Basics of Transformers

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between

two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It is commonly used to step
up (increase) or step down (decrease) voltage levels in AC power systems.
1. Construction of a Transformer
A transformer consists of three main components:
1. Core: Made of laminated silicon steel to reduce eddy current losses.
2. Primary Winding: The coil is connected to the input voltage source.
3. Secondary Winding: The coil where the transformed voltage is induced.
Types of Transformers
Step-up Transformer: Increases voltage (primary < secondary turns).
Step-down Transformer: Decreases voltage (primary > secondary turns).
Isolation Transformer: Provides the same voltage on both sides but isolates circuits.
Autotransformer: Has a common winding for both primary and secondary.
2. Working Principle
Transformers work on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction and Mutual Induction.
When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it creates a time-varying magnetic
flux in the core.
This flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary winding according to
Faraday’s Law.
The ratio of turns in the primary and secondary windings determines the voltage
transformation.
3. Transformer Equations
(i) Turns Ratio
NsNp =VsVp
= Number of turns in secondary and primary windings
= Voltages in secondary and primary windings
(ii) Current Ratio
I_pI_s = N_sN_p
I_p V_p = I_s V_s
= Primary and secondary currents
(iii) Power Equation (Ideal Transformer)
P_{\text{primary}} = P_{\text{secondary}}
V_p I_p = V_s I_s ]
(iv) Efficiency ()
\eta = \frac{P_{\text{output}}}{P_{\text{input}}} \times 100\%
(v) EMF Equation
E = 4.44 f N \Phi
= Induced EMF
= Supply frequency (Hz)
= Number of turns in the winding
= Maximum magnetic flux (Weber)
4. Losses in Transformers
• Core Losses (Iron Losses)
• Hysteresis Loss: Due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization.
• Eddy Current Loss: Due to circulating currents in the core.
• Copper Losses: Due to resistance in the windings ( loss).
• Leakage Flux: Magnetic flux that does not link both windings.
• Stray Losses: Additional losses due to leakage reactance and harmonics.
5. Transformer Efficiency & Regulation
Efficiency:
\eta = \frac{Output \ Power}{Input \ Power} \times 100\%
Voltage Regulation:
\% VR = \frac{V_{\text{no-load}} - V_{\text{full-load}}}{V_{\text{full-load}}} \times 100\%
6. Transformer Types Based on Application
Power Transformers – Used in substations, high voltage transmission.
Distribution Transformers – Used for local power distribution.
Instrument Transformers – Includes Current Transformers (CTs) and Potential
Transformers (PTs) for measurement and protection.
Pulse Transformers – Used in digital circuits and signal transmission.
 7. Transformer Testing Methods
• Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test) – Measures core (iron) losses.
• Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test) – Measures copper losses and impedance.
• Polarity Test – Determines winding polarity.
• Load Test – Measures efficiency under actual loading conditions.
Power Factor, Leading, Lagging, and Other Transformer Concepts
A transformer operates under different power factor conditions depending on the nature
of the connected load. Below are key concepts related to power factor and other important
transformer characteristics.
1. Power Factor (PF)
Definition
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S) in an AC circuit. It
indicates how effectively electrical power is being converted into useful work.
\text{Power Factor (PF)} = \cos\theta = \frac{\text{Real Power} (P)}{\text{Apparent Power}
(S)}
Where:
= Real Power (W)
= Apparent Power (VA)
= Angle between voltage and current
Power factor ranges from -1 to +1:
i. PF = 1 (Unity Power Factor): Voltage and current are in phase.
ii. PF < 1 (Lagging Power Factor): Current lags behind voltage (Inductive Load).
iii. PF < 1 (Leading Power Factor): Current leads voltage (Capacitive Load).
2. Unity Power Factor
When PF = 1, the transformer operates at its most efficient level because all the supplied
power is used as real power.
a) Load Type: Purely resistive loads (heaters, incandescent bulbs).
b) Voltage and Current: Both are perfectly in phase.
c) No Reactive Power: Minimum losses, maximum efficiency.
3. Lagging Power Factor
A lagging power factor occurs when the current lags behind the voltage. This happens in
inductive loads, such as:
a) Motors (Induction motors, transformers, solenoids)
b) Chokes and reactors
c) Ballasts in fluorescent lamps
d) Effects of Lagging PF on Transformers:
e) Increases copper losses due to higher current.
f) Reduces voltage regulation efficiency.
g) Increases reactive power requirement.
4. Leading Power Factor
A leading power factor occurs when the current leads the voltage. This happens in
capacitive loads, such as:
a) Capacitor banks
b) Overexcited synchronous motors
c) Power factor correction equipment
d) Effects of Leading PF on Transformers:
e) Can cause overvoltage at light loads.
f) Reduces efficiency by affecting voltage regulation.
g) Might lead to resonance issues in the system.
5. Power in Transformers
Active (Real) Power ()
The useful power consumed by the load to perform work:
P = V I \cos\theta \quad (\text{Watts, W})
Reactive Power ()
The unused power due to inductance or capacitance:
Q = V I \sin\theta \quad (\text{Volt-Amps Reactive, VAR})
Apparent Power ()
The total power supplied by the transformer:
S = V I \quad (\text{Volt-Amps, VA})
Power Triangle Relationship:
S^2 = P^2 + Q^2
6. Transformer Efficiency
\eta = \frac{\text{Output Power}}{\text{Input Power}} \times 100\%
A higher power factor improves efficiency by reducing losses.
7. Voltage Regulation in Transformers
Voltage regulation is the difference between no-load and full-load voltages, expressed as
a percentage:
\%VR = \frac{V_{\text{no-load}} - V_{\text{full-load}}}{V_{\text{full-load}}} \times 100\%
Lagging Power Factor → High voltage drop → Poor regulation.
Leading Power Factor → Voltage rises → Overvoltage risk.
8. Methods to Improve Power Factor
1. Capacitor Banks: Used to correct lagging PF in industrial systems.
2. Synchronous Condensers: Synchronous motors operated in overexcited mode.
3. Phase Advancers: Used for induction motors to improve PF.
All the transformer-related interview questions:
1. Basic Concept Questions
1. What is a transformer, and how does it work?
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It works based on Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction, where a changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a nearby
coil.
2. What are the main components of a transformer?
A transformer consists of:
• Core: Provides a path for the magnetic flux.
• Primary Winding: Receives AC input voltage.
• Secondary Winding: Delivers the transformed voltage to the load.

3. Why do we use transformers in electrical systems?

Transformers are used to step up or step down voltage levels, improving the efficiency of
power transmission and reducing losses over long distances.
4. What is the function of the core in a transformer?
The core provides a low-reluctance path for the magnetic flux and enhances the efficiency
of induction between primary and secondary windings.
5. Explain the difference between step-up and step-down transformers.
• Step-up Transformer: Increases voltage (, ).
• Step-down Transformer: Decreases voltage (, ).
2. Transformer Equations & Working Principles
6. State and derive the EMF equation of a transformer.
E = 4.44 f N \Phi
= Supply frequency (Hz)
= Number of turns in the winding
= Maximum flux in Weber
7. Explain mutual induction and how it is used in transformers.
Mutual induction is the principle where a changing magnetic field in one coil induces an
EMF in a nearby coil. Transformers use this to transfer energy from the primary winding
to the secondary winding.
8. What is the significance of the turns ratio in a transformer?
The turns ratio () determines the voltage transformation.
\frac{V_s}{V_p} = \frac{N_s}{N_p}
9. What is the relation between primary and secondary voltage, current, and turns
ratio?
Voltage Ratio:
Current Ratio:
10. Explain why transformers work only on AC and not on DC.
AC produces a changing magnetic flux, inducing an EMF in the secondary winding. DC
does not change, so no induction occurs.
3. Power Factor and Efficiency
11. What is power factor? How does it affect transformer performance?
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of real power to apparent power:
PF = \cos\theta
A low PF increases losses and reduces efficiency.
12. What is the ideal power factor for a transformer, and how can we improve it?
The ideal PF is 1 (Unity Power Factor). It can be improved by using capacitor banks or
synchronous condensers.
13. What is transformer efficiency, and how is it calculated?
\eta = \frac{\text{Output Power}}{\text{Input Power}} \times 100\%
14. How does load affect the efficiency of a transformer?
At light load, efficiency is low due to core losses. At full load, efficiency is maximum.
15. What are copper and iron losses in a transformer?
• Copper Loss: loss in windings.
• Iron Loss: Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core.
• Losses and Performance

16. What are the different types of losses in a transformer?

1. Iron (Core) Losses
2. Copper Losses
3. Stray Losses
4. Dielectric Losses
17. Explain hysteresis and eddy current losses. How can they be reduced?
Hysteresis Loss: Due to repeated magnet
specific protection scheme Here are some options:
1. Buchholz Relay Protection – Gas-operated relay for transformer faults.
2. Differential Protection – Protects transformers and busbars using CTs.
3. Overcurrent and Earth Fault Protection – IDMT relays for detecting short circuits and
ground faults.
4. Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection – Detects internal winding-to-ground faults.
5. Lightning Arrester Protection – Protection against surges and transient overvoltages.
6. Busbar Protection – Prevents faults in high-voltage bus systems.
7. SCADA-Based Substation Protection – Remote monitoring and automation of
protection systems.
Cooling Process of a Transformer

Transformers generate heat due to core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
and copper losses (I²R losses in windings). To maintain efficiency and prevent
overheating, various cooling methods are employed:

1. Air Natural (AN) – Used in small transformers, where heat dissipates naturally
through the air.
2. Air Forced (AF) – Fans are used to increase air circulation for better cooling.
3. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) – Common in power transformers, where oil
circulates naturally, transferring heat to the tank walls, which dissipates it into the
surrounding air.
4. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) – Similar to ONAN, but with external fans to
enhance cooling.
5. Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF) – Oil carries heat to water-cooled heat
exchangers, which remove excess heat.
6. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) – Both oil and air are circulated using pumps and
fans for efficient cooling.
7. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) – Heat is removed by circulating oil through a
heat exchanger where water is forced to absorb and dissipate the heat.

Voltage Levels in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, the power transmission and distribution system follows these standard
voltage levels:

1. Transmission Line Voltage Levels

These are used for long-distance power transmission from power plants to substations:

• 132 kV – Used for regional power distribution.

• 230 kV – High-voltage transmission for bulk power transfer.
• 400 kV – Extra high voltage (EHV) transmission, mainly for interconnection with
large power plants.

2. Distribution Voltage Levels

These are used for distributing electricity to consumers from substations:

• 33 kV – Primary distribution voltage for industrial and large commercial users.

• 11 kV – Secondary distribution voltage for local areas and small industries.
3. Household Voltage

• 220V, 50 Hz (Single Phase) – Standard household voltage for residential and

commercial use.
• 440V, 50 Hz (Three Phase) – Used for larger buildings, industries, and commercial
establishments requiring higher power loads.

Basics of a Substation
A substation is an essential part of the electrical power system that facilitates the
transformation, switching, and distribution of electricity between transmission
and distribution networks. It helps regulate voltage levels and ensures efficient power
supply to consumers.

Functions of a Substation

1. Voltage Transformation – Changes high-voltage electricity from transmission

lines to lower voltages for distribution.
2. Power Distribution – Directs electricity to different areas based on demand.
3. Switching & Protection – Includes circuit breakers and protective relays to
isolate faulty sections during faults.
4. Power Factor Improvement – Uses capacitor banks to enhance power
efficiency.
5. Load Management – Helps in balancing the power load and preventing overload
conditions.

Types of Substations

1. Based on Voltage Level

• Step-Up Substation – Increases voltage for long-distance transmission.

• Step-Down Substation – Reduces voltage for local distribution.

2. Based on Design

• Indoor Substation – Used in urban areas, enclosed in buildings for safety.

• Outdoor Substation – Located in open areas, commonly used for high voltage.

3. Based on Operation

• Transmission Substation – Connects different transmission networks and

maintains stability.
• Distribution Substation – Reduces voltage for residential and industrial
consumers.
• Switching Substation – Only used for switching operations without voltage
transformation.
Main Components of a Substation

1. Power Transformer – Steps up or down voltage as required.

2. Circuit Breakers – Automatically disconnects power during faults.
3. Isolators – Manually disconnects circuits for maintenance.
4. Busbars – Conductors that distribute power within the substation.
5. Current & Voltage Transformers (CT & VT) – Measures electrical parameters
for protection and monitoring.
6. Lightning Arresters – Protects the substation from lightning surges.
7. Capacitor Banks – Improves power factor and voltage regulation.

Substation Voltage Levels in Bangladesh

• 400 kV – High-voltage transmission.

• 230 kV – Interconnects power plants and large substations.
• 132 kV – Main distribution from transmission to cities and industries.
• 33 kV / 11 kV – Distribution substations for local and industrial areas.
Basic Information About Generators

A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It

is widely used for backup power during outages and in areas without a reliable power
supply.

Working Principle of a Generator

Generators operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s Law).

When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced. This
principle is used in generators where a rotating mechanical energy source (such as a
diesel or gas engine) spins a coil within a magnetic field, generating electricity.

Types of Generators

1. Diesel Generators – Use diesel fuel; suitable for industrial and commercial
applications.
2. Gas Generators – Run on natural gas or LPG; more eco-friendly.
3. Petrol Generators – Used for small-scale applications and home backup power.
4. Hybrid Generators – Combine solar, wind, or battery power with conventional
fuel.
5. Inverter Generators – Provide stable and efficient power output, ideal for
sensitive electronic devices

Main Components of a Generator

1. Engine – Provides mechanical energy to the generator.

2. Alternator – Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
3. Fuel System – Stores and supplies fuel to the engine.
4. Cooling System – Prevents overheating of the generator.
5. Voltage Regulator – Maintains a steady voltage output.
6. Battery – Provides the initial power to start the generator.
7. Control Panel – Displays operational parameters and allows manual operation.
8. Exhaust System – Releases gases generated during combustion.

Applications of Generators

• Residential Backup Power – Ensures continuous power supply during outages.

• Industrial Use – Powers factories, construction sites, and large-scale operations.
• Hospitals & Emergency Services – Provides uninterrupted power to critical
facilities.
• Remote Areas – Used in locations without access to the electrical grid.
• Commercial & IT Sector – Ensures smooth operation of businesses and data
centers.