EEE 362/462

Digital Signal Processing

Discrete-Time Signals
and Systems
Lecture 02
1 Discrete-Time Signals
 A discrete-time signal 𝑥 𝑛 is a function of an independent variable that is an
integer.
 It is graphically represented as in Figure 1.
 A discrete-time signal is not defined at instants between two successive samples.
Therefore, it is incorrect to think that 𝑥 𝑛 is equal to zero if n is not an integer.
 We will assume that a discrete-time signal is defined for every integer value n for
− ∞ < 𝑛 < ∞.
 𝑥(𝑛) is referred to as the "nth sample" of the signal even if the signal 𝑥 𝑛 is
inherently discrete time (i.e., not obtained by sampling an analogue signal).
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is obtained from sampling an analogue 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡), then 𝑥 𝑛 ≡ 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 , where
T is the sampling period (i.e., the time signal between successive samples).

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1 Discrete-Time Signals (Cont.)

Figure 1. Graphical representation of a discrete-time signal.

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1 Discrete-Time Signals (Cont.)
 In addition to the graphical representation of a discrete signal illustrated in Figure
1, other representations of discrete signals include:
Functional representation

1, for 𝑛 = 1,3
𝑥 𝑛 = ቐ 4, for 𝑛 = 2 (1)
0, elsewhere
Tabular representation
n … -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …
x(n) … 0 0 0 1 4 1 0 0 …

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1 Discrete-Time Signals (Cont.)
Sequence representation
 An infinite-duration signal or sequence with the time origin (𝑛 = 0) indicated by
the symbol ↑ is represented as

𝑥 𝑛 = … , 0, 0, 1, 4, 1, 0, 0, … 2
↑
 A sequence 𝑥 𝑛 which is zero for 𝑛 < 0, can be represented as
𝑥 𝑛 = 0, 1, 4, 1, 0, 0, … 3
↑
 The time origin for a sequence 𝑥 𝑛 which is zero for 𝑛 < 0, is understood to be
the first (leftmost) point in the sequence.

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1 Discrete-Time Signals (Cont.)
 A finite-duration sequence can be represented as
𝑥 𝑛 = 3, −1, −2, 5, 0, 4, −1 4
↑
whereas a finite-duration sequence that satisfies the condition 𝑥 𝑛 = 0
for 𝑛 < 0 can be represented as
𝑥 𝑛 = 0, 1, 4, 1 5
↑
 The signal in (4) consists of seven samples or points (in time), so it is
called or identified as a seven-point sequence. Similarly, the sequence
given by (5) is a four-point sequence.

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2 Elementary Discrete-Time Signals
 In the study of discrete-time signals and systems there are a number of basic
signals that appear often and play an important role. These signals are:
 Unit Sample Sequence
 Unit Step Signal
 Unit Ramp Signal
 The Exponential Signal

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2.1 Unit Sample Sequence
 The unit sample sequence is denoted as 𝛿(𝑛) and is defined as

1, for 𝑛 = 0
𝛿(𝑛) ≡ ቊ (6)
0, for 𝑛 ≠ 0
 The unit sample sequence is a signal that is zero everywhere, except at 𝑛 = 0
where its value is unity. This signal is sometimes referred to as a unit impulse.
 In contrast to the analogue signal 𝛿(𝑡) which is also called a unit impulse and is
defined to be zero everywhere except at 𝑡 = 0, and has unit area, unit sample
sequence is much less mathematically complicated.
 Figure 2 shows the graphical representation of 𝛿(𝑛).

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2.1 Unit Sample Sequence (Cont.)

Figure 2. Graphical representation of the unit sample signal.

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2.2 Unit Step Signal
 The unit step signal is denoted as 𝑢(𝑛) and is defined as

1, for 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢(𝑛) ≡ ቊ (7)
0, for 𝑛 < 0
 Figure 3 illustrates the unit step signal.

Figure 3. Graphical representation of the unit step signal.

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2.3 Unit Ramp Signal
 The unit ramp signal is denoted as 𝑢𝑟 (𝑛) and is defined as

𝑛, for 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢𝑟 (𝑛) ≡ ቊ (8)
0, for 𝑛 < 0
 Figure 4 illustrates the unit ramp signal .

Figure 4. Graphical representation of the unit ramp signal .

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2.3 The Exponential Signal
 The exponential signal is a sequence of the form
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛 (9)
 If the parameter a is real, then 𝑥 𝑛 is a real signal. Figure 5 illustrates 𝑥 𝑛 for
various values of the parameter a.
 When the parameter a is complex valued, it can be expressed as

𝑎 ≡ 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 (10)
where r and 𝜃 are now the parameters.
 Equation (9) can then be expressed as

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃𝑛 (11)

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2.3 The Exponential Signal (Cont.)
 𝑥 𝑛 can be represented graphically by plotting the real part
𝑥𝑅 (𝑛) = 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑛 (12)
as a function of n, and separately plotting the imaginary part
𝑥𝐼 (𝑛) = 𝑟 𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑛 (13)
as a function of n.
 The sequence oscillates with an exponentially growing envelope if |r| > 1 or with
an exponentially decaying envelope if |r| < 1.
 Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the graphs of 𝑥𝑅 (𝑛) and 𝑥𝐼 (𝑛), respectively, for 𝑟 =
0.9 and 𝜃 = 𝜋/10.

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2.3 The Exponential Signal (Cont.)

Figure 5: Graphical representation of exponential signals.

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2.3 The Exponential Signal (Cont.)

Figure 6. Graph of the real component of a complex-valued exponential signal.

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2.3 The Exponential Signal (Cont.)

Figure 7. Graph of the imaginary component of a complex-valued exponential signal.

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3 Classification Discrete-Time Signals
 The mathematical methods employed in the analysis of discrete-time signals and
systems depend on the characteristics of the signals.
 This section classifies discrete-time signals.

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3.1 Energy Signals and Power Signals
 The energy E of a signal 𝑥(𝑛) is defined as
∞

𝐸≡ ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 2 (14)
𝑛=−∞

 The magnitude-squared values of 𝑥(𝑛) are used so that the definition in (14)
applies to complex-valued signals as well as real-valued signals.
 The energy of a signal can be finite or infinite. If E is finite (i.e., 0 < 𝐸 < ∞), then
𝑥(𝑛) is called an energy signal.
 The average power of a discrete-time signal 𝑥(𝑛) is defined as
𝑁
1 2
𝑃 = lim ෍ 𝑥(𝑛) (15)
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

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3.1 Energy Signals and Power Signals (Cont.)
 If E is finite, 𝑃 = 0. On the other hand, if E is infinite, the average power P may be
either finite or infinite.
 If P is finite (and nonzero), the signal is called a power signal.

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3.2 Periodic Signals and Aperiodic Signals
 A signal 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period N (𝑁 > 0) if and only if
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑁 = 𝑥 𝑛 for all 𝑛 (16)
 The smallest value of N for which (16) holds is called the (fundamental) period.
 If there is no value of N that satisfies (16), the signal is called nonperiodic or
aperiodic.
 The energy of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑛) over a single period is finite if 𝑥(𝑛) takes on
finite values over the period.
 However, the energy of the periodic signal for −∞ ≤ 𝑛 ≤ ∞ is infinite.
 On the other hand, the average power of the periodic signal is finite and it is equal
to the average power over a single period.

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3.2 Periodic Signals and Aperiodic Signals (Cont.)
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is a periodic signal with fundamental period N and takes on finite values,
its power is given by
𝑁−1
1 2
𝑃 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛) (17)
𝑁
𝑛=0

 All periodic signals are power signals.

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3.3 Symmetric and antisymmetric signals
 A real-valued signal 𝑥(𝑛) is called symmetric (even) if
𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 (18)
 Figure 8 shows an example of a signal with even symmetry.

Figure 8: Example of an even signal.

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3.3 Symmetric and antisymmetric signals (Cont.)
 On the other hand, a signal 𝑥(𝑛) is called antisymmetric (odd) if
𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛 (19)
 If 𝑥(𝑛) is odd, then 𝑥 0 = 0 . Figure 9 shows an example of a signal with odd
symmetry.

Figure 9: Example of an odd signal.

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3.3 Symmetric and antisymmetric signals (Cont.)
 Any signal can be expressed as the sum of two signal components, one of which is
even and the other odd:
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑛 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑛 (18)
where
1
𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 −𝑛 (19)
2
1
𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 −𝑛 (20)
2

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4 Manipulation of Discrete-Time Signals
 This section we consider some simple modifications or manipulations involving
the independent variable and the signal amplitude (dependent variable).

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4.1 Transformation of the Independent Variable
 A signal 𝑥 𝑛 may be shifted in time by replacing the independent variable n by
𝑛 − 𝑘, where k is an integer.
 If k is a positive integer, the time shift results in a delay of the signal by k units of
time.
 If k is a negative integer, the time shift results in an advance of the signal by 𝑘
units in time.
 If the signal 𝑥 𝑛 is stored on a medium, it is a relatively simple operation to
modify the base by introducing a delay or an advance.
 On the other hand, if the signal is not stored but is being generated by some
physical phenomenon in real time, it is not possible to advance the signal in time,
since such an operation involves signal samples that have not yet been generated.

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4.1 Transformation of the Independent Variable (Cont.)
 Another useful modification of the time base is to replace the independent variable
n by −𝑛. The result of this operation is a folding or a reflection of the signal about
the time origin 𝑛=0.
 A third modification of the independent variable involves replacing n by µn, where
µ is an integer. We refer to this time-base modification as time scaling or down-
sampling.

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4.2 Addition, Multiplication, and Scaling
 Amplitude modifications include addition, multiplication, and scaling of discrete-
time signals.
 Amplitude scaling of a signal by a constant A is accomplished by multiplying the
value of every signal sample by A:

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑛 , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ (21)

 The sum of two signals 𝑥1 (𝑛) and 𝑥2 (𝑛) is a signal 𝑦(𝑛), whose value at any
instant is equal to the sum of the values of these two signals at that instant:
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑥2 (𝑛), −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ (22)
 The product of two signals is similarly defined on a sample-to-sample basis as
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥1 (𝑛)𝑥2 (𝑛), −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ (23)

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