UNIT II SOLAR ENERGY

Solar Radiation and its measurements, Solar Thermal Energy Conversion from plate Solar

Collectors, Concentrating Collectors and its Types, Efficiency and performance of collectors. Direct

Solar Electricity Conversion from Photovoltaic, types of solar cells and its application of battery

charger, domestic lighting, street lighting, and water pumping, power generation schemes. Recent

Advances in PV Applications: Building Integrated PV, Grid Connected PV Systems.

SOLAR RADIATION
Sun radiates energy in all directions in the form of electromagnetic waves
Advantages
 Clean
 Universally available
 Abundant
 Inexhaustible
Drawback
 It is dilute form of energy
 Available intermittently
 Uncertainty – Not Steady and Not continuous
  The sun, being at a very large distance from the earth, solar rays subtend an angle of
only 32 minutes on earth, as shown in Figure 3.1.
 Energy flux received from the sun before entering the earth’s atmosphere, is constant
(Solar constant)
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
EXTRATERRESTRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATIONS
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION
It is the measure of solar radiation that would be received in the absence of atmosphere.

The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from the surface
of the sun, though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar radiation incident on the outer
atmosphere of the earth is known as Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext.

SOLAR CONSTANT ( ISC )

It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a unit area of
surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at the top of
earth’s atmosphere when earth is at its mean distance from the sun.
The solar constant is the average value of solar irradiance outside the earth’s
atmosphere
Based on the experimental measurements, the standard value of the solar constant

is 1367 W/m2 (or)

The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar constant value due to two reasons.
 The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to
this reason is less than ±1.5 % with different periodicities.
 The second is the variation of earth–sun distance arising from earth’s slightly elliptic
path. The variation due to this reason is ±3 %
 The extraterrestrial radiation is calculated (on any day) by the equation

where n is the day of the year counted from the first day of January.
 Solar radiation reaching the earth is essentially equivalent to blackbody radiation
TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

For utilization of solar energy, a study is required to be carried out of radiations received on
the earth’s surface.
Solar radiations pass through the earth’s atmosphere and are subjected to scattering and
atmospheric absorption.
A part of scattered radiation is reflected back to space and while remaining is directed
downwards.

Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through the earth’s
atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation. The terrestrial radiation expressed as
energy per unit time per unit area (i.e. W/m2) is known as Solar Irradiance.

INSOLATION/ IRRADIATION & IRRADIANCE

The term Solar Insolation or irradiation (incident solar radiation) is defined as
solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time (in J/m2 or
kWh/m2)

 Irradiance vs irradiation is equivalent to power density vs energy density

DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION
The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents, suspended dust and other
minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules, ozone, oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, dust, and water droplets. Therefore, solar
radiation is depleted during its passage through the atmosphere. Different molecules do
different things as explained below:
Absorption
Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different molecules. The absorbed
radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus raising their temperatures:
 Nitrogen, molecular oxygen, and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and
extreme ultraviolet radiations.
 Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (λ < 0.38 μm).
 Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the infrared
radiation in the range (λ > 2.3 μm) and deplete to some extent the near infrared
radiation below this range.
 Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy irrespective
of wavelength.
Scattering
Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules (or gaseous particles of different sizes) involves
redistribution of incident energy. A part of scattered radiation is lost (reflected back) to space
while remaining is directed downwards to the earth’s surface from different directions as
diffuse radiation. It is the scattered sunlight that makes the sky blue. Without atmosphere and
its ability to scatter sunlight, the sky would appear black, as it does on the moon.

In cloudy atmosphere,
(i) a major part of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere
by the clouds,
(ii) another part is absorbed by the clouds
(iii) the rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffuse radiation.

Thus, on the surface of earth we have two components of solar radiation:

(i) DIRECT OR BEAM RADIATION - unchanged in direction
(ii) DIFFUSE RADIATION - the direction of which is changed by scattering and
reflection.
Total radiation at any location on the surface of earth is the sum of beam radiation and
diffuse radiation, what is known as global radiation.
These terms may be properly defined as follows:
Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at the earth
surface without change of direction, i.e., in line with sun is called beam or direct radiation.
Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules is known as
diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique direction.
Global radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total or global
radiation.
Albedo:
The solar energy reflected back to the space by
 reflection from clouds,
 scattering by atmospheric gases and dust particles
 reflection at the earth’s surface. - Albedo
The reflection from earth’s surface is called the Albedo of the earth - atmosphere system.
The earth reflects back nearly 30% of the total solar radiant energy to the space
SOME DEFINITIONS

AIR MASS (AM):

It is the ratio of the path length of beam radiation through the atmosphere, to the path
length if the sun were at zenith.

Sun at zenith: It is the position of the sun directly overhead

At sea level
 AM = 1, when the sun is at zenith or directly overhead.
 AM = 2 when the angle subtended by zenith and line of sight of the sun is 60°.
 AM = 0 just above the earth’s atmosphere.
At zenith angle θz, the air mass is calculated as (see Figure 3.4):

SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENTS

The solar radiation data bank is required for many purposes, e.g. solar energy appliances,
hydrology and weather forecast
There are several factors on which solar radiation is dependent. They are as follows:
 Latitude and longitude of the geographical location.
 Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water vapor etc.
 Time of the day.
 Time of the year.
 Angle of tilt.
 Collector design.

A few instruments used to measure solar radiation are given below:

 Pyranometer
 Pyrheliometer
 Sunshine recorder
 Reference Cell Model
 Daystar Solar Meter
 Solar Survey Meter
PYRANOMETER

• The pyranometer measures global or diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface.

• The pyranometer designed by the Eppley laboratories, USA, operates on the principle
of thermopile.
• It consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation.
• On the black surface, the hot junctions of a thermopile are attached, while the cold
junctions are placed in a position such that they do not receive the radiation (white
surface)
• Its temperature rises until the rate of heat gain from solar radiation equals the heat loss
by conduction, convection, and radiation.
• An electrical output voltage (0 to 10 mV range) generated by the temperature
difference between the black and the white surfaces indicates the intensity of solar
radiation.
• The output can be obtained on a strip chart or on a digital printout over a period.
This is a measure of global radiation.
• The pyranometer can also measure diffuse sky radiation by providing a shading
ring or disc to shade the direct sun rays.
• The shading ring is provided with an arrangement such that its plane is parallel to the
plane of the sun’s path across the sky.
• Consequently, it always shades the thermopile element from direct sunshine and the
pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation obtained from the sky.
• A continuous record can be obtained either on an electronic chart or on an integrated
digital printout system
Data acquisition system for measurement of solar radiation

 This system does not require an instrument operator to measure the radiation data.
 With a personal computer (PC), the system uses an analog-to-digital conversion
(ADC) card, which serves as a vital interface between the sensor and the PC to obtain
analog data from the sensor.
 The data so received is processed in the PC with an appropriate software
  The radiation falling on the pyranometer generates thermo-electric emf which is fed
into one of the channels of the ADC card provided with the PC.
 The numerical value of the instantaneous voltage in the digital form is stored in a
Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI).
 A printout of the solar flux can be obtained by processing the data

PYRHELIOMETER
  A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation on a surface normal
to the sun’s rays.
 The sensor is a thermopile, and its disc is located at the base of a tube whose axis is
aligned in the direction of the sun’s rays.
 Thus, diffuse radiation is blocked from the sensor surface.
 The instrument is mounted on a motor-driven heliostat which is adjusted every week
to cover changes in the sun’s declination.
 The output of the pyrheliometer can either be recorded on a strip chart recorder or
integrated over a suitable time period.
 The pyrheliometer readings give data for atmospheric turbidity and provide a clearness
index

SUNSHINE RECORDER
 The duration in hours of bright sunshine in a day is measured by a sunshine recorder.
 It essentially consists of glass sphere (about 10 cm in diameter) mounted on its axis
parallel to that of earth, within a spherical section (bowl). The bowl and glass sphere
are arranged in such a way that sun’s rays are focused sharply at a spot on a card held
in a groove in the bowl. The card is prepared from special paper bearing a time scale.
 As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a path along this paper. The length
of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the bright
sunshine.
 Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical segment to take care
of the different seasons of the year.
 The glass sphere is adjusted to focus sun rays to a point on the card strip.
 On a bright sunshine day, the focused image burns a trace on the card.
 Through the day the sun moves across the sky, the image moves along the strip. The
length of the image is a direct measure of the duration of bright sunshine.
 REFERENCE CELL MODEL

DAYSTAR SOLAR METER

SOLAR SURVEY METER

SOLAR ENERGY CAN BE UTILIZED IN TWO TECHNOLOGIES

 Solar Thermal System– collecting the radiant heat and using it in thermal system
 Solar Photovoltaic System – Collecting and converting the solar energy DIRECTLY
to electrical energy

SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS - FEATURES

 Majorly used for water heater, room heating
 Best suited for low grade thermal applications
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
SOLAR Collectors
A solar thermal energy collector is an equipment in which solar energy is collected by
absorbing radiation in an absorber and then transferring to a fluid.
In general, there are two types of collectors:
Flat-plate solar collector (or) Non concentrating type: It has no optical concentrator. Here,
the collector area and the absorber area are numerically the same, the efficiency is low, and
temperatures of the working fluid can be raised only up to 100°C.
Concentrating-type solar collector: Here the area receiving the solar radiation is several
times greater than the absorber area and the efficiency is high. Mirrors and lenses are used
to concentrate the sun’s rays on the absorber, and the fluid temperature can be raised
up to 500°C. For better performance, the collector is mounted on a tracking equipment to
face the sun always with its changing position.
CLASSIFICATION COLLECTORS

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR

 It consists of five major parts as mentioned below:

 A metallic flat absorber plate of high thermal conductivity made of copper, steel, or
aluminum, and having black surface. The thickness of the metal sheet ranges from 0.5
mm to 1 mm.

 Tubes or channels are soldered to the absorber plate. Water flowing through these tubes
takes away the heat from the absorber plate. The diameter of tubes is around 1.25 cm,
while that of the header pipe which leads water in and out of the collector and
distributes it to absorber tubes, is 2.5 cm.

 A transparent toughened glass sheet of 5 mm thickness is provided as the cover plate.

It reduces convection losses through a stagnant air layer between the absorber plate
and the glass.

 Fiber glass insulation of thickness 2.5 cm to 8 cm is provided at the bottom and on the
sides in order to minimize heat loss.

 A container encloses the whole assembly in a box made of metallic sheet or fiber glass
  Simple one
 Diffused radiation can be used
 It has no optical concentrator.
 Here, the collector area and the absorber area are numerically the same,
 efficiency is low,
 temperatures of the working fluid can be raised only up to 100°C
Advantages
 It does not require orientation towards the sun
 It requires a little maintenance
 Flat plate collectors are simpler than concentrating reflectors.
Disadvantages
 The temperature attained by the working fluid is low
 The construction is heavy
 Conduction heat loss is more as the area is large
 Initial installation cost of the collector is more.
SOLAR CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR (FOCUSING TYPE) -
(CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER (CSP) TECHNOLOGIES)
It is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation on the energy
absorbing surface. It is a special collector modified by introducing a reflecting surface
between solar radiation and absorber.
FEATURES
 the area receiving the solar radiation is several times greater than the absorber area
 the efficiency is high.
 Mirrors and lenses are used to concentrate the sun’s rays on the absorber,
 the fluid temperature can be raised up to 500°C.
 For better performance, the collector is mounted on a tracking equipment to face the
sun always with its changing position.
 Mostly works with direct radiation

SOME NEW TERMS THAT WILL BE ENCOUNTERED FOR CSP

 ‘Concentrator’ is for the optical subsystem that projects solar radiation on to the
absorber. The term ‘receiver’ shall be used to represent the sub-system that
includes the absorber, it’s cover and accessories.
 ‘Aperture’ (W) is the opening of the concentrator through which solar radiation
passes.
 ‘Acceptance angle’ (2qa) is the angle across which beam radiation may deviate from
the normal to the aperture plane and then reach the absorber.
 ‘Concentration ratio’ (CR) is the ratio of the effective area of the aperture to the
surface area of the receiver. The value of CR may change from unity (for flat-plate
collectors) to a thousand (for parabolic dish collectors). The CR is used to classify
collectors by their operating temperature range.
Cylindrical parabolic collector
The reflector is in the form of trough with a parabolic cross section.
The basic parts are:
(i) an absorber tube with a selective coating located at the focal axis through which the
liquid to be heated flows,
(ii) a parabolic concentrator,
(iii) a concentric transparent cover.
SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
The operation of a solar thermal power plant is based on obtaining heat from solar
radiation and transferring it to a heat-carrying medium. Generally, it is water. In order to raise
the water temperature to the desired high levels, the maximum solar radiation must be
concentrated at one point. In this way temperatures of 300 ºC to 1000 ºC can be obtained. The
higher the temperature, the greater the thermodynamic performance of the solar thermal
power plant.
The capture and concentration of the solar rays are made by means of mirrors with
automatic orientation that point to a central tower where the fluid is heated, or with smaller
mechanisms of parabolic geometry. The whole of the reflective surface and its orientation
device is called a heliostat.
There are various thermodynamic flows and cycles used in experimental setups. The
cycles used range from the Rankine cycle, (used in nuclear power plants, coal-fired power
plants) to the Brayton cycle (natural gas power plants). Many other varieties such as the
Stirling engine have also been made. The most used cycles are those that combine solar
thermal energy with natural gas.
LOW TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
HIGH TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATOR – (CENTRAL
RECEIVER POWER PLANT)
CENTRAL RECEIVER POWER PLANT
A large solar thermal power plant in the range of 50 MW to 200 MW comes under central
receiver schemes. Such systems are economical in MW range for network connected plants.
The high capacity is possible due to high temperature steam in the central receiver results
high efficiency of plants

COMPONENTS OF CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEM

This system can be subdivided into the following subsystems. They are,
 Heliostats
 Central receiver
 Heat conversion sub system
 Heat storage device
 Towers
Heliostats
Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking system which
ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a certain target point throughout the
day. Heliostats commonly concentrate sunlight by means of a curved surface or an appropriate
orientation of partial areas, so that radiation flux density is increased.

Heliostats consist of
 the reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-reflecting surfaces)
 a sun-tracking system provided with drive motors
 foundations and control electronics.
The individual heliostat’s orientation is commonly calculated on the basis of:
 the current position of the sun
 the spatial position of the heliostats
 the target point.
Heliostats are usually centrally controlled and centrally supplied with electrical energy. As an
alternative, autonomous heliostats have been developed which are controlled locally. The
target value is communicated electronically to the respective drive motors via a
communication line. This information is updated every few seconds
Mirrors
The flat mirror surface can be manufactured by metallization of float glass or flexible
plastic sheets. The mirror must be steerable. The glass mirrors would not be capable of
withstanding the wind load which often occurs in arid lands without any supporting structure.

Central receiver
Receivers of solar tower power stations serve to transform the radiation energy, diverted and
concentrated by the heliostat field, into technical useful energy. The central receiver at the
top of the tower has a heat absorbing surface by which the heat-transport fluid is heated.
Receivers classified according to:
 the applied heat transfer medium – 4 types
o Water/steam receiver
o Salt receiver
o Open volumetric air receiver
o Closed (pressurized) air receivers
 the receiver geometry
o Even type
o Cavity type
o Cylindrical or cone-shaped receivers)

Heat conversion subsystem

Liquid water or other heat transfer medium under pressure enters the receiver. Then the heat
energy is absorbed, and it produces superheated steam. Typical steam conditions might be a
temperature of 500ºC and pressure of 100 atm. The steam is piped to a ground level where it
drives a conventional turbine generator system.

Heat storage device

Short term storage of heat can be provided by fire bricks, ceramic oxides, fused salts and
Sulphur. The choice of a conventional storage material is determined by its energy density,
thermal conductivity, corrosion characteristics, cost and convenience of use as well as by the
operating temperature of working fluid.

Tower
 The height of the tower, on which the receiver is mounted, is also determined by
technical and economic optimization.
 Higher towers are generally more favorable, since bigger and denser heliostat fields
presenting lower shading losses may be applied.
  However, this advantage is counteracted by the high requirements in terms of tracking
precision placed on the individual heliostats, tower and piping costs as well as pumping
and heat losses.
 Common towers have a height of 80 to 100 m.
 Lattice as well as concrete towers are applied

Working of Central Receiver System

 To collect large amounts of heat energy at one point, the ‘Central Receiver Concept’
is followed.
 Solar radiation is reflected from a field of heliostats (an array of mirrors) to a centrally
located receiver on a tower
 Mirrors in the heliostats tracking the course of the sun in two axes
 With a central receiver optical system, a large number of small mirrors are installed,
each steerable to have an image at the absorber on the central receiver.
 A curvature is provided to the mirrors so as to focus the sunlight in addition to directing
it to the tower
 Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation onto a receiver, centrally positioned
on a tower.
 In the receiver, radiation energy is converted into heat and transferred to a heat transfer
medium (e.g. air, liquid salt, water/steam).

 The heat transfer medium absorbs heat to produce steam which operates a Rankine
cycle turbo generator to generate electrical energy.
 To ensure constant parameters and a constant flow of the working medium also at times
of varying solar radiation, either a heat storage can be incorporated into the system or
additional firing using e.g. fossil fuels (like natural gas) or renewable energy (like
biofuels) can be used.
Advantages
 Very high temperature is obtained. High temperature is suitable for density
generation using conventional methods such as a steam turbine.
  It provides good efficiency. By concentrating the sunlight, this system can get better
efficiency than simple solar cells.
 A large area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using
expensive solar cells.
 Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via, optical fiber cable.
Disadvantages
 Concentrated collector systems required dual axis sun tracking to maintain the sunlight
focus on the collector.
 Inability to provide power in diffused light condition. Solar cells are able to provide
some output even if the sky becomes a little bit cloudy but power output from
concentrating systems drop drastically in cloudy conditions as the diffused light cannot
be concentrated passively.

SOLAR PONDS
 The concept of solar pond was derived from the natural lakes where the temperature
rises (of the order of 45°C) towards the bottom.
 It happens due to natural salt gradient in these lakes where water at the bottom is
denser.
 In salt concentration lakes, convection does not occur and heat loss from hot water
takes place only by conduction. This technique is utilized for collecting and storing
solar energy.
 An artificially designed pond filled with salty water maintaining a definite
concentration gradient is called a ‘Solar Pond’.

Zones of Solar Ponds

As a result of continuous movement and mixing of salty water at the top and bottom,
the solar pond can have three zones.
 Surface Convective Zone (SCZ) or Upper Convective Zone (UCZ) having a
thickness of about 10 cm–20 cm with a low uniform concentration at nearly the
ambient air temperature.
 Non-Convective Zone (NCZ) occupying more than half the depth of the pond. It
serves as an insulting layer from heat losses in the upward direction.
 Lower Convective Zone (LCZ) having thickness nearly equal to NCZ. This zone is
characterized by constant temperature and concentration. It operates as the major
heat-collector and as the thermal storage medium.
A schematic diagram of a solar pond is shown in Figure 5.12.
The top layers remain at ambient temperature while the bottom layer attains a maximum
steady-state temperature of about 60°C–85°C

Solar Pond Power Plants

The water absorbs the incident direct and diffuse radiation, same as the absorber of a
conventional solar collector, and is heated up.
The technically adjusted salt concentration prevents natural convection and the resulting heat
loss at the surface due to evaporation, convection, and radiation.
Water can thus be withdrawn from the storage zone at the bottom at an approximate
temperature of 80 – 90°C.

Basically, there are two methods to withdraw heat from a solar pond:
 The working fluid of the thermal engine flows through tube bundle heat exchangers
installed within the storage zone of the solar pond and is thereby heated up.
  The hot brine can also be pumped from the storage zone (LCZ) by means of an intake
evaporator/ diffuser, subsequently be transmitted to the working fluid of the thermal
engine and eventually be re-supplied to greater depths of the pond by another diffuser,
once the brine has cooled down.
The technical approach allows adjusting the position of the intake diffuser to the depth of the
highest temperature.
This heat extracted can subsequently be used for power generation. To convert solar thermal
energy into mechanical and afterwards in electrical energy, usually Organic Rankine
Cycles (ORC) processes are applied.

ADVANTAGES
 One benefit of using these ponds is that they have an extremely large thermal mass.
 Since these ponds can store heat energy very well, they can generate electricity during
the day when the Sun is shining as well as at night.
DISADVANTAGES
 Despite being a source of energy, there are numerous thermodynamic limitations as
the result of the relatively low temperatures achieved in these ponds.
 the solar-to-electricity conversion is inefficient – generally less than 2%.
 large amounts of fresh water are necessary to maintain the right salt concentrations all
through the pond. This is an issue in places where fresh water is hard to come by,
especially in desert environments.
 These ponds also do not work well at high latitudes as the collection surface is
horizontal and cannot be tilted to collect more sunlight.

APPLICATIONS
 The heat from solar ponds can be used in a variety of different ways.
 They are ideal for use in heating and cooling buildings as they can maintain a fairly a
stable temperature.
  These ponds can also be used to generate electricity either by driving a thermo-electric
device or some Organic Rankine engine cycle - simply a turbine powered by
evaporating a fluid (in this case a fluid with a lower boiling point).
 Finally, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low cost of this
thermal energy can be used to remove the salt from water for drinking or irrigation
purposes.

SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM

 Solar energy is available only during the sunshine hours.

 Consumer energy demands follow their own time pattern, and the solar energy does
not fully match the demand.

 As a result, energy storage is a must to meet the consumer requirement.

 There are three important methods for storing solar thermal energy.
SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE
 Heating a liquid or a solid which does not change phase comes under this category.
 The heat that causes the change in temperature in an object is called sensible heat.
 The quantity of heat stored is proportional to the temperature rise of the material.
 If T1 and T2 represent the lower and higher temperature, V the volume and r the density
of the storage material, and cp the specific heat, the energy stored Q is given by

 For a sensible heat storage system, energy is stored by heating a liquid or a solid.
 Materials that are used in such a system include
 liquids like water,
 inorganic molten salts
 solids like rock, gravel and refractories.
 The choice of the material used depends on the temperature level of its utilization.
 Water is used for temperature below 100°C whereas refractory bricks can be
used for temperature up to 1000°C

LATENT HEAT STORAGE - THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM WITH

PCM - (Phase Change Materials - PCM)

 All pure substances are able to change the state by addition and removal of heat
 In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts, and heat is extracted from the
material when it freezes.
 Heat can also be stored when a liquid changes to gaseous state, but as the volume
change is large, such a system is not economical
 A few such materials which melt on heating have been experimented for their
suitability for solar energy applications.
  These are organic materials like paraffin wax and fatty acids; hydrated salts such as
calcium chloride hexo hydrate and sodium sulphate deca hydrate; and inorganic
materials like ice (H2O), sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

Various phase changes that can occur are:

 solid-solid (lattice change)
 solid-gas
 solid-liquid
 liquid-gas
Solid-gas and liquid-gas transformations are not employed in spite of large latent heats as
large changes in volume make the system complex and impracticable. In solid-solid transition,
heat is stored as the material is transformed from one crystalline form to another. These
transitions involve small volume changes; however, most of them have small latent heats.
For phase-change storage media, salt hydrates called Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4.10H2O) are
preferred. The solid-liquid transformations include storage in salt hydrates. Certain inorganic
salts, which are soluble in water and form crystalline salt hydrates, are employed. Let an
inorganic salt, which is soluble in water represented by X(Y) n. The crystalline salt hydrate
is symbolized by X(Y) n. mH2O. On heating up to transition temperature, the hydrate crystals
release water of crystallization and the solid remainder (anhydrous salt) dissolves in the
released water as following reaction takes place:

Thermochemical Storage
 With a thermochemical storage system, solar heat energy can start an endothermic
chemical reaction and new products of reactions remain intact.
 To extract energy, a reverse exothermic reaction is allowed to take place. Actually, the
thermochemical thermal energy is the binding energy of reversible chemical reactions.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Solar PV system convert solar energy directly into electrical energy. The basic
conversion device is known as solar photovoltaic cell. Energy conversion device which
are used to convert into electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect are called solar cell.
When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons of light ray
are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free
electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to
photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic cell/ Solar cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect
is utilized to produce electricity from light energy.

Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing the
photovoltaic cell

SOLAR CELL

Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy
is extracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process.
The working of a solar cell solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect hence a solar cell
also known as photovoltaic cell.

A solar cell is basically a semiconductor device. The solar cell produces electricity while
light strikes on it and the voltage or potential difference established across the terminals
of the cell is fixed to 0.5 volt.

This voltage is nearly independent of intensity of incident light whereas the current
capacity of cell is nearly proportional to the intensity of incident light as well as the area
that exposed to the light.

Each of the solar cells has one positive and one negative terminal like all other type of
battery cells. A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle of these two contacts.

WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

 While sunlight falling on the cell some photons of the light are absorbed by solar cell.
Some of the absorbed photons will have energy greater than the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band in the semiconductor crystal. Hence, one valence
electron gets energy from one photon and becomes excited and jumps out from the bond
and creates one electron-hole pair. These electrons and holes of e-h pairs are called light
generated electrons and holes. The light-generated electrons near the p-n junction are
migrated to n-type side of the junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the
junction. Similarly, the light-generated holes created near the junction are migrated to p -
type side of the junction due to same electrostatic force. In this way a potential difference
 is established between two sides of the cell and if these two sides are connected by an
external circuit current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar
cell.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

PARAMETERS OF A SOLAR OR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL FROM
CHARACTERISITICS

Let us discuss about different parameters of a solar or photovoltaic cell upon which the rating
of a solar panel depends. During choosing a particular solar cell for specific project it is
essential to know the ratings of a solar panel. These parameters tell us how efficiently a solar
cell can convert the light to electricity
Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell
The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own
consumption (I SC ). It is measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell (i.e) (V=0)
Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell
It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is
connected to the cell (i.e) (I=0). This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing
and temperature but not fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface. Normally
open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is normally denoted by VOC.
Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell
The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard test condition. V-I
characteristics of a solar cell maximum power will occur at the bend point of the characteristic
curve. It is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Pm.
Current and Voltage at Maximum Power Point
The current and voltage at which maximum power (Pm) occurs. Current at maximum power
point is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Imp and voltage at maximum power
point is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Vmp.

Fill Factor of Solar Cell

The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point (Imp x Vmp =
Pm) to the product of short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell.

Fill factor indicates the quality of the cell

EFFICIENCY
Efficiency of a cell is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the radiation
power input to the cell and it is expressed in percentage. It is considered that the radiation
power on the earth is about 1000 watt/square metre. Hence if the exposed surface area of the
cell is A then total radiation power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence the efficiency of
a solar cell may be expressed as
 Typical efficiencies range from 14 % to 18 % for a monocrystalline silicon PV cell.
Some manufacturers claim efficiencies greater than 18 %.
 Several factors determine the efficiency of a PV cell :
 The type of cell,
 the reflectance efficiency of the cell’s surface,
 the thermodynamic efficiency limit,
 the quantum efficiency,
 the maximum power point,
 internal resistances
SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL, ARRAY
 Solar cells are fixed on a board and connected in series and parallel combinations to
provide the required voltage and power to form a PV module
 The size of an individual cell varies from 10 cm2 to 100 cm2
 A photovoltaic module is made of multiple interconnected solar cell.A solar PV panel
is collection of modules physically and electrically grouped together on a support
 structure. These modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the
voltage/current rating. A module contains about 20 cells to 40 cells
 Many modules make up a solar panel and many solar panels make up a solar array

SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS OF A SOLAR CELL

Series combination of PV cells

When two or more solar cells are connected in series then it is called a series combination of
solar cells. The connection of solar cells in series can be done by connecting the positive
terminal of the panel to the negative terminal of the second panel. In this connection, the
output current of the solar cells is the same but their input voltage becomes twice.
For example : If we connect four solar panels in a series combination then each solar panel
rated at 12 V and 5 amps, then the total array of panels would be 48 volts at 5 amps
Parallel Combination of PV Cells
When two or more solar cells are connected in parallel then it is called a parallel combination
of solar cells. The connection of solar cells in parallel can be done by connecting all the
positive terminals of the panels jointly whereas all the negative terminals of the panels jointly.
In this parallel connection, the output current of the solar cells is twice but their input voltage
is the same.
For example : If we connect four solar panels in a parallel combination then each solar panel
rated at 12 V as well as 5 amps, then the total array of panels would be 12 volts at 20 amps
Series-Parallel Combination of PV Cells
In series to the parallel combination of solar cells, both the magnitudes of the current as well
as voltage increases. Thus, these panels are designed with the series and parallel connection
of the cells

TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

AMORPHOUS SILICON SOLAR CELL
Cadmium sulphide cadmium telluride cells
These cells are also produced using thin film technology. The cells require very less material.
In thin film technology, the semiconductor (cadmium telluride) is vapourised and its film (10
μm) is deposited on a thin layer (12 μm) of cadmium sulphide. A barrier layer of copper
sulphide is then deposited on top of the CdS-CdTe cell. The cell consists of n-type CdS and
p-type CdTe. The cell has efficiency of 10% and it has no deterioration during outside
applications.
Copper indium diselenide
It is a thin film polycrystalline cell made from copper indium diselenide. It has an efficiency
of about 14%. Its properties remain stable. It has an easier manufacturing process.
Gallium arsenide
The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) grown on a suitable
substrate. The efficiency of the cell is about 20%, but it has high cost of production. The cell
has high performance in extraterrestrial applications.
MPPT ALGORITHMS
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Algorithms
Maximum power point tracking is a technique used commonly with wind turbines and
photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions

The output of the solar module is a function of solar irradiance and temperature. Maximum
power point is an operating point at which maximum power can be extracted from the system.
Usually represented as MPP.

 The Maximum Power Point (MPP) of the PV panels depends on environmental and
operational conditions such as irradiation, temperature, load impedance, sunlight
spectrum and impurities of the panel.
 MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is an algorithm which continuously tracks
the MPP of the PV panels at all irradiations and temperatures
 It is included controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV
module under certain conditions
 Generally, MPPT is installed in between PV system and load. For the implementation
of MPPT technique, a DC-DC converter interface is introduced between PV panel and
load.
Several (offline, online) algorithms were proposed to accomplish MPPT controller. Published
MPPT methods include:

(1) Perturb and Observe (PAO or P&O)

(2) Incremental Conductance Technique (INC )
(3) Constant Reference Voltage/Current.

Perturb and Observe (PAO or P&O):

Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method, also known as perturbation method is a type of MPPT

algorithm. The concept behind the “perturb and observe” method is to modify the operating
voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until you obtain maximum power from it. It is
often referred to as hill climbing method.

The algorithm depends on the fact that on the left side of the MPP, the curve is rising (dP/dV
> 0) while on the right side of the MPP the curve is falling (dP/dV < 0). Perturb and observe
is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation.
Drawback:
 One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that under steady
state operation, the output power oscillates around the maximum power point.
 This algorithm can track wrongly under rapidly varying irradiation conditions.

Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT):

Incremental conductance (INC) method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method utilizes
the incremental conductance (dI/dV) of the photovoltaic array to compute the sign of the
change in power with respect to voltage (dP/dV). INC method provides rapid MPP tracking
even in rapidly changing irradiation conditions with higher accuracy than the Perturb and
observe method
Advantages:
 This technique has an advantage over the perturb and observe method because it can
stop and determine when the Maximum Power Point is reached without having to
oscillate around this value.
 It can perform Maximum Power Point Tracking under rapidly varying irradiation
conditions with higher accuracy than the perturb and observe method.
Drawback:
 It can produce oscillations and can perform erratically under rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions.
 The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling frequency
resulting from the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to the P&O method.

Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method

The OCV method is the simplest indirect method and calculates the operating point of
PV array by comparing the measured PV voltage (VPV) with reference PV voltage (VREF).
This method makes use of the fact that the ratio of maximum power point voltage and the
open circuit voltage is 0.76. It is the simplest MPPT control method. OCV method assumes
that temperature variations are constant. The flowchart of OCV MPPT method is shown in
Figure 3.3
Drawback:
 The current from the photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily to measure
the open circuit voltage and then afterwards set to 76% of the measured voltage.
 Energy is wasted during the time the current is set to zero.
 The approximation setting the voltage to 76% of the measured voltage is not accurate.

Solar PV Power Generation

Components other than PV module are collectively known as Balance of System (BOS) which
includes storage batteries, an electronic charge controller, and an inverter. Storage batteries
with charge regulators are provided for back-up power supply during periods of cloudy day
and during nights. Batteries are charged during the day and supply power to loads

A basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid. It contains of the following
elements,
 Solar array
 Blocking diode
 Battery storage
 Inverter/converter
 switches and circuit breakers.
Solar array
Solar array is large or small element which converts the isolation into useful DC electrical
power.
Blocking diode
It lets the array generated power flow only towards the battery or grid. Without a blocking,
the battery would discharge back through the solar array at the time of no isolation.
Battery storage
It is used to store the solar energy.
Inverter/ converter
It converts the battery bus-voltage to AC of frequency and phase to match to integrate with
the utility grid. It contains a suitable output step up transformer and power correction circuits.
Switches and circuit breakers
It permits isolating parts of the system as the battery

TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

Solar PV systems are broadly classified into three categories,
 Standalone Power system
 Central Power system or Grid connected system
 Hybrid system.
 Solar Power Plant using a Satellite Solar energy

Standalone Power System

 Located near the load centres
 Dedicated to meet specific set of loads or all electrical loads of remote villages/
community
 Energy storage is essential part
A standalone photovoltaic system requires storage to meet the energy demand during period
of low solar irradiation and night time. The provision of cost-effective electrical energy
storage remains one of the major challenges for the development on improved PV power
systems. Typically , lead acid batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of
energy storage. Their reasonable cost and general availability have resulted the widespread
application of lead-acid batteries for remote are power supplies despite their limited lifetime
compared to other system components. An inverter is used to convert DC power produced by
the modules into alternating current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power
lights, motors and other loads.

Charge controllers are used to regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from being
excessively charged and discharged. Blocking diodes in series with PV modules are used to
prevent the batteries from being discharged through PV cells at night where there is no sun
available to generate energy. Those blocking diodes also protect the battery from short circuit.
In a solar power system consisting of more than one string connected in parallel if a short-
circuit occurs in one of the strings and the blocking diode prevents the other PV strings from
discharged through the short-circuited string. The output of the array after converting to AC
is fed to loads and the excess of load requirement is used to charge the battery. When the sun
is not available, the battery supplies the load through the inverter

Grid Connected System

In this system, PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters without battery storage
and all excess power is fed to grid. Also during the absence of inadequate sunshine, power is
maintained from grid and thus, the battery is eliminated. The grid interactive inverter must be
synchronized with grid in terms of voltage and frequency. DC power is first converted to AC
by an inverter. PV module along with inverters as an integrator component in the junction
box of the module. These are proposed in few MW range to meet daytime peak lead only.
The capital cost of the system is slightly high for their commercial exploitation.
 It is connected to grid through two way metering system
 During day times, When surplus energy is available, PV System supplies the grid
 During peak hours and night times, energy shortage is met by grid

Hybrid System
Conventional power systems used in remote area often based on manually controlled diesel
generators operating continuously or for a few hours. Extended operation of diesel generators
at low load levels significantly increase maintenance cost and reduce their useful life.
Renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to remote area power systems using
diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power economically and
efficiently.

Solar Power Plant using a Satellite Solar energy

  Solar energy is a huge energy resource but difficult to utilise due to low density of the
energy flux which is further decreased by atmospheric absorption and rotation of the
earth.
 This constraint created an idea of a solar-powered generating satellite in space.
 It was proposed that solar-powered PV devices be arrayed in space as a circling
satellite in a geo-synchronous orbit (36000 km away from the earth)
 Solar energy will then be received 24 hours a day and the efficiency of the system will
not be hampered on account of the cloud cover over the earth.
 The schematic diagram is shown in Figure 6.17.
 The power output from the solar array is converted to a narrow microwave beam (about
10 cm wavelength) by a magnetron, and transmitted to the earth to be received by an
antenna
 It is then reconverted into commercial frequency electric power.
 The microwave beam sent from the satellite plant to the earth does not constitute any
threat either to space, aircraft, or birds.
 At present such schemes are in the planning stage and yet to be implemented as a long-
term solution to the energy shortage problem

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

The main applications of solar thermal energy are as follows
 Generation of electricity.
 Heat the water in the outdoor or indoor pools.
 Under floor heating or radiators.
 Obtaining sanitary hot water. It is used to heat domestic water for showering, washing
dishes, washing hands, etc. These systems are regularly used to heat residential water
in the summer period. During the winter period this system begins to fulfill a task of
supporting the main heat system
 Operating refrigeration appliances. Thermal solar energy can also be used for cooling
buildings (air conditioning) or in industrial processes (cooling).
  Agricultural product dryers.
 Industrial use, for example, in solar ovens.
 Desalination using solar energy.

SOLAR WATER PUMPS

There are more than 10,000 solar powered water pumps in use in the world today. They
are widely used on farms to supply water to livestock. In developing countries, they are used
extensively to pump water from wells and rivers to villages for domestic consumption and
irrigation of crops.
In solar water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar electricity
instead of conventional electricity drawn from utility grid
Solar Pumping Systems – solar thermal technology
 Water pumps can be driven directly by solar heated water or fluid which operates either
a heat engine or a turbine. For low heads, the pump driven by vapour of a low-boiling point
liquid heated by a flat-plate collector is used as shown in Figure 5.13. For larger heads, a
parabolic trough concentrator or a parabolic bowl concentrator is installed to drive a steam
turbine.

Solar flat-plate collector arrays are installed to heat water or an organic fluid. Hot fluid
then flows to a mixing tank/storage tank and then to a heat exchanger to convert the working
fluid of the heat engine from liquid to vapour. It may be noted that R-115 is an acceptable
working fluid as it gives high cycle efficiency besides its low cost. Hot transport fluid or water
is fed again into the collector circuit by a circulating pump. With heat engine cycle, discharged
vapour from the turbine flows into the condenser where the vapour gets condensed. Working
liquid is fed into the heat exchanger by a feed pump to complete the cycle. Pumped water is
used as a coolant in the turbine condenser. A higher temperature in heat exchanger or boiler,
provides a high engine efficiency. An optimum range of operating temperature is used for a
solar pumping system to attain maximum efficiency. Practically, energy efficiency, i.e., the
percentage of solar energy collected with the quantity converted into useful work, is about
14%.

Solar pumps with Photovoltaic cells

A solar photovoltaic water pumping system consists of a photovoltaic array mounted on a
stand and a motor-pump set compatible with the photovoltaic array (Fig 6.12). It converts the
solar energy into electricity, which is used for running the motor pump set. The pumping
system draws water from the open well, bore well, stream, pond, canal, etc.
 Individual farmers typically use an 1800 watt PV array to operate a 2 hp dc motor
pumpset as shown in Figure 6.12.
 It can give water discharge of 140,000 litres per day from a depth up to 7 metres,
sufficient to irrigate 5–8 acres of land holding several crops
Solar Vehicle

It is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually,

photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun’s energy directly into electric
energy. The term “solar vehicle” usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or part
of a vehicle’s propulsion. Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications
or controls or other auxiliary functions.

Solar Lanterns
When the Petromax-type solar lantern is plugged into a solar photovoltaic cell, its
rechargeable battery stores the electricity produced so that it can be used to light home or
power a radio. When fully charged, the lantern will give light for 4 to 5 hr, and the radio will
run for 15 hr. If both are used simultaneously, the listening and lamp time will be shorter.
Solar Panels on Spacecraft

Spacecraft operating in the inner solar system usually rely on the use of photovoltaic solar
panels to derive electricity from sunlight. In the outer solar system, where the sunlight is too
weak to produce sufficient power, radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) are used as a
power source.

Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection is a method of protecting metal structures from corrosion. It is applicable
to bridges, pipelines, buildings, tanks, wells, and railway lines. To achieve cathodic
protection, a small negative voltage is applied to the metal structure, and this prevents it from
oxidizing or rusting. The positive terminal of the source is connected to a sacrificial anode
that is generally a piece of scrap metal, which corrodes instead of the structure. Photovoltaic
solar cells are often used in remote locations to provide this voltage.

Rural Electrification

Storage batteries are widely used in remote areas to provide low-voltage electrical power for
lighting and communications as well as for vehicles. A photovoltaic-powered battery
charging system usually consists of a small solar cell array and a charge controller. These
systems are widely used in rural electrification projects in developing countries.

Water Treatment Systems

In remote areas, electric power is often used to disinfect or purify drinking water. Photovoltaic
cells are used to power a strong ultraviolet light that can be used to kill bacteria in drinking
water. This can be combined with a solar powered water pumping system. Desalination of
brackish water can be achieved via PV-powered reverse osmosis systems.