Chapter 1
Introduction to Wireless Communications
Wireless communication is one of the most vibrant areas in the
communication field today. There are two fundamental aspects of wireless
communication that make the problem challenging and interesting. First is the
phenomenon of fading: the time variation of the channel strengths due to the
small-scale effect of multipath fading, as well as larger-scale effects such as
path loss via distance attenuation and shadowing by obstacles. Second, unlike
in the wired world where each transmitter–receiver pair can often be thought
of as an isolated point-to-point link, wireless users communicate over the air
and there is significant interference between them. The interference can be
between transmitters communicating with a common receiver (e.g., uplink of
a cellular system), between signals from a single transmitter to multiple
receivers (e.g., downlink of a cellular system), or between different
transmitter–receiver pairs (e.g., interference between users in different cells).
How to deal with fading and with interference is central to the design of
wireless communication systems.
1.1 Multipath Propagation
In wireless communication, multipath is the propagation phenomenon
that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more
paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric
reflection and refraction, and reflection from water bodies and terrestrial
objects such as mountains and buildings. The effects of multipath include
constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. In
digital radio communications, such as GSM, multipath can cause errors and
affect the quality of communications. We discuss all the related issues in this
chapter.
Multipath signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e., where
different forms of propagation are present and the signals arrive at the receiver
from transmitter via a variety of paths. Therefore there would be multipath
interference, causing multipath fading. Adding the effect of movement of
either Tx or Rx or the surrounding clutter to it, the received overall signal
amplitude or phase changes over a small amount of time. Mainly this causes
the fading.
1.1.1 Multipath Effects:
In principle, the following are the main multipath effects:
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time
interval (fading).
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals (Doppler effects).
3. Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation delays
(time spread).
1.2 Fading:
In wireless communications, fading is variation of the attenuation of a
signal with various variables. These variables include time, geographical
position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process.
A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In
wireless systems, fading can be roughly divided into two types, small scale
fading and large scale fading.
Figurer 1.1. The effect of different types of fading on the received power.
In figure 1.1, Typical behavior (dotted curve) of the ratio, expressed in
decibels, between the received power PR and the transmitted power PT versus
the transmitter–receiver distance d (normalized to the link wavelength λ) in a
wireless communication system operating over a fading channel. The
contributions due to path loss (dot-dashed curve) and to the joint effect of this
loss and shadowing (continuous line) are also shown.
1.2.1 Large-scale fading (slow term or shadowing):
It is due to path loss of signal as a function of distance and shadowing by
large objects such as buildings and hills. This occurs as the mobile moves
through a distance of the order of the cell size, and is typically frequency
independent.
Free Space Propagation Model (path loss) is used to predict received signal
strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-
sight path between them. Satellite communication systems and microwave
line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with
most large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model
predicts that received power decays as a function of the separation distance.
The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from
a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space
equation,
(1.1)
where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr(d) is the received power which is a
function of the distance d, Gt is the transmitter antenna gain, G r is the receiver
antenna gain, d is the separation distance in meters, L is the system loss factor
not related to propagation (L >= 1), and λ is the wavelength in meters.
The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity
measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitted power and the received power, and may or may not include the
effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model when
antenna gains are included is given by
(1.2)
The random shadowing effects is described by the log-normal distribution
which occur over a large number of measurement locations which have the
same separation distance, but have different levels of clutter on the
propagation path. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing.
1.2.2 Small-scale fading (fast term):
It is due to the constructive and destructive interference of the multiple
signal paths between the transmitter and receiver. This occurs at the spatial
scale of the order of the carrier wavelength, and is frequency dependent. The
term small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases,
or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel
distance. This might be so severe that large scale radio propagation loss effects
might be ignored.
The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio
propagation channel.
1) Multipath propagation (the main reason)
Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals
reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of
multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase
shifting of the signal.
2) Speed of the mobile or surrounding objects
The relative motion between the base station and the mobile, results in
random frequency modulation, due to different Doppler shifts on each of the
multipath components. Also, if the surrounding objects move at a greater rate
than the mobile, then this effect dominates fading.
3) different path lengths
In multipath propagation, each path has different length, this leads to
different time delay between paths (r.m.s. delay spread) which causes time
dispersion.
1.3 Types of Small-Scale Fading
Before classifying small scale fading, some definitions should be
studied.
* Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse
response is considered to be not varying. Such channel variation is much more
significant in wireless communications systems, due to Doppler effects.
Coherence time is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency depressiveness of the
channel in the time domain. The Maximum Doppler spread and coherence
time are inversely proportional to one another.
* Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered "flat". The coherence
bandwidth and Maximum time Delay spread are inversely proportional to
one another.
The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel
depends on the relation between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol
period) and the channel parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler
spread). Hence we have four different types of fading.
