Department of Production Engineering

Prepared by: Aregawi Tadesse

2024/25

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CHAPTER ONE
Fundamentals of CAD

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

 CAD is a short form for word Computer Aided Design.

 CAD involves any type of design activity which makes use of the computer to
develop, analyze or modify an engineering design.
 And modern CAD systems are based on interactive computer graphics (ICG).
 ICG denotes a user oriented system in which the computer is employed to create,
transform, and display data in the form of picture or symbol. The ICG is a
combination of hard ware and software.
 In general, (CAD) package has three components:
a) Design,
b) Analysis, and
c) Visualization

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

Design Analysis Visualization

 Design refers to • Analysis refers to finite • It refers to
geometric modeling, element analysis, computer graphics,
 2-D and 3-D • optimization, and other • which includes:
modeling, including, number engineering rendering a model,
drafting, part creation, analyses contour plots,
 creation of drawings shading a model,
with various views of sizing, animation,
the part, etc.
 assemblies of the
parts, etc.
Design Analysis

Visualization 4
 ADVANTAGES OF CAD

1. Faster rate of producing drawings: - using a CAD systems can produce

drawings about 3 times as fast as could be done on a drawing board. This speeds
up the whole design process and gets the products onto the market more
quickly.
2. Greater accuracy of drawings: - highly accurate drawings can be prepared by
CAD because it has facilities of maintaining thickness of line, locations, use of
various drawing conventions etc. enable to see component in more details by
zooming.
3. Neat and clear drawing:-conventional drawing depends on the skill of
individual draftsman, whereas the plotter of a CAD system produces superior
line work and text, whoever operates the system.
4. No repetitions of drawings: - once a drawing or part drawing is completed, it
may be stored in the computer memory for future use. 5
 ADVANTAGES OF CAD

5. Special drafting technique: - which were not available by conventional means.

Some of these are rotate, mirror, copy, move etc.
6. Quick design calculations and analysis: - there are software's for carrying out
design calculations in a fraction of the previous time.
7. Superior design form: - shapes may be quickly modified and optimized for cost
saving to an extent which would have previously been too time consuming.
8. Less development required: - drastically cut the times and money spent on
prototype testing and development often the costliest stage in the design
process.
9. Integration of design with other disciplines: - an integrated computer
network enables CAD to work far more closely with other engineering
department than was possible under the old type of design organization.
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 DESIGN PROCESS

What is design?
 Design is a complete prototype with fabrication and analysis

Design process follow these steps

 Recognition of need
o Everyone recognizes the need as a modern concept should be fulfilled.
 Problem definition
o Specification of the item.

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 Synthesis
o Creation and conceptualization
 Analysis and optimization
o The concept is analyzed and redesigned
 Evaluation
o Compare design against original specification.
 Presentation
o Documentation of the design (Automated drafting)

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 Redesign (if needed)

CAD CAE
Drawing the designed Analysis and simulation
model (geometry) - FEA
- CFD

CAM
Manufacturing
- CNC

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Optimum designed product
 Computer-Aided Design
CAD is the use of computer in the creation and modification of designed
geometry using softwares called “CAD softwares”.

ANSYS CAD softwares

ANSYS CAD Design Modeler (DM)
softwares SpaceClaim Direct Modeler (SCDM)

Another common CAD softwares

Another CAD SolidWorks Catia
softwares AutoCAD Creo (Pro/ENGINEER or ProE)
Inventor NX (or Siemens NX)
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Solid Edge
 Computer-Aided Engineering
CAE is the utilization of computer-based engineering systems or softwares
in the analysis and simulation of things or products such as cars from
which we can improve and optimize the design. The softwares used for
that are called “CAE softwares”.

ANSYS CAE softwares

ANSYS CAE ANSYS FLUENT ANSYS CFX
softwares ANSYS Mechanical and much more

Another common CAE softwares

Another CAE ABAQUS OpenFOAM
softwares COMSOL Multiphysics STAR-CD
FLOW3D SolidWorks simulation
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Note: CAE softwares mostly include CAD softwares.
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 Most common method
Science
used in that science
FEA FEM
Surface area,
weight, volume, CFD FVM
Center of gravity,
moment of inertia

Numerical methods used for solving engineering

problems like,
 Finite Difference Method (FDM)
 Finite Element Method (FEM)
• used in the FEA-based ANSYS tools (i.e., ANSYS
Mechanical and LS-DYNA)
 Finite Volume Method (FVM)
• used in the CFD-based ANSYS tools (i.e., ANSYS
FLUENT, ANSYS CFX). Actually,
Fluent uses the classical FVM.
CFX uses the element based FVM .

FEA (FEM is used)

CFD (FVM is commonly used) Solid and fluid are 18
Only the solid is simulated
simulated
• Historical Background

Open surface water channel used in flow visualization

Direct observation of the flow field

The wake of a cylinder visualized by surface powder

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• Nowadays

Transient flow over a cylinder using fluent (X velocity)

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Fig. Ref.: Fig. Ref.:
Golman, A.J., et al., Injury prediction in a side impact crash using human body Pack, K., S.J.J.I.J.o.S. Marcadet, and Structures, Numerical failure analysis of
model simulation. 2014. 64: p. 1-8. three-point bending on martensitic hat assembly using advanced21plasticity and
fracture models for complex loading. 2016. 85: p. 144-159.
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 Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CAM is the use of computer software and machinery to facilitate and
automate manufacturing processes in which the Computer Numerical
Controlled (CNC) machines follow step-by-step instructions provided by
CAM. The softwares used for that are called “CAM softwares”.

CAM softwares
Common CAM MasterCam ArtCAM
softwares SolidWorks CAM PowerMILL
SolidCam Swansoft

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 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

• The history CAD has been largely related to the development in Interactive
computer graphics (ICG) research
 1st CAD demonstration by Ivan Sutherland (1963) - SKETCHPAD.
 A year later IBM produced the first commercial CAD system.
 Many changes has taken place since then, with the advancement of powerful
computers.
 With these developments, it is now possible to do all the designs using CAD
including two-dimensional drawings, solid modeling, complex engineering
analysis, production and manufacturing.
 New technologies are constantly invented which make this process quicker, more
versatile and more powerful.
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 INTRODUCTION OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

 It is computer compatible mathematical description of the Geometry of

an object. The mathematical description allows the image of the object
to be displayed and manipulated on the CRT/LCD screen of the ICG
system by inputting three types of commands to the computer:
1. Generation of entities: Points, lines, circles, etc
2. Transformation: Moving, scaling, rotating an object
3. Joining objects to the desired shape of the final object
 During this geometric modeling process, the computer converts the
commands in to a mathematical model, stores it in the computer data
files, and displays it as an image on the CRT screen
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Questions ?

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CHAPTER TWO

CAD Hardware and Software

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 CAD HARDWARE

• Conventional Vs CAD Hardware:

Input devices may include alphanumeric and programmed function keyboard,
digitizing tablets, trackballs, styluses, touch input devices.
Output devices may include conventional plotters, hardcopy printers.
Graphic display terminals possess various local processors and controllers that
can perform graphic functions(transformations, graphics generations) unlike
conventional video terminals.

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 CAD WORK STATION:

• CAD Work station: it is a visible part of the CAD system which provides
interaction between the operator and the system.
• It has a capacity to support major software packages, multitask capability,
networking potential, availability and portability.

• A typical CAD work station may consist of:

Visual Display Unit/Graphic screen, An Alpha-Numeric Display, a work station
processor, An Electronic Command Table, a menu facility, Digitizer/ a cursor control
device, a keyboard, printer/mini plotter devices.

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 CAD HARDWARE

CAD input
devices
CAD Hardware
CAD output
devices

CAD input devices:

a) Locating input devices
b) Digitizers
c) Image- input devices
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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

A. Locating input devices/Locators/cursor control device:

provide a position or location on the screen. These includes:
1) Light pens
2) Mouse
3) Joystick, and Trackballs
4) Touch Sensitive Screen
5) The key board

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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

A. Locating input devices/Locators/cursor control device

1) Light Pens: it is a picking device that enables to select the displayed item on the
screen by directly touching the vicinity of the item. It detects light from the graphics
items displayed on the screen and sends an interrupted signal to the computer to
determine which item was seen by the pen.

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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

A. Locating input devices/Locators/cursor control device

2) Mouse:- this is of two types - Mechanical and Optical

• Mechanical mouse has a ball rolling on the bottom in order to record the mouse motion
in the x and y directions which is later encoded into digital values.
• Optical mouse has a light source and a beam modulation and optical encoding techniques
measuring the movements over the mouse pad.
• Pushbuttons may be mounted on top of the mouse and programmed to various functions.

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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

3) Joystick and trackballs: are analogous to a mouse device, and operate on the same
principle. These devices are applicable to control velocity or force in some simulation
application where fast responses are required.

4) Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually,
in the form of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user.

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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

A. Locating input devices/Locators/cursor control device

5) Keyboard: the operator communicates with the system by typing

commands on this input devices to tell the computer what to do. It consists of
alphanumeric keys, function keys which are programmed to do a specific
function for each application software, and communication keys
(e.g. Window key).

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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

B. Digitizers:
• They are electro-mechanical vector graphic input devices that resemble a drafting
board.
• It consists of 3 basic elements:
• Locator (puck or stylus),
• Tablet, and
• Software.
• There are electrical wires embedded in orthogonal directions that receive and pass
signals between the device and the computer.
• It is used to draw irregular shapes or copy a drawing.
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 CAD INPUT DEVICES

C. Image-input Devices:
• Are like Scanners, which can copy a drawing or schematic with a
camera and light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial
database.

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flatbed type scanner

 CAD OUTPUT DEVICES

Soft
Devices

CAD output devices

Hard
Devices

Soft devices:
• Soft devices are display terminals, which display information on a screen,
• Hard devices refer to hardcopy printers and plotters that provide permanent
copies of the displayed information.
The ICG(interactive computer graphics) display device can be classified in to two
groups
A. Display device based on CRT principle
B. Flat screens ( LCD & plasma screen) 44
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
CRT is a glass enclosed tube in which a finely focused electron beam is deflected to
a phosphor coated screen. The screen then glows to produce a visible trace when
excited by impinging electrons.
The CRT used in video monitor is shown schematically in fig below. Electrons are
emitted from a cathode and are attracted to the anode (phosphor coating). The
electron beam is collimated to a single spot by means of magnetic deflections
coils.

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 CAD OUTPUT DEVICES

 There are two basic techniques used in

current computer graphics terminals for
generating the image on the CRT screen:
1) Stroke writing and
2) Raster Scan

1) Stroke writing/ line

drawing/random position: electron
beam is directed from one point to the
other like a pencil to create a line and an
image is formed out of the sequence of
straight line segments. 46
 CAD OUTPUT DEVICES

2) Raster Scan:
• it is the most common method of displaying the graphics.
• The viewing screen is divided into large number of discrete phosphor picture
elements which is small dots or points called Pixels.
• The pixels are arranged in rows and columns in the form of a matrix.
• The matrix of pixel constitutes the raster.(eg.256x256,1024x1024)
• Each pixel can be made to glow with a different brightness and colors.
• The process is repeated at rate of 30-60 entire scans per second.

Pixel 47
• An electron beam creates the image by sweeping along a horizontal
line from left to right and energizing the pixels in that line and move to
the next line below and proceeds in a fixed pattern as in fig.

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Types of Graphic terminal display devices
I. Direct – beam refresh
II. DVST (Direct View Storage Tube)
III. Raster scan(Digital TV) display system

I. Direct – Beam Refresh:-in this system the electron beam operates like a
pencil & follows a sequence of straight lines
• Utilizes stroke –writing approach to generate the image.
• The display must be refreshed at regular intervals – minimum of 30 Hz .
• Phosphor has short persistence – decays in 10-100 microseconds
• Refresh Buffer – memory space allocated to store the display list causes
the electron beam to draw the picture repeatedly.
• Difficult to avoid flickering of the images.
• Selective erasure and Animation are possible. 49
 CAD OUTPUT DEVICES

II. DVST - Direct View Storage Tube

• Utilizes stroke –writing approach to generate the image.
• Storage Tube – it is a CRT with a long persistence phosphor
• Screen has a storage mesh in which the phosphor is embedded, so image is
stored as a distribution of charges on the inside surface of the screen
• No refreshing necessary
• Provides flicker-free display
• Limited interactive support
• Selective erasure and animation are not possible with DVST
• Modifying any part of the image requires redrawing the entire modified image
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 CAD OUTPUT DEVICES

III. Raster scan(Digital TV) display system

 Utilizes raster scan approach to generate the image.
 Entire screen is a matrix of pixels
 Each pixel brightness can be controlled
 Raster displays store the display primitives in a refresh buffer in terms of pixels
components
 Refresh buffer/Bit-plate can be visualized as a set of horizontal raster lines or a
row of individual pixels
 Each point is an addressable point in screen and memory
 A 256 resolution have 256x256=over 65,000 bits of storage/refresh buffer.
 The picture quality can be improved on two ways by increasing gray scale or
resolution(more addressable points per line). 51
B. Flat screens ( LCD)
• CRT is extremely bulky, consumes considerable power with increased heat
dissipation requirements, less portable because of the size.
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): used in small systems, such -as calculators,
laptop computers and televisions. It has low power consumption, low space
requirements, light-weight, and radiation free.
• The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a
crystalline arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid
• Two glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at right angles to the-other
plate, sandwich the liquid-crystal material.
• The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.

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• LCD devices produce a picture by passing polarized light from an internal light
source through a liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either block or
transmit the light.
• Normally, the molecules are twisted as shown in the "on state“.
• To turn the “off state”, we apply a voltage to the two intersecting conductors
to align the molecules so that the light is not twisted.
• It is the off state which displays the image.
• Picture definitions are stored in a refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed at
the rate of 60 frames per second.
.

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Hard Devices: refer to hard copy devices like plotters and printers are used
for this purpose.
• A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies, where as, a
laser jet printer is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model.
• These devices include:
i. Pen Plotters(Flat bad type & Drum type)

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ii. Hard-copy units
iii. Electrostatic plotters
iV. Computer-output-microfilm(COM) units

HARD COPY DRAWINGS Vs SOFT COPY

DRAWINGS:
• Hard copy drawings are more accurate and has
better quality (b/c soft copy drawing quality
depends on pixel resolution and data are lost
while changing signals from analog to digital and
vise versa)
 Soft copy drawings are speedy than hard one.
 CAD SOFTWARE

Software: – System software

– Application software
• System software
• is a general program written for the system, which provide the environment to
facilitate the writing of application software. EX . Operating systems(windows
2000/XP/Vista, UNIX)
• These are programs written by computer manufacturers, which are in-built and
used to govern the control of the hardware of the computer such as processer,
memory devices, and input/output devices
• e.g. MS-DOS, Windows NT , Windows Vista , etc
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Application software
• is the set of program necessary to carry out operations for specified application
(specific jobs).
 Some of the commercial CAD Application software:
Geometric modeling software
e.g. CATIA, PROE, IDEAS, AMD, UNIGRAPHICS, AUTOCAD, SOLID WORKS, etc
Analysis software e.g. NASTRN, ANSYS, NISA, COSMOS,Abacus
Simulation software e.g. ADAMS, 3D max, WM3d,Blender

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Points to be noticed for designing Graphics Software:
1. Simplicity - easy to use
2. Consistency – predictable to user 5. Performance – fast speed of response
3. Completeness – full set of graphic functions 6. Economy – not too expensive
4. Robustness – tolerating minor misuse 61
 MODULES IN A GRAPHICS PACKAGE

• The graphics software can be divided into three modules according to a conceptual
model. They are
o The graphics package
o The application program
o The application Database
Design Work Station

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 MODULES IN A GRAPHICS PACKAGE

• Application Program:
- Is the central module
- Controls the storing data into and retrieving the data out of the application database.(Is driven by
the user through graphics package)
- Is written by the user to do a specific job
• Graphics Package: it acts as intermediate between Design Work Station

- User and graphics terminal

- User and the system
- It consists of input and output subroutines
• Application Database:
- Data base containing mathematical, numerical, and logical definitions of the application models, such as
mechanical components in terms of alphanumerical data associated with the models like material
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,mass and geometric properties.
 FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS PACKAGE
1. Generations of graphics element
 A 2- D basic image entities such as a dot,
lines, circle, arcs, etc
 A 3- D primitives such as sphere, cones,
cylinder, or box
 There is a special hardware in graphics system
for each graphic elements
 Users use both 2D and 3D elements as a
building block to construct images
2. Transformations
 Modifying the generated objects,
 e.g. copying, moving, scaling, rotating, mirroring
etc of the object
 FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS PACKAGE

3. Display control and windowing function

- Viewing the object from different directions
- Hidden line removal (dividing the object
into visible and invisible lines and removing
the invisibles to make it more
understandable.)
4. Segmenting functions
- Capability to selectively replace, remove, or
modify portion of the object
5. User input functions
- It permits users to enter commands and
data.
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FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS PACKAGE

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 DATABASE

 It is an organized collection of graphics and non-graphics data stored in the computer.

 It is an art of storing data in computer. (Implementation of Data structure in to computer)
Advantage: - Eliminate redundancy
- Enforce standards
- Apply security restriction
- Maintain integrity
- Balancing conflicting requirements
Methodology of storing data:
1. Relational database (storing related data in the form of table)
2. Hierarchical database( representing data by tree structure. Root is top of the tree, for complete
object representation surface, edge/line, vertex, and coordinate system are required)
3. Networking database (complex but permits modeling of many to many)
4. Object oriented database(storing the object only not the individual records)
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 DATABASE COORDINATE SYSTEM

• Three types of coordinate system are needed in order to input, store and display
model geometry and graphics:
Model Coordinate System(MCS): It is the reference space w.r.t. (with respect
to) which geometrical data of objects are stored. It is the Cartesian coordinate.
World Coordinate System(WCS): It is used to explain inclined faces or
objects.
Screen Coordinate System(SCS): It is a two dimensional device dependent
system whose origin is usually located at the lower left corner of the graphics
display/screen. The physical dimension of a device determine the range and the
measurement unit of SCS.

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 Model Coordinate System(MCS):

World Coordinate System(WCS) Screen Coordinate System(SCS)

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Questions ?
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 CHAPTER
THREE
Creating Basic 2D Geometry

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 USE OF GRAPHICS ELEMENT

• The model is made out of number of graphics elements

• Several aspects used for creating objects
1. Object should have specific size, position and orientation
2. Objects are subtracted or added to create model
3. Capability of using cells (e.g. a bolt as a block in M/C drawing)

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Constructing geometry:
1. Use of graphics element
2. Defining Graphics element
3. Editing geometry
Coordinate system
1. Cartesian coordinate system
2. Polar coordinate system (@distance< degree)
3. Absolute coordinate system(x,y)
4. Relative coordinate system (using pervious point of curser,
with syntax @) (@x,y)
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 Absolute coordinate system(x,y)

Cartesian coordinate system

Relative coordinate system (using pervious
point of curser, with syntax @) (@x,y)

Polar coordinate system (@distance< degree) 74

 BASIC GEOMETRICAL ELEMENT CONSTRUCTION

To construct basic 2D geometry it is needed to have this elements

Points:
1. By locating on a cursor control devise
2. By specifying on a key board
3. Offset from previous point
4. Intersection of lines
5. Locating points at specified distances

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Lines:
1. Using two points
2. Using a point and angle from Horizontal
3. Using a point and a parallel or perpendicular to a line
4. Using a point and tangent to a curve
5. Tangent to 2- Curves
6. Creating Horizontal line
7. Creating Vertical line

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Circle
1. By using 3 points
2. By using radius/diameter & center
3. 2 points representing diameter
4. Creating a circle tangent to other geometrical item
Arc
1. 3 points
2. Center, start, end
3. Center, start, angle
4. Center, radius, start angle and end point
5. Convert arc into a circle
Rectangle: specify 1st point and diagonally opposite point 77
Ellipse: Using existing lines as axes and the specify length of
axes
Fillet:(with trim and with no trim)
Chamfer:(with trim and with no trim)
Geometric Modeling and Types of Geometric Models
• Geometrical Modeling:
Is a computer compatible mathematical description of the
geometry of an object, which allows the image of the object
to be displayed and manipulated on a graphic terminals
through the signals from CPU of the CAD system.
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• Steps involved in construction of Geometric Model:
- Type command to generate basic geometric entities
(points, arc, lines, circle)
- Type command to accomplish scaling, rotation, and
other transformation
- Type command to join into desired shape of the
object
 During this the process, the computer converts the
commands into a mathematical model, stores it in the data
files and displays it on the graphic terminal, and the model
can be called for review analysis or alteration.
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 2-D GEOMETRIC MODELING
The 2D geometric models exercise used to appear under the
Geometry Math Mission. This exercise explores applications of
two-dimensional models to real-life situations.
Used for relatively simple shape so that is
recommended for manufacturing process drawing.
Many simple or symmetrical models, both rotational and
translational can be quick & effectively can be communicated
on 2D.

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 LIMITATION OF 2D GEOMETRIC MODELING

 Training is necessary to understand the drawing

 Mistakes often occur

 Does not support subsequent applications such finite element
analysis (FEA) or NC part programming

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Questions ?

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 CHAPTER FOUR

Creations of Isometric and Solid Modeling

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Introduction
• 3D modeling is creating an object or a part which has 3D
characteristics and can be viewed 3D
• Simply, the object has depth or thickness
• In 2D drafting or drawing, the object is normally drawn in XY
direction.
• In 3D modeling, the object is drawn in XY and also Z direction
• Object modeled in 3D can be rotated and view from any angle
• Generally, more complicated to create and produce compared to 2D

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The three types of 3D Geometric models are:
4.1 Wire frame model
4.2 Surface model
4.3 Solid model

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 4.1 WIREFRAME MODELING

• It is a stick figure or a wire bent round the edges of

object
• Contains information about the locations of all the
points (vertices) and edges in space coordinates.
• Each vertex is defined by x, y, z coordinate.
• Edges are defined by a pair of vertices.
• Faces are defined as three or more edges.
• Wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin
defining the area between the edges.
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 WIREFRAME MODELING

• A cube can be generated with twelve edges generated from eight vertices.

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 Advantages:
 Simple to construct
 Less time & memory are require
 No extensive training is required
 Less time to be retrieved
 Can be used for finite element analysis.
 Can be used as input for CNC machines to generate simple parts.
 Contain most of the information needed to create surface, solid and higher order models
 Disadvantages:
 They are ambiguous/confusing
 Difficult to interpret
 Luck of information
 Can not distinguish visible & hidden line
 Inability to recognize and model complex curved surface
 Inability to show interference of surface
Uniqueness problem
 No mass properties details (e.g. Weight, inertia, mass)
 No automatic shedding
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 Wire frame Entities

 They are Classified into two:

1. Analytical entities: points, lines, arcs, circles, fillets, chamfer, Conics(Ellipses,
Parabolas, and Hyperbolas), etc
2. Synthetic entities: Cubic Spline, Bezier curve, Beta-Spline curve
 Two techniques of creating synthetic objects
a) Interpolation techniques
b) Approximation techniques

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1. Cubic Spline: works on interpolation
techniques

2. Beta-Spline curve: works on both techniques

3. Bezier Curve: works on approximation

techniques, it needs a minimum of 4 points to
construct the curve.

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4.2 Surface model

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 SURFACE MODELING

• A cube can be generated as surface model with six faces instead of 12 edges

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 Surface model

• A surface model represents the skin of an object, these skins have no

thickness or material type.
• Surface models define the surface features, as well as the edges, of
objects.
• A mathematical function describes the path of a curve (parametric
techniques).
• Surfaces are edited as single entities.
• Shape of complex objects can not be defined by wire frame
• To do surface modeling wireframe entities are used

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 Surface model
• It defines shapes precisely and accurately (e.g. car, ship, airplane
bodies)
• To create surface model quantitative & qualitative distance
required
• It consists of only surface geometry no internal information but
solid modeling has complete internal and geometry information.
• External shape of object can be obtained with no information
about internal shape.
E.g. sheet metal cover, car body exteriors. Loft
• The basic sketching tools required for surface generation are : Surface
Offset surface
• extruded surface
• revolved surface Extrude
• swept surface Surface
• offset surface
Sweep
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surface
Revolution Surface
Plane surface
 Advantages and disadvantages of surface modeling

 Advantages
• They are less ambiguous
• Hidden line & shading algorithms are provided to add realism to the displayed
object
• It can be used to calculate mass property details, FEM mesh, NC programming, etc
• Renders the model for better visualization and presentation, objects appear more
realistic.
• Provides the surface geometry for CNC machining.
• Provides the geometry needed for mold and die design.
• Can be used to design and analyze complex free-formed surfaces (ship hulls,
airplane fuselages, car bodies, …).
• Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be assigned and
demonstrated. 98
• Disadvantages
• It needs wire frame entities for beginning
• It needs more CPU time and storage capacity
• It is also ambiguous in some application
• Surface models provide no information about the inside of an
object.
• Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces (It
is sometime difficult to create)

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 ENTITIES USED IN SURFACE MODELING

 Analytic entities  Synthetic entities

- Plane surface - Bezier surface
- B-spline surface
- Ruled surface
- Coons patch
- Surface of revolution
- Fillet surface
- Tabulated cylinder
- Offset surface

{Alias Designer}
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a. Plane surface: It requires minimum of 3 non-coincident
points. It is used to find c/s area and mass property details.

b. Ruled Surface (Lofted): It interpolates 2 wireframe

entities and wire frame entities are used as boundary.

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102
103
104
c. Surface of Revolution:
It is an axis symmetric surface which used to model axis
symmetric objects. It is generated by rotating a planar wire
frame entity about the axis a certain angle.

105
Generated
Curves
Generator
Curves

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e. Bezier Surface: It is a surface that approximates given input
data. It is general surface that permits twist and kink
A B E Z I E R S U R FAC E U N D E R T H E
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C P O LY G O N
F O R M E D B Y I T S C O N T RO L
POINTS

f. B-Spline surface: It works on both approximation and interpolation

techniques. It permits local control of the surface.

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g. Coons Patch: The above surfaces are used either open
boundaries or given data points but this one uses curves that
form closed boundaries.

On the left are four

defining curves

108
h. Fillet Surfaces: It bends to straight surfaces. Original surface
can be trimmed or not trimmed.

Fillet

i. Offset Surface: It is used to create surface which are identical

in cross section but they may have different size.

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Surface Offset
 4.3 SOLID MODELS

• Solid modeling is based on complete, valid and unambiguous geometric

representation of physical object.
• Complete  points in space can be classified.(inside/ outside)
• Valid vertices, edges, faces are connected properly.
• Unambiguous  there can only be one interpretation of object

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 SOLID MODELS

• In the solid modeling, the solid definitions include vertices (nodes), edges, surfaces,
weight, and volume. The model is a complete and unambiguous representation of a
precisely enclosed and filled volume.

• Solid model consist of geometric and topological data

• Geometry  shape, size, location of geometric elements

• Topology connectivity and associativity of geometric elements

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Geometry
• Geometry is the actual dimensions that defines the entity of an object
• It is called as metric information
• It includes
• length of line
• Angle between lines
• Centre of circle
• Radius of circle

• Geometry concerns size and shape of an object

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Topology
• Topology generalizes many distance related concepts, such as continuity,
compactness and convergence.

• In topology we can consider two wholly different shapes in geometry as the same
because we can pull or push the lines or move the vertices.

• It is the way in which entities are associated and connected.

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 SOLID MODELS

Advantages
• Least abstract & more realistic model

• Extremely used in design and manufacturing, is now more popular

• It gives more complete, valid, unambiguous representation of objects

• Has all the advantages of surface models (uniqueness, non-ambiguous, realistic, surface
profile) plus volumetric information.

• Allows the designer to create multiple options for a design.

• 2D standard drawings, assembly drawing and exploded views are generated form the
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3D model.
 SOLID MODELS
Advantages:
• Can easily be exported to different Finite Element Methods programs for analysis.
• Can be used in newly manufacturing techniques; computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM), computer aided manufacturing (CAM) and Design for
manufacturability (DFM) , Design for assembly (DFA)
• Mass and volumetric properties of an object can be easily obtained; total mass,
mass center, area and mass moment of inertia, volume, radius of gyration, …
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to construct complex objects than wireframe and surface
modeling
• Consumes more computer time and memory (Requires more powerful
computers (faster with more memory and good graphics)
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 WHY SOLID MODELING?

• Recall weakness of wireframe and surface modeling

• Ambiguous geometric description

• incomplete geometric description

• lack topological information

• Tedious modeling process

• Awkward user interface

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Popular Solid Representation Schemes:

1. Constructive Solid Geometry(CSG) / C – Rep/: CAD packages; Unigraphics,

AutoCAD – 3D modeler.

2. Boundary Representation/B-Rep/ : mostly used in finite element programs.

3. Sweep representation:

4. Analytical Solid modeling technique

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 1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

• The simplest solid objects used for the representation are

called primitives.
• Typically they are the objects of simple shape:
• cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones
• The set of allowable primitives is limited by each software package.
• Some software packages allow CSG on curved objects while other
packages do not.
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 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is a technique used in solid modelling

• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeller to create a complex surface or

object by using Boolean operators to combine objects.

• Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually complex,

• but is actually little more than cleverly combined objects.

• CSG defines a model in terms of combining basic and generated (using extrusion
and sweeping operation) solid shapes.

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 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

 Solid model is built out of solid primitives joined in a

certain order.
 Primitives are combined using Boolean operations:
• Union (Unite, join) - the operation combines
two volumes included in the different solids
into a single solid.
• Subtract (cut) - the operation subtracts the
volume of one solid from the other solid object.
• Intersection - the operation keeps only the
volume common to both solids
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 PRIMITIVE SOLIDS AND BOOLEAN OPERATIONS

Solid Modeling Entities (Basic primitive solid)

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 PRIMITIVE SOLIDS

The location of
the insertion base
or base point and
default axes
orientation.

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 SET THEORY

Union Difference Intersection

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 BOOLEAN OPERATION

• Union
• The sum of all points in each of two defined sets. (logical “OR”)
• Also referred to as Add, Combine, Join, Merge

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 BOOLEAN OPERATION

• Difference
– The points in a source set minus the points common to a second set.
(logical “NOT”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as subtraction, remove, cut

126
 BOOLEAN OPERATION

• Intersection
– Those points common to each of two defined sets (logical “AND”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as common

127
 BOOLEAN OPERATION

Subtract

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Union Intersection
IMPLEMENTING BOOLEAN OPERATION
Consider solids A and B.

129
Solid Modeling Exercise Using CSG
Union

Plan your modeling strategy

before you start creating
the solid model
Cut

Cut

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Advantages

• Powerful, Solid model can be made with minimum number of steps

• Higher level representation scheme (It results a more compact file of the model in
the database)
• Boolean operations are implemented & take little processing time
• Operations are similar to manufacturing process
• Easy to construct a solid model – minimum step.
• CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise database less storage.
• Complete history of model is retained and can be altered at any point.
• Can be converted to the corresponding boundary representation.

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Disadvantages
• Difficult to model geometry with complicated surface
• An object’s face , edges,Vertices are not available in clear form
• Mathematically difficult as the degree of the surfaces increases
• Only Boolean operations are allowed in the modeling process  with
Boolean operation alone, the range of shapes to be modeled is severely
restricted  not possible to construct unusual shape.

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2. Boundary Representation/B-Rep/:
• The boundary representation method represents a solid as a collection of
boundary surfaces.
• The method is can be conveniently used for hidden surface removal and
rendering due to the directly available surface information of the modeled
objects.
• It does not guarantee that a group of boundary surfaces (often polygons) form a
closed solid. This representation is used mainly for graphical displays.
• Many CAD systems have a hybrid data structure, using CSG and B-rep

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object boundary
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B -REP)

• A solid model is formed by defining the surfaces that form its boundary (edges
and surfaces)

• The face of a B-rep represents an oriented surface, there are two sides to the
surface; solid side (inside) and void side (outside), unlike faces in a wireframe.

• B-rep model is created using Euler operation

• Many Finite Element Method (FEM) programs use this method. Allows the
interior meshing of the volume to be more easily controlled.
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• B-rep is a method to create solid models of physical objects
• B-rep solid is represented as a volume contained in a set of faces.
• It also contains topological information that defines the relationship between
faces.
• In B-rep a solid is bounded by its surface and has its exterior and interior clearly
defined.
• As it includes such topological information, a solid is represented as a closed
space in 3D space.
• The geometry can be described by its boundaries like vertices, edges and
surfaces.
• Each face is bounded by edge and each edge is bounded by 135
A B-rep model of an object consists of faces, edges, vertices, loops, genes
(handle) and body.

• Vertex : A unique point (ordered

triplet) in space.
• Edge :A finite, non-self
intersecting space curve bounded
by two vertices that are not
necessarily distinct.
• Face :Finite, connected, non-self
intersecting region of a closed,
orientable surface bounded by one
or more loops.

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• Loop :An ordered
alternating sequence of
vertices and edges. A loop
defines non-self intersecting
piecewise closed space curve
which may be a boundary of
a face.
• Loop is a hole in a face

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• Body :An independent solid.
Sometimes called a shell has a set
of faces that bound single
connected closed volume. A
minimum body is a point (vortex)
which topologically has one face
one vortex and no edges.
• A point is therefore called a
seminal or singular body.

• Genus : it is topological name for the number of handles or through

holes in an object
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• The total information present in a B-rep model is classified into topological and
geometrical data.,

• The topological part of the data provides the relationship among its objects
such as vertices, edges and faces similar to that used in WFM

• Geometric information is usually equations of edges and faces.

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 ADVANTAGE OF CSG OVER B-REP

1. CSG needs low storage due to the simple CSG tree structure and
primitives.
2. CSG primitives are constructed from the half-space concept.
3. It is easier to convert a CSG model to a wire frame model than to
convert a B-rep model to a wire frame model.
4. Because both CSG and B-rep use face direction (half-space or surface
normal), they can have a full “body knowledge.”

140
3. Sweep representation:
• Boundary of surface, i.e., edges are used to define a surface.
• Starts with one or more wire frame profiles & creates a solid by extruding, sweeping,
revolving these profiles.

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 SWEEP REPRESENTATION:

Advantages:
• Easier to construct complex shapes which are difficult with
primitives
• Sweep represented model can be converted to wire frame model
relatively easily
Disadvantages:
• Requires large storage space
• Complexity of the model increases for large models.

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4. Analytical Sold Modeling (ASM) Technique:
• It is mainly developed for FEA works such as mass property calculations, composite
material modeling, & computer animation
• Does not involve orientable surfaces like B-rep and C-rep.
5. Half space representation:
• Half space blocks are used as building block.
• Half-spaces are usually unbounded geometric entities, each one of them divides the
representation space into two infinite portions, one filled with material and the other
empty.

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 SOLID MODELING BASED APPLICATION

1. Graphics:
It includes generating line drawing with or without hidden line removal,
shading, Animation, simulation
2. Design:
Mass property calculation, Interference checking, FEM modeling, kinematic
and mechanism analysis.
3. Manufacturing:
Tool path generation & verification ( i.e. CNC programming), process
planning and inspection.
4. Assembly:
To check assembly planning in FMS(Flexible Manufacturing System), vision
algorithm based on solid modeling, and robotic kinematics & dynamics driven by
solid modeling in Robotics. 146
Questions ?
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