OEE351

Coal :It is a hard, black coloured substance made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
sulphur.The major types of coal are- anthracite, bituminous and lignite. Anthracite has a higher carbon
concentration and is the hardest type of coal. Lignite has a high concentration of oxygen and hydrogen
but a low concentration of carbon. Bituminous is a moderate form of coal. Coal is processed
industrially to obtain derivatives like coke, coal tar, and coal gas

Formation of coal : The process of formation of coal is known as carbonization. The dense forest present
in the low-lying wetland got buried in the earth millions of years ago. Soil kept depositing over them and
they got compressed. As they went deeper and deeper, they faced high temperature and pressure. As a
result, the substances slowly got converted into coal.

Uses of Coal
1. Coal was used to produce steam in the railway engines initially.

2. It is used to cook food.

3. It is used to generate electricity in thermal plants.

4. It is used in industries as fuel.

Coal Mines in the world

• North Antelope Rochelle coal mine, US

• Haerwusu coal mine, China

• Hei Dai Gou coal mine, China

• Raspadskaya coal mine, Russia

• Moatize coal mine, Mozambique

• Black Thunder coal mine, US

• Peak Downs coal mine, Australia

• Mt Arthur coal mine, Australia

• Goonyella Riverside coal mine, Australia

• Saraji coal mine, Australia

Oil (liquid fossil fuel) :Oil is a liquid fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of micro-organisms.
After millions of years the deposits end up in rock and sediment where oil is trapped in small spaces. It can
be extracted by large drilling platforms. Oil is the most widely used fossil fuel. Crude oil consists of
many different organic compounds which are transformed to products in a refining process.

Petroleum: It is a clear, oily liquid, usually green or black in colour. It has a very strange smell and is
a mixture of petroleum gas, diesel, paraffin wax, petrol, lubricating oil, etc. It is also termed as "Black
Gold" because of its wide range of uses in many industries.

Formation of petroleum: Dead animals and plants are deposited for millions of years. They got
compressed by the layers of sand and clay. Their encounter with high temperature and pressure
converts them into petroleum. The petroleum is separated from the crude oil by a series of processes in
a refinery. This is known as petroleum refining.
Uses of Petroleum
I. It is used to power internal combustion engines in the form of petrol.

2. It is used in roofing, road pavements, and as a water repellent.

3. It is used in manufacturing detergents, plastics, fibers, polyethene, etc.

Natural Gas: It is a clean and non-toxic fossil fuel. It is colourless and odorless and can be easily transferred
through pipelines. It is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) under high pressure. It is less polluting
and less expensive fossil fuel. Methane is the most important natural gas.

Formation of Natural Gas : Millions to hundreds of millions of years ago and over long periods of
time, the remains of plants and animals (such as diatoms) built up in thick layers on the earth's surface and
ocean floors, sometimes mixed with sand, silt, and calcium carbonate. Over time, these layers were
buried under sand, silt, and rock. Pressure and heat changed some of this carbon and hydrogen- rich
material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas.

Sealed off in an oxygen-free environment and exposed to increasing amounts of heat and pressure, the
organic matter undergo a thermal breakdown process that converted it into hydrocarbons. The lightest
of these hydrocarbons exist in the gaseous state under normal conditions and are known collectively as
natural gas. In its pure form, natural gas is a colorless, odorless gas composed primarily of methane

Uses of Natural gas

I. Compressed Natural Gas is used for generating power.

2. It is used as fuels in automobiles.

3. It can be used at homes for cooking.

4. It is used as a starting material in chemicals and fertilizers.

Advantages of Fossil Fuels

I. Fossil fuels can generate a large amount of electricity at a single location.

2. They can be found very easily.

3. They are cost effective.

4. Transportation of oil and gas can be done easily through pipelines.

5. They have become safer over time.

6. Despite being a finite resource, it is available in plenty.

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

1. Fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide when burnt which is a major greenhouse gas and the primary
source of pollution. This has contributed to global warming.

2. They are a non-renewable resource, i.e., once used they cannot be replaced.

3. Combustion of fossil fuels makes the environment more acidic. This has led to unpredictable
and negative changes in the environment.
 4. Harvesting of fossil fuels also causes fatal diseases among the people. For eg., the coal miners often
suffer from Black Lung Disease. The natural gas drillers are constantly exposed to chemicals and
silica which is dangerous for their health.

Effects of fossil fuels on the environment

I.Carbon fuels such as wood, coal, petroleum release unburnt carbon particles in the environment.
These particles are very dangerous pollutants and cause respiratory diseases for example asthma.

2. When fuels are incompletely burnt, they release carbon monoxide gas into the atmosphere. This gas
is very dangerous as it is poisonous in nature. If we burn coal in a closed room, then the person
sleeping in that room will be killed by the action of carbon monoxide.

3.The combustion of fossil fuels also releases a large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide is a greenhouse gas which is responsible for global warming. Global warming is a rise in the
overall temperature of earth's surface. This leads to melting of polar caps and rise in the sea level
and further results in flooding of coastal regions.

4.Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas. This gas is extremely corrosive and suffocating
in nature. Petrol gives off oxides of nitrogen. The oxides of sulfur and nitrogen get dissolved in
rainwater and form acids. This is known as acid rain. This water is very harmful to plants, animals, and
various monuments.

Consequences of fossil fuel use

Land degradation :Unearthing, processing, and moving underground oil, gas, and coal deposits take
an enormous toll on our landscapes and ecosystems. The fossil fuel industry leases vast stretches of
land for infrastructure such as wells, pipelines, access roads, as well as facilities for processing, waste
storage, and waste disposal.

In the case of strip mining, entire swaths of terrain-including forests and whole mountaintops-are
scraped and blasted away to expose underground coal or oil. Even after operations cease, the nutrient-
leached land will never return to what it once was.As a result, critical wildlife habitat-land crucial
for breeding and migration-ends up fragmented and destroyed. Even animals able to leave can end up
suffering, as they're often forced into less-than-ideal habitat and must compete with existing wildlife
for resources.

Water pollution: Coal, oil, and gas development pose countless threats to our waterways and
groundwater. Coal mining operations wash acid runoff into streams, rivers, and lakes and dump vast
quantities of unwanted rock and soil into streams. Oil spills and leaks
during extraction or transport can pollute drinking water sources and endanger the entire freshwater or
ocean ecosystems.

Fracking (injecting liquid at high pressure into subterranean rocks, boreholes, etc. so as to force open
existing fissures and extract oil or gas) and its toxic fluids have also been found to contaminate
drinking water. Drilling, fracking, and mining operations generate enormous volumes of wastewater, which
can be laden with heavy metals, radioactive materials, and other pollutants. Industries store this waste in
open-air pits or underground wells that can leak or overflow into waterways and contaminate
aquifers with pollutants linked to cancer, birth defects, neurological damage, and much more.

Emissions: Fossil fuels emit harmful air pollutants long before they're burned, and we are exposed
daily to toxic air pollution from active oil and gas wells and from transport and processing facilities.
These include benzene (linked to childhood leukemia and blood disorders) and formaldehyde (a
cancer-causing chemical).

A booming fracking industry will bring that pollution to more backyards, despite mounting evidence
of the practice's serious health impacts. Mining operations are no better, especially for the miners
themselves, generating toxic airborne particulate matter. Strip mining-particularly in places such as
Canada's boreal forest-can release giant carbon stores held naturally in the wild.

Burning Fossil Fuels and Global warming pollution: When we burn oil, coal, and gas, we don't just
meet our energy needs-we drive the current global warming crisis as well. Fossil fuels produce large
quantities of carbon dioxide when burned. Carbon emissions trap heat in the atmosphere and lead
to climate change. Burning of fossil fuels, particularly for the power and transportation sectors,
accounts for about three-quarters of our carbon emissions.

Other forms of air pollution: Fossil fuels emit more than just carbon dioxide when burned. Coal-
fired power plants generate dangerous mercury emissions, sulphur dioxide emissions (which contribute to
acid rain) and the vast majority of soot (particulate matter) in our air. Fossil fuel-powered cars, trucks,
and boats are the main contributors of poisonous carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide, which produces
smog (and respiratory illnesses) on hot days.

Ocean acidification: When we burn oil, coal, and gas, we change the ocean's basic chemistry, making
it more acidic. Our seas absorb as much as a quarter of all man-made carbon emissions. Since the start
of the Industrial Revolution (and our coal-burning ways), the ocean has become 30 percent more
acidic. As the acidity in our waters goes up, the amount of calcium carbonate-a substance used by
oysters, lobsters, and countless other marine organisms to form shells-goes down. This can slow
growth rates, weaken shells, and imperil entire food chains. Ocean acidification impacts coastal
communities as well, which hits the industry badly and lose of thousands of jobs.

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and continually replenished either
at the same rate or faster than the rate at which they are being used up by humans more or less indefinitely
such as the sun, wind, rain, tides, biomass and geothermal energy.

Green energy, alternative energy and sustainable energy are the other synonyms sometimes used to describe
the renewable energy that is converted into either electricity, heat or mechanical power for use in
homes or in industries by clean, harmless and non-polluting methods

Importance of renewable sources of energy:

Today, the world still heavily relies on fossil fuels and even continues subsidising them. Meanwhile,
the pollution they cause - from climate-damaging greenhouse gases to health-endangering particles -
has reached record levels.

Since 2011, renewable energy is growing faster than all other energy forms and this keeps growing.

1. All energy sources have an impact on our environment. Renewable energy is no exception to
the rule, and each source has its own trade-offs.
2. The advantages of RE sources over the devastating impacts of fossil fuels are undeniable: from
the reduction of water and land use, less air and water pollution, less wildlife and habitat loss,
to no or lower greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, their local and decentralised character as well
as technology development generate important benefits for the economy and people.
 3. Renewables are on track to become a cheaper source of energy than fossil fuels, which is
spurring a boom in clean energy development and jobs.
4. Higher levels of renewables can be integrated into our existing grid, though care must be taken
to site and build renewable energy responsibly.

1. Renewable energy emits no or low greenhouse gases. That's good for the climate: The combustion
of fossil fuels for energy results in a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to
global warming. Most sources of renewable energy result in little to no emissions, even when considering
the full life cycle of the technologies.

2. Renewable energy emits no or low air pollutants. That's better for our health: Worldwide increase
in fossil fuel-based road transport, industrial activity, and power generation and open burning of waste
in many cities contributes to elevated levels of air pollution. In many developing countries, the use of
charcoal and fuelwood for heating and cooking also contributes to poor indoor air quality. Particles and
other air pollutants from fossil fuels literally asphyxiate cities. "Instead of depleting precious resources
and polluting the environment, renewable energy meets the objectives of a circular economy and is a strong
motor for social and economic development"

3. Renewable energy comes with low costs. That's good for keeping energy prices at affordable
levels: Geopolitical conflicts and confusions often come with increasing energy prices and limited
access to resources. Since renewable energy is produced locally, it is less affected by geopolitical crisis
or price spikes or sudden disruptions in the supply chain.

4. Renewable energy creates jobs. That's good for the local community: The largest part of renewable
energy investments is spent on materials and workmanship to build and maintain the facilities, rather
than on costly energy imports. Renewable energy investments are usually spent within the continent,
frequently in the same country, and often in the same town. This means the money citizens pay on
their energy bill stays home to create jobs and fuel the local economy.

5. Renewable energy makes the energy system resilient. That's important to prevent power
shortages: Renewables make urban energy infrastructures more independent from remote sources and
grids. Businesses and industry invest in renewable energy to avoid disruptions, including resilience to
weather-related impacts of climate change.

6. Renewable energy is accessible to all. That's good for development: In many parts of the world,
renewables represent the lowest-cost source of new power generation technology, and costs continue
to decline. Especially for cities in the developing world, renewable energy is the only way to expand energy
access to all inhabitants, particularly those living in urban slums and informal settlements and in
suburban and peri-urban areas.

7. Renewable energy is secure. That's good for stability: Evolving energy markets and geopolitical
uncertainty have moved energy security and energy infrastructure resilience to the forefront of many
national energy strategies. Security of supply is a serious concern in energy markets worldwide, from
the European Union and the United States to Egypt and India.

8. Key benefits of renewable energy for people and the planet: All energy sources have an impact
on our environment. Renewable energy is no exception to the rule, and each source has its own trade- offs.
However, the advantages over the devastating impacts of fossil fuels are undeniable: from the
reduction of water and land use, less air and water pollution, less wildlife and habitat loss, to no or
lower greenhouse gas emissions.In addition, their local and decentralised character as well as
technology development generate important benefits for the economy and people.
9. Renewable energy emits no or low greenhouse gases. That's good for the climate: The
combustion of fossil fuels for energy results in a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions that
contribute to global warming. Most sources of renewable energy result in little to no emissions, even when
considering the full life cycle of the technologies.

IO.Renewable energy emits no or low air pollutants. That's better for our health: Worldwide increase
in fossil fuel-based road transport, industrial activity, and power generation and open burning of waste
in many cities contributes to elevated levels of air pollution. In many developing countries, the use of
charcoal and fuelwood for heating and cooking also contributes to poor indoor air quality. Particles and
other air pollutants from fossil fuels literally asphyxiate cities.

"Instead of depleting precious resources and polluting the environment, renewable energy meets the
objectives of a circular economy and is a strong motor for social and economic development"

11. Renewable energy comes with low costs. That's good for keeping energy prices at affordable
levels: Geopolitical conflicts and confusions often come with increasing energy prices and limited
access to resources. Since renewable energy is produced locally, it is less affected by geopolitical crisis
or price spikes or sudden disruptions in the supply chain.

12.Renewable energy creates jobs. That's good for the local community.
The largest part of renewable energy investments is spent on materials and workmanship to build and
maintain the facilities, rather than on costly energy imports. Renewable energy investments are usually
spent within the continent, frequently in the same country, and often in the same town. This means the
money citizens pay on their energy bill stays home to create jobs and fuel the local economy.

13. Renewable energy makes the energy system resilient. That's important to prevent power
shortages: Renewables make urban energy infrastructures more independent from remote sources and
grids. Businesses and industry invest in renewable energy to avoid disruptions, including resilience to
weather-related impacts of climate change.

14. Renewable energy is accessible to all. That's good for development.

In many parts of the world, renewables represent the lowest-cost source of new power generation
technology, and costs continue to decline. Especially for cities in the developing world, renewable energy
is the only way to expand energy access to all inhabitants, particularly those living in urban slums and
informal settlements and in suburban and peri-urban areas.

15. Renewable energy is secure. That's good for stability.

Evolving energy markets and geopolitical uncertainty have moved energy security and energy infrastructure
resilience to the forefront of many national energy strategies. Security of supply is a serious concern in
energy markets worldwide, from the European Union and the United States to Egypt and India.

Uses of renewable energy

Renewable energy can be used in all energy sectors: from power production and thermal comfort in
buildings to industry and transport.
Thermal comfort in buildings (heating and cooling). Examples for the use of renewable energy in buildings
are solar thermal water heaters, biomass boilers, heat pumps, and natural cooling. Reducing the energy
demand of buildings and industry is key to transitioning to a renewables-based energy system. Therefore,
an integrated policy approach to renewable energy and energy efficiency is fundamental.

Industrial heating and cooling processes, such as food processing and pulp and paper, can also be
run on renewable energy. Hydrogen produced with renewables electricity can meet the needs of high- heat
intensive industrial processes in the iron and steel and chemical industries.

In transport, renewable energy can be used in the form of sustainable biofuels, high-percentage
biofuel blends and drop-in biofuels. Renewable electricity can power the world's growing fleet of
electric vehicles. Car batteries can be used as storage units so that the electricity can be used at a later
time. Renewable electricity also can be used to produce electro-fuels, such as hydrogen to fuel long-
haul transport, aviation and shipping. A focus on reducing overall fuel demand in the transport sector
is critical and can be accomplished through policies that promote energy efficiency and conservation.
Worldwide, renewables already supplied 29% of electricity in 2020. Yet, outside of electricity, good
news is still hard to come by. Uses of electricity (e.g., lighting and appliances) only represent 17% of
the world's energy needs. About half of the energy is used for heating and cooling, one-third goes to
the transport sector. With far lower shares of renewable energy, these two sectors are both lagging far
behind in decarbonisation.

Types of Renewable Energy

1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy
3. Hydro power
4. Geo-thermal energy
5. Tidal energy
6. Fuel cell
7. Bio-mass
Wind Energy

Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight with wind
power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To harness electricity from wind energy,
turbines are used to drive generators which then feed electricity into the National Grid. Although
domestic or 'off-grid' generation systems are available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind
turbine.
Wind energy is captured using a turbine and is converted into electric power using an electric
alternator. In the wind power system, the transformation of kinetic energy in the wind into electrical energy
takes place in two steps. Firstly, the wind's kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy using a wind
turbine and then this mechanical energy gets converted into electrical energy by means of generator.
Environmental Impacts of Wind Power

a) Land use

Wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those located in hilly areas.However, wind
turbines are spaced approximately 5 to 10 rotor diameters apart. Thus, the turbines themselves and the
surrounding infrastructure (including roads and transmission lines) occupy a large amount of the total
area of a wind facility.Offshore wind facilities, which are currently not in operation, require larger amounts
of space because the turbines and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts. Depending on their
location, such offshore installations may compete with a variety of other ocean activities, such as fishing,
recreational activities, sand and gravel extraction, oil and gas extraction, navigation, and aquaculture.

b) Wildlife and Habitat

The bird and bat deaths from collisions with wind turbines.The National Wind Coordinating Committee
concluded that these impacts are relatively low and do not pose a threat to species populations.

c) Public Health and Community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and community concerns associated with operating
wind turbines. Most of the sound generated by wind turbines is aerodynamic, caused by the movement of
turbine blades through the air. There is also mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall
sound levels depend on turbine design and wind speed. Some people living close to wind facilities
have complained about sound and vibration issues, but these issues do not adversely impact public health.
However, these community concerns are important for wind turbine developers for siting turbines.
Additionally, technological advances, such as minimizing blade surface imperfections and using sound-
absorbent materials can reduce wind turbine noise. Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines
can create an effect known as shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with careful siting,
planting trees or installing window awnings.

d) Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

A global warming emission associated with life-cycle of wind turbine includes materials production,
materials transportation, on-site construction and assembly, operation and maintenance, and
decommissioning and dismantlement. Estimates of total global warming emissions depend on a number
of factors, including wind speed, percent of time the wind is blowing, and the material composition of the
wind turbine. Most estimates of wind turbine life-cycle global warming emissions are between 0.02 and
0.04 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

e) Water Use: There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and cement for wind turbines.
Solar Energy

Sunlight is one of our planet's most abundant and freely available energy resources. The amount of
solar energy that reaches the earth's surface in one hour is more than the planet's total energy requirements
for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable energy source, the amount of solar energy
we can use varies according to the time of day and the season of the year as well as geographical location.
Solar Photo Voltaic Systems: Solar cell is a thin silicon wafer of thickness 0.25mm and can have a
round or square form. Solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or
heat. Photovoltaic(PV) are best method for generating electric power. Solar cells are used to convert energy
from the sun into a flow of electrons by using semiconducting materials- exhibit the photovoltaic
effect.

Photovoltaic Effect: Sunlight composed of photons or particles of solar energy, that contain various
amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. The electrons present
in the valence band absorb energy and being excited, jump to the conduction band and become free. It
generates electrical energy.

Solar Thermal Systems

Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that utilize energy from the Sun to heat a
fluid to a high temperature. This fluid then transfers its heat to water, which then becomes superheated
steam. This steam is then used to rotate turbines in a power plant, and mechanical energy is converted
into electricity by a generator. This type of generation is essentially the same as electricity generation
that uses fossil fuels, but produce steam using sunlight instead of combustion of fossil fuels. These systems
use solar collectors to concentrate the Sun's rays on one point to achieve appropriately high temperatures.
Solar thermal power generation systems use mirrors to collect sunlight and produce steam by solar
heat to drive turbines for generating power.

Environmental Impacts of Solar Power

The scale of the system ranging from small, distributed roof top PV arrays to large utility-scale PV and
CSP (concentrating solar thermal plants) projects also plays a significant role in the level of environmental
impact.

a) Land Use: Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns about
land degradation and habitat loss. A total land area requirement varies depending on the technology, the
topography of the site, and the intensity of the solar resource. Estimates for utility- scale PV systems
range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt, However, land impacts from utility-scale solar systems can be
minimized by siting them at lower-quality locations such as brownfields, abandoned mining land, or
existing transportation and transmission corridors. Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on
homes or commercial buildings, also have minimal land use impact. Unlike wind facilities, there is less
opportunity for solar projects to share land with agricultural uses.

b) Water Use: Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all manufacturing
processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV components. Concentrating solar thermal plants
(CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require water for cooling. Water use depends on the plant design,
plant location, and the type of cooling system. CSP plants that use wet- recirculating technology with
cooling towers withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of electricity produced.
CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have higher levels of water withdrawal, but lower total
water consumption (because water is not lost as steam).
c) Hazardous Materials - The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials,
most of which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These chemicals include
hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, and acetone. The amount and type of
chemicals used depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is needed, and the size of silicon
wafer.Workers also face risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. Hence, these chemicals and other
manufacturing waste products are disposed properly. Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic
materials than those used in traditional silicon photovoltaic cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-
indiumgallium-diselenide, and cadmium-tellurid. If not handled and disposed of properly, these materials
could pose serious environmental or public health threats.However, manufacturers have a strong financial
incentive to ensure that these highly valuable and often rare materials are recycled rather than thrown away

d) Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions :_A global warming emissions associated with life-cycle
of the solar energy includes manufacturing, materials transportation, installation, maintenance, and
decommissioning and dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle emissions for photovoltaic systems
are between 0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Hydro power plant:

As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By building
a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water that will drive a turbine,
generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable than solar or wind power (especially
if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to be stored for use when demand reaches a peak.
Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro can be more viable as a commercial energy source
(dependant on type and compared to other sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of
property, it can be used for domestic, 'off-grid' generation.

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower. The of electrical power
produced through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water.

First Hydro power plant: Fox river, Appleton, Wisconsin

Advantages:
• No Fuel charges

• Highly Reliable

• Maintenance and operation charges are very low

• Running cost of the plant is low

• Efficiency is high

• Takes few minutes to run and synchronize the plant

• Less supervising staff is required

• No fuel transportation problem

• No Ash problem

• No pollution since no smoke is produced

• Other than Power generation, plants are used for flood control and irrigation purposes
 • Long life

• Number of operations are less compared to coal power plants

• Machines are robust and generally runs at low speeds at 300-400 rpm

• Cost of land is not a major problem since the hydro-electric stations are situated away
from the developed areas

Disadvantages

Initial cost of plant is very high

Takes long time for the erection of such plants

Such plants are usually located in hilly areas far away from the load center and as such they
require long transmission lines to deliver power,

Cost of transmission lines and the losses in them will be more

Power generation depends on the quantity of water available which in turn depends on the
natural phenomenon of rain. So plant will function satisfactorily only if the required
quantity of water can be collected

Selection of site for Hydroelectric Powerplant

Factors to be considered for selection of site are,

I.Availability of water :_Estimate should be made about the average quantity of water available
throughout the year and also the maximum and minimum quantity of water available during the year. These
details are necessary to,

a. Decide the capacity of the hydroelectric power plant

b. Setting up of peak load plants (steam, gas turbine, diesel etc.)

c. Provide adequate spillways or gate for relief during the flood period.

2. Water storage : Since there is wide variation in rainfall during the year, its necessary to store the water
for continuous generation of power.

3. Water head : An increase in effective head, for a given output, reduces the quantity of water
required to be supplied to the machine.

4. Accessibility of the site : Distance from load center Will reduce the cost of erection and maintenance
of transmission line

Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Power

Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants.
a) Land Use :The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending
largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric plants in
flat areas tend to require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs
can hold more volume of water in a smaller space.
Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest, wildlife
habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands.

b) Wildlife Impacts :Dam or reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural irrigation, flood
control, and recreation. so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be directly attributed to
hydroelectric power.

Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the reservoir will have higher
than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an excess of algae and other
aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled
through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is lost through
evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.

Reservoir water is typically low in dissolved oxygen and colder than normal river water. When this
water is released, it could have negative impacts on downstream plants and animals. To mitigate these
impacts, aerating turbines can be installed to increase dissolved oxygen and multi-level water intakes
can help ensure that water released from the reservoir comes from all levels of the reservoir, rather
than just the bottom (which is the coldest and has the lowest dissolved oxygen).

Life-cycle Global Warming Emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of hydroelectric power
plants. Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the reservoir and the nature of the land
that was flooded by the reservoir. Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of
carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. Life-cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants
are also modest: approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour

Ocean Energy: Energy can be harvested from the ocean by

a. Tapping energy in ocean currents

b. Using the ocean as a heat engine

c. Tidal energy

d. Wave energy

Energy from ocean currents

Ocean currents flow at a steady velocity.Place turbines in these currents that operate just like wind
turbines.Water is more than 800 times denser than air, so for the same surface area, water moving
12 miles per hour exerts about the same amount of force as a constant 110 mph wind.

Disadv:
► Expensive proposition

► Upkeep could be expensive and complicated

Environmental concerns :

a. species protection (including fish and marine mammals) from injury from turning
turbine blades.

b. Consideration of shipping routes and present recreational uses of location

c. Other considerations include risks from slowing the current flow by extracting energy.
Ocean as a heat engine (Thermal Energy Conversion-OTEC)
► There can be a 20° difference between ocean surface temps and the temp at 1000m .The
surface acts as the heat source, the deeper cold water acts as a heat sink.

► Temperature differences are very steady

► Florida, Puerto Rico, Hawaii and other pacific islands are well suited to take advantage of this
idea.

► It is Called OTEC ( Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion)

Tidal Power
Tides or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. They occur due to the attraction of sea water
by moon.Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is used for power generation.When
water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide and when water is below the mean sea level, it is
called ebb tide.

Working of Tidal Power System

The ocean tides rise and fall and water can be stored during the rise period and can be discharged
during fall. A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from sea and difference in water level is obtained
between the basin and sea. During high tide, water flows from sea in to the tidal basin through the
water turbine, hence, turbine unit operate and generates power , as it is directly coupled to a generator.
During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is more than
that of the tide in the sea. During this period also the flowing water rotates the turbine and generate power.

Environmental Issues of ocean energy:

1. Alters the flow of saltwater in and out of estuaries (Where tide meets the river), which changes the
hydrology and salinity and possibly negatively affects the marine mammals that use the estuaries
as their habitat
2. Some species lost their habitat due to the construction at estuaries, but other species colonized
the abandoned space, which caused a shift in diversity.
3. Turbidity (the amount of matter in suspension in the water) decreases as a result of smaller volume
of water being exchanged between the basin and the sea. This lets light from the Sun to penetrate
the water further, improving conditions for the phytoplankton. The changes propagate up the food
chain, causing a general change in the ecosystem.
 4. If the turbines are moving slowly enough, such as low velocities of 25-50 rpm, fish kill is
minimalized and silt and other nutrients are able to flow through the structures . Tidal fences block
off channels, which makes it difficult for fish and wildlife to migrate through those channels. Larger
marine mammals such as seals or dolphins can be protected from the turbines by fences or a sonar
sensor auto-breaking system that automatically shuts the turbines down when marine mammals
are detected
5. As a result of less water exchange with the sea, the average salinity inside the basin decreases, also
affecting the ecosystem
6. Estuaries often have high volume of sediments moving through them, from the rivers to the
sea. The introduction of a barrage into an estuary may result in sediment accumulation within
the barrage, affecting the ecosystem and also the operation of the barrage.

Wave Energy

It is estimated that there is 2-3 million mW of energy in the waves breaking on the world coastlines, with
energies derived ultimately form the wind. In Great Britain alone, almost twice the current electricity
demand breaks on the countries coastlines every day.

As wind blows along the surface of a body of water, a surface wave develops. As the wind blows, pressure
and friction forces perturb the equilibrium of the water surface.These forces transfer energy from the air
to the water, forming waves.The water molecules actually move in circular motion.When a wave can
no longer support its top, it collapses or breaks. Usually it happens when a wave reaches shallow water,
such as near a coastline.

Geothermal Energy: Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are continuously produced inside the earth
by a slow decay of radioactive particles.People around the world may use geothermal energy to produce
electricity and heat their homes by digging deep wells and pumping the heated water or steam to the
surface

Uses and Goals

• Heat pumps - heat and cool building; melt snow from roads and sidewalks

• Direct use applications- heat water, pasteurize milk, food dehydration, gold mining

• Power plants - produce electricity

Geothermal Energy are found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are
concentrated (Geysers, Hot springs, Fumaroles (openings in the earth's surface that emit steam and volcanic
gases), Geothermal reservoirs)

Hydrogen energy

Electricity generated from renewable sources could be used to produce hydrogen.Vehicles, computers, cell
phones, home heating, and countless other applications could be powered. Basing an energy system
on hydrogen could alleviate dependence on foreign fuels and help fight climate change. Government is
funding for research into hydrogen and fuel cell technology to produce vehicles that run on hydrogen

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in molecular bonds) into
electrical energy. A PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cell uses hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas
(02) as fuel.
The products of the reaction in the cell are water, electricity, and heat. This is a big improvement over
internal combustion engines, coal burning power plants, and nuclear power plants, all of which
produce harmful by-products. The development of fuel cells and hydrogen fuel shows promise to store
energy in considerable quantities to produce clean, efficient electricity. A hydrogen economy would
provide a clean, safe, and efficient energy system by using the world's simplest and most abundant element
as fuel

Fuel cell
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and efficiently produce
electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, electricity, water, and heat are the only products. Fuel cells are
unique in terms of the variety of their potential applications; they can provide power for systems as
large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer.

Significance of fuel cell with its working:

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce electricity
and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes-a negative electrode (or
anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)-sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as
hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the
anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the cathode.
The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate
through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water
and heat.

Parts of a fuel cell: Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research for
fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of different materials. The
main parts of a PEM fuel cell are described below. The heart of a PEM fuel cell is the membrane electrode
assembly (MEA), which includes the membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs ).
Hardware components used to incorporate an MEA into a fuel cell include gaskets, which provide a seal
around the MEA to prevent leakage of gases, and bipolar plates, which are used to assemble individual
PEM fuel cells into a fuel cell stack and provide channels for the gaseous fuel and air.

Diagram of a PEM fuel cell

PEM fuel cell is shown in fig above. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses a water-
based, acidic polymer membrane as its electrolyte, with platinum-based electrodes. PEMFC cells
operate at relatively low temperatures (below 100 degrees Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to
meet dynamic power requirements. Due to the relatively low temperatures and the use of precious
metal-based electrodes, these cells must operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are currently the leading
technology for light duty vehicles and materials handling vehicles, and to a lesser extent for stationary and
other applications. The PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
(also PEMFC).Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on
the surface of a platinum-based catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the
cell while the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell. On the
cathode side, another precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons with oxygen to produce
water, which is expelled as the only waste product; oxygen can be provided in a purified form, or
extracted at the electrode directly from the air.

Biogas

Biogas technology: Generation of a combustible gas from anaerobic biomass digestion. A biogas plant can
convert animal manure, green plants, waste from agro industry and slaughterhouses into combustible
gas.

It is a mixture of: - Methane (CH4) - Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Hydrogen (H2) - Hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

The energy content of the gas depends mainly on its methane content. High methane content is
therefore desirable. A certain amount of carbon dioxide and water vapour content is unavoidable, but
Sulphur content must be minimized - particularly for use in engines.

Renewable energy has a sustainable development

Sustainable energy is the practice of using energy in a way that "meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Meeting the world's needs for electricity, heating, cooling, and power for transport in a sustainable way
is widely considered to be one of the greatest challenges facing humanity in the 21st century. Worldwide,
nearly a billion people lack access to electricity, and around 3 billion people rely on smoky fuels
such as wood, charcoal or animal dung in order to cook. These and fossil fuels are a major contributor to
air pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths per year. Production and consumption of energy
emits over 70% of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.

Proposed pathways for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C describe rapid implementation of low- emission
methods of producing electricity and a shift towards more use of electricity in sectors such as transport.
The pathways also include measures to reduce energy consumption; and use of carbon- neutral fuels,
such as hydrogen produced by renewable electricity or with carbon capture and storage. Achieving these
goals will require government policies including carbon pricing, energy-specific policies, and phase-out
of fossil fuel subsidies.

When referring to methods of producing energy, the term "sustainable energy" is often used
interchangeably with the term "renewable energy". In general, renewable energy sources such as solar,
wind, and hydroelectric energy are widely considered to be sustainable. However, particular renewable
energy projects, such as the clearing of forests for the production of biofuels, can lead to similar or
even worse environmental damage when compared to using fossil fuel energy. Nuclear power is a zero
emission source and while its sustainability is debated, the European Union has chosen it to be the part
of a low-carbon energy backbone by 2050.
Moderate amounts of wind and solar energy, which are intermittent energy sources, can be integrated
into the electrical grid without additional infrastructure such as grid energy storage. These sources
generated 7.5% of worldwide electricity in 2018, a share that has grown rapidly. As of 2019, costs of
wind, solar, and batteries are projected to continue falling.

Present Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.

India has made important progress towards meeting the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals, notably Goal 7 on delivering energy access. Both the energy and emission intensities
of India's gross domestic product (GDP) have decreased by more than 20% over the past decade. This
represents commendable progress even as total energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions continue
to rise. India's per capita emissions today are 1.6 tonnes of CO2, well below the global average of 4.4
tonnes, while its share of global total CO2 emissions is some 6.4%.

India is an active player at international fora in the fight against climate change. The country's
Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement sets out targets to reduce the emissions
intensity of its economy and increase the share of non-fossil fuels in its power generation capacity
while also creating an additional carbon sink by increasing forest and tree cover. Although the
emissions intensity of India's GDP has decreased in line with targeted levels, progress towards a low-
carbon electricity supply remains challenging.
India has taken significant steps to improve energy efficiency, which have avoided an additional 15%
of annual energy demand and 300 million tonnes of CO2 emissions over the period 2000- 18,
according to IEA analysis. The major programmes target industry and business, relying on large-scale
public procurement of efficient products such as LEDs and the use of tradable energy efficiency certificates.
The government's LED programme has radically pushed down the price of the products in the global
market and helped create local manufacturing jobs to meet the demand for energy-efficient lighting.

Based on current policies, India's energy demand could double by 2040, with electricity demand potentially
tripling as a result of increased appliance ownership and cooling needs. Without significant improvements
in energy efficiency, India will need to add massive amounts of power generation capacity to meet
demand from the 1 billion air-conditioning units the country is expected to have by 2050. By raising the
level of its energy efficiency ambition, India could save some USD 190 billion per year in energy
imports by 2040 and avoid electricity generation of 875 terawatt hours per year, almost half oflndia's
current annual power generation.

Recent IEA analysis shows that in 2018, India's investment in solar PV was greater than in all fossil
fuel sources of electricity generation together. Large-scale auctions have contributed to swift renewable
energy development at rapidly decreasing prices. By December 2019, India had deployed a total of 84
GW of grid-connected renewable electricity capacity. By comparison, India's total generating capacity
reached 366 GW in 2019. India is making progress towards its target of 175 GW of renewables by
2022. In September 2019, it is announced that India's electricity mix would eventually include 450
GW of renewable energy capacity. Progress towards these targets will require a focus on unlocking the
flexibility needed for effective system integration. This can potentially be achieved by improving the
design of renewables auctions, with clear trajectories and criteria to reflect quality, location and system
value, along with measures to foster grid expansion and demand-side response across India.

India has been addressing energy-related environmental pollution since the 1980s, including air, water, land
and waste issues. Reducing the health impacts of air pollution is a key priority. Over the years, the
government has been progressively strengthened rules to combat air pollution, and adopted the
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), which focuses on monitoring and enforcement. Real progress on
the ground has so far been limited, with the deadline for the enforcement of stringent air pollution standards
for thermal power plants pushed back from 2017 to 2021/22. However, the implementation of the
NCAP is expected to help improve this issue.

India is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and is exposed to growing water stress,
storms, floods and other extreme weather events. Adaptation and resilience of the energy system to
these extreme climate conditions should be a high political priority. Furthermore, the energy sector is a
large water user. As India's energy demand continues to grow, the government should ensure that
energy planning takes into account the water-energy nexus, as well as future space cooling needs.

Present status of world energy scenario.

Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and continually replenished either
at the same rate or faster than the rate at which they are being used up by humans more or less indefinitely
such as the sun, wind, rain, tides, biomass and geothermal energy. Green energy, alternative energy
and sustainable energy are the other synonyms sometimes used to describe the renewable energy that is
converted into either electricity, heat or mechanical power for use in homes or in industries by clean,
harmless and non-polluting methods. But it is important to understand the differences between the
technologies used by each of the different sources to make the right choice for any particular application.
The crude oil crisis which began in 1971 and the continuously increasing prices for fossil fuels, has
adversely affected the economic growth of developing countries. This woke up the world to look for
the alternative and sustainable energy solutions. Therefore, energy security calls for using renewable energy
resources.
With rapid economic growth, the demand for energy is increasing. Energy is by far the largest
industry in the world. It is worth about US $ 7 trillion per year while the world's total GDP is about
US $ 55 trillion. Thus, the energy industry is worth more than 10% of the entire world's economy. As
reported by Renewable Energy World Magazine in their February 2, 2018 Issue, for the first time in history
in 2017 in the 28 nation European Union, the power from renewables generated jointly by wind, solar
and biomass was an all time high of 20.9% of all power, overtaking the power generated by coal
which was down to 20.6%. Since 1980s, the government of India (and many other governments) has
introduced myriad of incentives for the use and promotion of renewable energy sources.
Table: shows a comparison ofrenewable and conventional energy
Comparison of Renewable versus Conventional Energy
S.No. Criteria Renewable Energy Conventional Energy
1 Availability Can be used without any Needs to be extracted and treated through
treatment laborious and environmentally damaging
processes
2 Quantity available Continuously replenish- Dwindling reserves
able resource
3 Transportability No need to transport, Needs to be transported from the site
used where it is available rendering ii environmentally harmful
4 Green house gases (GHG) Nil Releases green house gases
5 Energy security Minimises reliance on Energy security remains at risk due to
dwindling resources such more dependence on oil
as oil, coal and others
6 Pollution Completely pollution-free Pollution occurs at various levels
 India has made important progress towards meeting the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals, notably Goal 7 on delivering energy access. Both the energy and emission intensities
of India's gross domestic product (GDP) have decreased by more than 20% over the past decade. This
represents commendable progress even as total energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions continue
to rise. India's per capita emissions today are 1.6 tonnes of CO2, well below the global average of 4.4
tonnes, while its share of global total CO2 emissions is some 6.4%.
India is an active player at international fora in the fight against climate change. The country's
Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement sets out targets to reduce the emissions
intensity of its economy and increase the share of non-fossil fuels in its power generation capacity
while also creating an additional carbon sink by increasing forest and tree cover. Although the
emissions intensity of India's GDP has decreased in line with targeted levels, progress towards a low-
carbon electricity supply remains challenging.
India has taken significant steps to improve energy efficiency, which have avoided an additional 15%
of annual energy demand and 300 million tonnes of CO2 emissions over the period 2000- 18,
according to IEA analysis. The major programmes target industry and business, relying on large-scale
public procurement of efficient products such as LEDs and the use of tradable energy efficiency certificates.
The government's LED programme has radically pushed down the price of the products in the global
market and helped create local manufacturing jobs to meet the demand for energy-efficient lighting.
Based on current policies, India's energy demand could double by 2040, with electricity demand potentially
tripling as a result of increased appliance ownership and cooling needs. Without significant improvements
in energy efficiency, India will need to add massive amounts of power generation capacity to meet
demand from the 1 billion air-conditioning units the country is expected to have by 2050. By raising the
level of its energy efficiency ambition, India could save some USD 190 billion per year in energy
imports by 2040 and avoid electricity generation of 875 terawatt hours per year, almost half oflndia's
current annual power generation.
Recent IEA analysis shows that in 2018, India's investment in solar PV was greater than in all fossil
fuel sources of electricity generation together. Large-scale auctions have contributed to swift renewable
energy development at rapidly decreasing prices. By December 2019, India had deployed a total of 84
GW of grid-connected renewable electricity capacity. By comparison, India's total generating capacity
reached 366 GW in 2019. India is making progress towards its target of 175 GW of renewables by
2022. In September 2019, it is announced that India's electricity mix would eventually include 450
GW of renewable energy capacity. Progress towards these targets will require a focus on unlocking the
flexibility needed for effective system integration. This can potentially be achieved by improving the
design of renewables auctions, with clear trajectories and criteria to reflect quality, location and system
value, along with measures to foster grid expansion and demand-side response across India.
India has been addressing energy-related environmental pollution since the 1980s, including air, water, land
and waste issues. Reducing the health impacts of air pollution is a key priority. Over the years, the
government has been progressively strengthened rules to combat air pollution, and adopted the
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), which focuses on monitoring and enforcement. Real progress
on the ground has so far been limited, with the deadline for the enforcement of stringent air pollution
standards for thermal power plants pushed back from 2017 to 2021/22. However, the implementation
of the NCAP is expected to help improve this issue.

India is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and is exposed to growing water stress,
storms, floods and other extreme weather events. Adaptation and resilience of the energy system to
these extreme climate conditions should be a high political priority. Furthermore, the energy sector is a
large water user. As India's energy demand continues to grow, the government should ensure that
energy planning takes into account the water-energy nexus, as well as future space cooling needs.

Energy planning issues aiming to bridge the gap between the energy demand and supply
situation in India.
India is world's 3rd largest producer (3,44,690 MW) and 3rd largest electrical energy consumer as on
September 2018. Massively expanding the large scale deployment of both centralised and distributed
renewable energy including solar, wind, small hydro, biomass, and geothermal will ease the strain on
the present transmission and distribution systems. As on September 2018 .India is having the 6th
largest installed electric generation capacity of 3,44,002 MW. Of this total installed power, the contribution
from thermal power plants is 2,22,906 MW (64.80%), large hydroelectric power plants is 45,293 MW
(13.17%), nuclear power is 6,780 MW (1.97%) and that from all renewable sources put together is 70,648
MW (20.54%).

The grid connected renewable energy in India is (see Figure 1.2): 70,648 MW (on September 2018),
wind power 34,294 MW (9.9%) small hydro-4,493 MW (1.3%), biomass-8,839 MW (2.6%), Solar
PV-23,023 MW (6.7%). India plans to make a massive switch over from coal, oil, natural gas and
nuclear power plants to renewable energy power plants, as MNRE has targeted to have an installed
capacity of 1,00,000 MW of solar power and 60,000 MW of wind power by the year 2022. The large
scale deployment of solar and wind power projects which represent a bright spot on India's economic
future needs to be continued even at a quicker pace in order to effect the smooth transition from fossil
fuels to renewable energy sources. In 1982, the foundation stone for harnessing renewable energy was
laid in India by the establishment of the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES). In
1992 the DNES was converted into the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) and
later in 2006 it was re-christened as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNRE). In
order to fully exploit the indigenous renewable energy sources at its doorstep, the MNRE has been
addressing several challenges to remove the barriers that are holding back the development, by
formulating suitable policies and setting up demonstration.
projects for various types of renewable energy power plants in various parts of India build up investor
confidence and to promote research even in the private sector. Table depicts the presently available
potential of the grid connected renewable sources in India

The initial policy support for renewable energy began in 1993 when MNES issued guidelines for purchase
of power prescribing the power purchase tariff of' 2.25 kWh with annual escalation of 5% for the
power generated from renewable energy sources. The renewable energy initiatives got a shot in the arm
with the enactment of Indian Electricity Act 2003 and the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions
(SERC), which states that every utility will have to mandatorily purchase the energy from the
renewable energy sector. In 2011, the trading of renewable energy certificates (REC) started in India in
line with the renewable purchase obligations (RPO) by various states of India. Under the National Action
Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC), the government has set a goal for 15% of renewable energy
(excluding the large hydroelectric power plants) and 15% of wind power by 2020 to promote renewable
energy. India has reiterated its commitment by upscaling the renewable energy target to 175 GW
capacity by 2022 to provide equitable sustainable development.

Table provides an overview of the capital cost for 1 kW of energy and generation cost of 1 kWh of electrical
energy from various energy sources.