packet structure, addressing schemes, and routing.

o Transfers data between the Internet and Network Access Layers.

o Includes protocols like:

▪ IP (Internet Protocol): Core for addressing and packet routing.

▪ ICMP/IGMP: Used for messaging.

▪ ARP/RARP: Handles address resolution.

o Enables routing across multiple networks and systems.

4. Transport Layer:

o Provides end-to-end communication between hosts.

o Ensures:

▪ Reliable delivery with sequence numbers and acknowledgments.

▪ Flow control and segmentation of application data.

o Uses key protocols:

▪ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliability and ordering.

▪ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Lightweight, connectionless service.

 5. Application Layer:

o Interfaces with user applications and supports high-level communication protocols.

o Examples include:

▪ HTTP (Web browsing), FTP (File transfer), DNS (Domain Name System),
SMTP (Email), Telnet (Remote terminal emulation).

Key Points Summary:

• TCP/IP Architecture: Comprises four layers (Application, Transport, Internet, Host-

to-Network).

• Host-to-Network Layer:

o Handles physical connection, signal levels, data exchange, and addressing.

o Covers LAN/WAN technologies.

• Internet Layer:

o Defines packets and addresses, ensures routing.

o Protocols: IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, RARP.

• Transport Layer:

o Ensures reliable, ordered delivery using TCP/UDP.

o Features sequence numbers, acknowledgments, and sliding windows.

• Application Layer:

o Supports high-level protocols (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, Telnet).

1. ISO and OSI Model Overview:

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is responsible for

developing international standards, including those for networking.

• In 1984, ISO introduced the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model, which
provides a standardized framework for network communication.

• OSI Model:

o It is theoretical, not a protocol, program, or technology.

o Data moves layer-by-layer from the sender, traverses the network, and moves up
the layers at the receiver.

2. OSI Model Structure:

• It uses layered architecture to simplify network communication and troubleshoot

issues.

• Each layer has specific responsibilities, communicates with the layer above and below,
and performs peer-to-peer communication at the same level on different systems.

• Layers:

o Layers 1-3: Network Support Layers (Physical, Data Link, Network).

o Layers 5-7: User Support Layers (Session, Presentation, Application).

o Layer 4: Transport Layer links the two subgroups.

3. Encapsulation:

• Data flowing through the OSI layers is wrapped with additional information (headers
and trailers) at each layer.

• This process, called encapsulation, ensures proper delivery, addressing, and error
detection.

4. Physical Layer:

• Manages the hardware interface and transmission medium characteristics.

• Functions:

o Defines bit representation, data rates, and modulation.

o Establishes and maintains physical connections.

o Specifies topology and interface characteristics.

5. Data Link Layer:

• Ensures error-free delivery from one node to the next (hop-by-hop communication).

• Functions:

o Framing: Divides data into frames.

 o Physical Addressing: Uses MAC addresses.

o Error Detection & Control: Identifies and corrects transmission errors.

o Flow & Access Control: Manages access to the transmission medium.

• Protocols: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, Token Passing.

6. Network Layer:

• Handles source-to-destination delivery, including routing across multiple networks.

• Functions:

o Logical Addressing: Uses IP addresses for identification.

o Routing: Selects the best path for packet delivery.

o PDU (Protocol Data Unit): Packet.

• Protocols: IP, IPX, AppleTalk; Routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP.

7. Transport Layer:

• Provides process-to-process delivery of the entire message.

• Functions:

o Port Addressing: Identifies specific processes.

o Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides and reassembles data.

o Flow and Error Control: Ensures reliable delivery using sequence numbers and
retransmissions.

• Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (connectionless).

8. Session Layer:

• Manages sessions between communication systems.

• Functions:

o Synchronization Points: Marks checkpoints for recovery.

o Dialog Control: Manages roles (duplex, half-duplex, simplex).

o Grouping and Recovery.

9. Presentation Layer:

• Ensures data is in a readable format.

• Functions:

o Format Conversion: Transforms data formats.

o Compression: Reduces data size for transmission.

o Encryption: Secures data by converting it into unreadable formats.

• Examples: JPEG, MPEG, ASCII.

10. Application Layer:

• Closest to the user and provides network services directly to applications.

• Functions:

o Identifies communication partners and ensures sufficient resources.

• Protocols: Telnet, FTP, SMTP, SNMP.

11. Addressing:

• Four levels of addressing in the TCP/IP model:

o Physical Address: MAC address (48-bit, hardware-specific).

o Logical Address: IP address (32-bit, unique to network).

o Port Address: Identifies processes (e.g., HTTP uses port 80).

o Specific Address: User-friendly (e.g., email or URL).

Key Points Summary:

1. ISO/OSI Model:

o Standardized framework for communication with 7 layers.

o Layers 1-3: Network support; Layers 5-7: User support; Layer 4 links them.

2. Encapsulation:

o Adds headers/trailers at each layer for delivery, addressing, and error control.

3. Physical Layer:

o Deals with hardware interfaces, signal levels, topology, and bit representation.

4. Data Link Layer:

o Ensures error-free, hop-to-hop communication; uses MAC addresses.

5. Network Layer:

o Handles routing and logical addressing (IP); delivers packets across networks.

6. Transport Layer:

o Manages process-to-process communication, segmentation, and reliable delivery.

7. Session Layer:

o Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.

8. Presentation Layer:

o Translates data formats, compresses, and encrypts for secure transmission.

9. Application Layer:

o Provides network services directly to user applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

10. Addressing in TCP/IP:

o Physical (MAC), Logical (IP), Port (specific process), and Specific (e.g., URL).
1. Local Area Networks (LAN):

• A LAN is a small-scale network typically confined to a limited geographical area, such

as a home, school, or office building.

• Features:

o Connects devices like computers, printers, and storage within close proximity.

o Allows file and resource sharing between users.

• Examples: Office LAN, school computer labs.

2. Wide Area Networks (WAN):

• A WAN covers a much larger geographical area than a LAN.

• Features:

o Primarily used for communication between multiple LANs.

o Requires WAN links (e.g., leased lines, satellite connections) to connect distant
locations.

• Example: The internet, multinational corporate networks.

3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

• A MAN spans a city or metropolitan area, bridging the gap between LANs and WANs.

• Features:

o Larger in scale than LANs but smaller than WANs.

o Often uses high-speed connections like fiber optics.

• Example: City-wide Wi-Fi networks, university campuses spread across a city.

4. Network Categories:

• Networks are classified based on their design and functionality:

o Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks:

▪ All devices (nodes) are equal and share resources directly without a central
server.

▪ Easy to set up but less scalable.

▪ Example: Windows Workgroup.

o Client/Server Networks:

▪ A server provides dedicated services (e.g., email, web hosting) to client

devices.
 ▪ More secure, scalable, and efficient for larger networks.

▪ Examples: Mail Servers, Web Servers.

5. Components Required to Build a Computer Network:

• Hardware:

o Computers and peripherals (printers, storage devices).

o Network Interface Cards (NICs) for connecting devices.

o Connecting Media: Wires (e.g., Ethernet cables) or wireless mediums (Wi-Fi,

Bluetooth).

o Networking Devices:

▪ Router: Connects different networks, like LANs to the internet.

▪ Switch: Directs data to specific devices within a LAN.

▪ Hub: Broadcasts data to all connected devices.

▪ Bridge: Connects two or more LANs.

• Software:

o Operating systems, network management tools, and security applications.

• Protocols:

o Set of rules to ensure smooth communication between devices.

o Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP.

Summary of Network Categories:

1. LAN: Localized, small area, resource sharing.

2. MAN: Larger than LAN, covers cities or campuses.

3. WAN: Interconnects LANs across large areas.

Two Types of Network Models:

• Peer-to-Peer: Simple, decentralized.

• Client/Server: Centralized, scalable, better security.

Components Needed: Hardware, software, and protocols work together to establish

seamless communication.
Network Topologies

1. What is Network Topology?

• Definition: The arrangement or layout of devices (nodes) and their connections in a

network.

• Determines:

o How devices are connected.

o How data is transmitted between nodes.

• Factors influencing topology choice:

o Equipment type and quantity.

o Costs.

2. Types of Network Topologies

A. Bus Topology

• Structure:

o All devices are connected to a single backbone cable (bus).

o Both ends of the cable are terminated with terminators.

• Working:

o Devices share the backbone to send data.

o All devices hear the message, but only the intended recipient processes it.

• Advantages:

o Simple and inexpensive (requires less cable).

o Easy to set up for small networks.

• Disadvantages:

o A single cable failure can disrupt the whole network.

o Troubleshooting is difficult.

o High traffic slows communication.

B. Star Topology

• Structure:

o Devices connect to a central hub or switch.

 o All communication passes through this central device.

• Types:

o Broadcast Star (Hub).

o Switched Star (Switch).

• Advantages:

o Failure of a single device doesn't affect the entire network.

o Easy to add/remove devices without disrupting the network.

o Centralized control simplifies monitoring and troubleshooting.

• Disadvantages:

o Failure of the central hub/switch brings down the whole network.

o Requires more cable than a bus topology.

o More expensive due to the cost of the central device.

C. Ring Topology

• Structure:

o Devices form a closed loop, each connected to two other devices.

o Data passes in one direction around the ring.

• Working:

o A token (small data frame) circulates the ring.

o A device wishing to transmit data waits for the token.

o The sender places the data on the token, which is passed around the ring until it
reaches the destination.

• Advantages:

o Equal access to the network for all devices.

o Performs well under high traffic.

• Disadvantages:

o A single failure can disrupt the entire network.

o Difficult to troubleshoot and maintain.

o Adding/removing devices requires the network to be reconfigured.

D. Mesh Topology

• Structure:
 o Every device connects to every other device directly.

o Types:

▪ Full Mesh: All devices are interconnected.

▪ Partial Mesh: Some devices are interconnected.

• Advantages:

o High fault tolerance (failure of one connection doesn’t affect the rest).

o Reliable and efficient for critical systems.

• Disadvantages:

o Very expensive (requires a lot of cabling).

o Complex setup and maintenance.

E. Hybrid Topology

• Structure:

o Combines two or more topologies (e.g., star + bus).

o Example: Starred Bus – multiple star networks connected via a bus backbone.

• Advantages:

o Flexible and scalable (easy to expand).

• Disadvantages:

o Failure of a hub can disrupt connectivity between hubs.

o Higher costs due to complexity.

Comparison of Topologies

Fault Ease of Maintenance

Topology Cost Scalability
Tolerance Setup Complexity

Bus Low Low Easy Low High (troubleshooting)

Star Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low

Ring Moderate Low Moderate Low High

Mesh High High Difficult High High

Hybrid High Moderate Moderate High Moderate

Key Takeaway

Each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses.

• Bus: Cost-effective for small networks but limited scalability.

• Star: Popular due to ease of management and scalability.

• Ring: Suitable for environments needing equal access, but less reliable.

• Mesh: Best for critical, fault-tolerant systems despite high cost.

• Hybrid: Flexible but require careful planning and investment.

1. Need for Networking Devices

• Allow for a greater number of nodes to connect.

• Extend the distance of networks.

• Localize network traffic.

• Merge existing networks.

• Isolate network problems for easier diagnosis .

2. Expanding a Network

• Simply adding computers and cables is inefficient.

• Use of components to:

o Segment large LANs into smaller ones.

o Connect different LANs.

• Required components include:

o Repeaters, bridges, routers, switches, gateways .

3. Repeaters and Hubs

• Operate at the OSI physical layer; regenerate and resend signals.

• A hub is a multiport repeater that broadcasts data to all ports .

4. Advantages of Switches

• Divide networks into isolated channels (collision domains).

• Reduce collision opportunities:

o Only one device accesses the channel at a time, buffered if needed.

• Suitable for real-time applications (e.g., video conferencing).

• Enable secure data transmission by directing data only to the intended destination .

5. Router Operations

• Routers pass packets and strip/recreate Data Link layer addresses.

• Facilitate routing between different network types (e.g., Ethernet to token ring).

• Reduce network traffic by passing only packets with known addresses.

• Select the most cost-effective path for packet transmission .

6. Bridges vs. Routers

• Routers operate at Layer 3, recognizing network addresses.

• Bridges function at Layer 2, using MAC addresses to forward data.

• Bridges forward unknown addresses, while routers choose the best paths .

7. Summary of Key Devices

• Repeaters: Cost-effective for expanding a network but limited to connecting two

segments.

• Bridges: Similar to repeaters but understand node addresses.

• Switches: Multiport bridges that create logical channels.

• Routers: Interconnect networks, provide filtering, and find optimal routing paths .