Calculus Early Transcendentals:

Differential & Multi-Variable

Calculus for Social Sciences

5.5 Extrema of a Function

¶

In calculus, there is much emphasis placed on

analyzing the behaviour of a function f on an
interval I . Does f have a maximum value on I ?
Does it have a minimum value? How does the
interval I impact our discussion of extrema?

5.5.1 Relative Extrema ¶

A relative maximum point on a function is a
point (x, y) on the graph of the function whose
y-coordinate is larger than all other y-
coordinates on the graph at points “close to”
(x, y). More precisely, (x, f(x)) is a relative
maximum if there is an interval (a, b) with
a < x < b and f(x) ≥ f(z) for every z in (a, b).
Similarly, (x, y) is a relative minimum point if it
has locally the smallest y-coordinate. Again
being more precise: (x, f(x)) is a relative
minimum if there is an interval (a, b) with
a < x < b and f(x) ≤ f(z) for every z in (a, b).
A relative extremum is either a relative
minimum or a relative maximum.
Note:

1. The plural of extremum is extrema and

similarly for maximum and minimum.
2. Because a relative extremum is
“extreme” locally by looking at points
“close to” it, it is also referred to as a
local extremum.

Definition 5.46. Relative Maxima and

Minima. A real-valued function f has a
relative maximum at x0 if f(x0 ) ≥ f(x) for
all x in some open interval containing x0 .

A real-valued function f has a relative

minimum at x0 if f(x0 ) ≤ f(x) for all x in
some open interval containing x0 .

Relative maximum and minimum points are

quite distinctive on the graph of a function,
and are therefore useful in understanding the
shape of the graph. In many applied problems
we want to find the largest or smallest value
that a function achieves (for example, we
might want to find the minimum cost at which
some task can be performed) and so
identifying maximum and minimum points will
be useful for applied problems as well. Some
examples of relative maximum and minimum
points are shown in Figure 5.14 .

Figure 5.14. Some relative maximum points (

A) and minimum points (B).

If (x, f(x)) is a point where f(x) reaches a

relative maximum or minimum, and if the
derivative of f exists at x, then the graph has a
tangent line and the tangent line must be
horizontal. This is important enough to state as
a theorem.

The proof is simple enough and we include it

here, but you may accept Fermat's Theorem
based on its strong intuitive appeal and come
back to its proof at a later time.

Theorem 5.47. Fermat's Theorem. If

f(x) has a relative extremum at x = a and f
is di!erentiable at a, then f ′ (a) = 0, provided
that f ′ (a) exists.

Proof.

Thus, the only points at which a function can

have a relative maximum or minimum are
points at which the derivative is zero, as in the
left-hand graph in Figure 5.14 , or the
derivative is undefined, as in the right-hand
graph. This leads us to define these special
points.

Definition 5.48. Critical Point. Any

value of x in the domain of f for which f ′ (x)
is zero or undefined is called a critical point
of f .

The x-values a, b and c above are places for

which f ′ (x) is zero, and the x-values d and e
above are places for which f ′ (x) is
undefined.

Note: When looking for relative maximum and

minimum points, you are likely to make two
sorts of mistakes.

1. You may forget that a maximum or

minimum can occur where the derivative
does not exist. You should therefore
check whether the derivative exists
everywhere.
2. You might also assume that any place
that the derivative is zero is a relative
maximum or minimum point, but this is
not true. A portion of the graph of
f(x) = x3 is shown in Figure 5.15 . The
derivative of f is f ′ (x) = 3x2 , and
f ′ (0) = 0, but there is neither a
maximum nor minimum at (0, 0). In
other words, the converse of Fermat's
Theorem — if f ′ (a) = 0 at some point
x = a, then f must have a relative
extremum at that point — is not true.

Figure 5.15. No relative extrema even though

the derivative is zero at x = 0.

Since the derivative is zero or undefined at

both relative maximum and relative minimum
points, we need a way to determine which, if
either, actually occurs. The most elementary
approach, but one that is often tedious or
di"cult, is to test directly whether the y-
coordinates “near” the potential maximum or
minimum are above or below the y-coordinate
at the point of interest. Of course, there are
too many points “near” the point to test, but a
little thought shows we need only test two
provided we know that f is continuous (recall
that this means that the graph of f has no
jumps or gaps).

Suppose, for example, that we have identified

three points at which f ′ is zero or nonexistent:
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ), and x1 < x2 < x3 (see
Figure 5.16 ). Suppose that we compute the
value of f(a) for x1 < a < x2 , and that
f(a) < f(x2 ). What can we say about the graph
between a and x2 ? Could there be a point
(b, f(b)), a < b < x2 with f(b) > f(x2 )? No: if
there were, the graph would go up from
(a, f(a)) to (b, f(b)) then down to (x2 , f(x2 ))
and somewhere in between would have a
relative maximum point. (This is not obvious; it
is a result of the Extreme Value Theorem
stated in the next section.) But at that relative
maximum point the derivative of f would be
zero or nonexistent, yet we already know that
the derivative is zero or nonexistent only at x1 ,
x2 , and x3 . The upshot is that one computation
tells us that (x2 , f(x2 )) has the largest y-
coordinate of any point on the graph near x2
and to the left of x2 . We can perform the same
test on the right. If we find that on both sides
of x2 the values are smaller, then there must
be a relative maximum at (x2 , f(x2 )); if we find
that on both sides of x2 the values are larger,
then there must be a relative minimum at
(x2 , f(x2 )); if we find one of each, then there is
neither a relative maximum or minimum at x2 .

Figure 5.16. Testing for a maximum or

minimum.

It is not always easy to compute the value of a

function at a particular point. The task is made
easier by the availability of calculators and
computers, but they have their own drawbacks
—they do not always allow us to distinguish
between values that are very close together.
Nevertheless, because this method is
conceptually simple and sometimes easy to
perform, you should always consider it.

Example5.49. Testing for Relative

Extrema in Cubic Function.

Find all relative maximum and minimum

points for the function f(x) = x3 − x.
► Solution

Of course this example is made very simple by

our choice of points to test, namely x = −1, 0,
1. We could have used other values, say −5/4,
1/3, and 3/4, but this would have made the
calculations considerably more tedious, and
we should always choose very simple points to
test if we can.

Example5.50. Testing for Relative

Extrema in Trigonometric Function.

Find all relative maximum and minimum

points for f(x) = sin x + cos x.
► Solution

Example5.51. Testing for Relative

Extrema in Power Function.

Find all relative maximum and minimum

points for g (x) = x2/3 .
► Solution

Exercises for Section 5.5.1.

Exercise 5.5.1.

Find all relative maximum and minimum

points (x, y) by the method of this
section.

a. y = x2 − x Answer Solution

b. y = 2 + 3x − x3 Answer Solution
c. y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x Answer
Solution
d. y = x4 − 2x2 + 3 Answer Solution
e. y = 3x4 − 4x3 Answer Solution
f. y = (x2 − 1)/x Answer Solution
g. y = 3x2 − (1/x2 ) Answer Solution
h. y = cos(2x) − x Answer Solution
i. x − 1 x < 2 Answer
f(x) = {
x2 x≥2
Solution
j. ⎧x − 3 x < 3
f(x) = ⎨ x3
⎩
3≤x≤5
1/x x>5
Answer Solution
k. f(x) = x2 − 98x + 4 Answer
Solution
l. −2 x = 0 Answer
f(x) = {
1/x2 x≠0
Solution

Exercise 5.5.2.
Exercise 5.5.3.
Exercise 5.5.4.
Exercise 5.5.5.
Exercise 5.5.6.
Exercise 5.5.7.

5.5.2 Absolute Extrema ¶

Unlike a relative extremum, which is only
“extreme” relative to points “close to” it, an
absolute extremum is “extreme” compared to
all other points in the interval under
consideration. Some examples of absolute
maximum and minimum points are shown in
Figure 5.17 . This leads us to the following
definitions.

Definition 5.52. Absolute Maxima and

Minima. A real-valued function f has an
absolute maximum at x0 if f(x0 ) ≥ f(x) for
all x in the domain of f .

A real-valued function f has an absolute

minimum at x0 if f(x0 ) ≤ f(x) for all x in
the domain of f .

Note:

1. Notice that the definition of absolute

extrema entails that an absolute
extremum, unlike a relative extremum,
can fall on an endpoint as shown in
Figure 5.17 .
2. Because of the “global” nature of an
absolute extremum it is also often
referred to as a global extremum.

Figure 5.17. Classification of Extrema

Example5.53. Absolute Extrema Using

a Graph.

Find the absolute extrema of the following

functions using their graphs.

a. f(x) = x2 on the interval (−∞, ∞).

b. f(x) = |x| on the interval [−1, 2].

c. f(x) = cos x on the interval [0, π].

► Solution

Like Fermat's Theorem, the following theorem

has an intuitive appeal. However, unlike
Fermat's Theorem, the proof relies on a more
advanced concept called compactness, which
will only be covered in a course typically
entitled Analysis. So, we will be content with
understanding the statement of the theorem.

Theorem 5.54. Extreme Value

Theorem. If a function f is continuous on a
closed interval [a, b], then f has both an
absolute maximum and an absolute minimum
on [a, b].

Although this theorem tells us that an absolute

extremum exists, it does not tell us what it is or
how to find it.

Note that if an absolute extremum is inside the

interval (i.e. not an endpoint), then it must also
be a relative extremum. This immediately tells
us that to find the absolute extrema of a
function on an interval, we need only examine
the relative extrema inside the interval, and
the endpoints of the interval. We can devise a
method for finding absolute extrema for a
function f on a closed interval [a, b].

Guideline for Finding Absolute

Extrema Given Continuity of f and
Closed Interval.
1. Verify the function is continuous on
[a, b].
2. Find the derivative and determine all
critical values of f that are in (a, b).

3. Evaluate the function at the critical

values found in Step 2 and the
endpoints x = a and x = b of the
interval.
4. The absolute maximum value and
absolute minimum value of f
correspond to the largest and smallest
y-values respectively found in Step 3.

Why must a function be continuous on a

closed interval in order to use this theorem?
Consider the following example.

Example5.55. Absolute Extrema and

Continuity.

Find any absolute extrema for f(x) = 1/x

on the interval [−1, 1].
► Solution

However, if we consider the same function on

an interval where it is continuous, the theorem
will apply. This is illustrated in the following
example.

Example5.56. Absolute Extrema and

Continuity.

Find any absolute extrema for f(x) = 1/x

on the interval [1, 2].
► Solution

Why must an interval be closed in order to use

the above theorem? Recall the di#erence
between open and closed intervals. Consider a
function f on the open interval (0, 1). If we
choose successive values of x moving closer
and closer to 1, what happens? Since 1 is not
included in the interval we will not attain
exactly the value of 1. Suppose we reach a
value of 0.9999 — is it possible to get closer to
1? Yes: There are infinitely many real numbers
between 0.9999 and 1. In fact, any conceivable
real number close to 1 will have infinitely many
real numbers between itself and 1. Now,
suppose f is decreasing on (0, 1): As we
approach 1, f will continue to decrease, even if
the di#erence between successive values of f
is slight. Similarly if f is increasing on (0, 1).

Consider a few more examples:

Example5.57. Determining
Absolute Extrema.

Determine the absolute extrema of

f(x) = x3 − x2 + 1 on the interval
[−1, 2].
► Solution

Example5.58. Determining Absolute

Extrema.

Determine the absolute extrema of

f(x) = −9/x − x + 10 on the interval [2, 6].
► Solution

When we are trying to find the absolute

extrema of a function on an open interval, we
cannot use the Extreme Value Theorem.
However, if the function is continuous on the
interval, many of the same ideas apply. In
particular, if an absolute extremum exists, it
must also be a relative extremum. In addition
to checking values at the relative extrema, we
must check the behaviour of the function as it
approaches the ends of the interval.

Some examples to illustrate this method.

Example5.59. Determining Absolute

Extrema.

Find the extrema of y = sec(x) on

(−π/2, π/2).
► Solution

A similar approach can be used for infinite

intervals.

Example5.60. Determining Absolute

Extrema.

x2
Find the extrema of y = on
x2 + 1
(−∞, ∞).
► Solution

Exercises for Section 5.5.2.

Exercise 5.5.8.
Exercise 5.5.9.

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