Chapter 6

Signal Processing
Dr. Hani Muhsen

Dr. Hani Muhsen 1

6.1 Introduction
• Analogue and digital filters are used extensively in sensor signal processing (pre-
and postprocessing of sensor signals).

• Analogue filters are often used to deal with the so-called aliasing phenomenon
that is common in data acquisition systems.

• Digital filters are generally used to postprocess acquired signals and can be used
in conjunction with sophisticated digital signal-processing techniques such as Fast
Fourier Transform to perform spectral analysis of acquired signals.

• Signal filtering. consists of selectively passing or rejecting low-, medium-, and

high frequency signals from the frequency spectrum of a general signal.
6.2 Analogue Filters
•Analogue filters are used primarily for two reasons:

1.To buffer and reduce the impedance of sensors for interface with data acquisition
devices (DAQ devices).

2.Eliminate high-frequency noise from the original signal so as to prevent aliasing in

analogue-to-digital conversion.

•Analogue filters can be constructed using passive components (namely resistors,

capacitors, and, at times, inductors) or combination of passive and active
components or more commonly, operational amplifiers.
6.2.1 Passive Filters
They are designed with a few simple electronic components (resistors & capacitors)
Low-pass filter, can be used to remove (or attenuate) high-frequency noise in the original
signal.

Approx.

Where Vi,1,Vi,2,Vi,3, . . . are the amplitudes of the consecutively higher frequency

components or harmonics of the original signal.

• Any time function can be viewed as being a combination of sinusoidal ( infinite series
of sinusoidal frequencies that are multiples of the so-called fundamental frequency).
6.2.1 Passive Filters
• Higher frequency components may represent fluctuations (or, in many cases, electrical
noise) that we may wish to attenuate to prevent aliasing. (present a clean signal to the
DAQ system.)

• The filter produces an output, vo, which has the same set of components (in terms of
the respective frequencies) as the original signal, vi, but at reduced amplitudes.

• Where Vo,1,Vo,2,Vo,3, . . . . are the amplitudes of the sinusoidal components in vo. In

general, Vo,1, Vo,2,Vo,3, . . . . are smaller than their counterparts in the input signal,
Vi,1,Vi,2,Vi,3, . . . .

• Low-pass filter attenuates each signal according to its frequency, the higher the
frequency, the larger the attenuation. (( e.g. V0,1 = 98% of Vi,1 V0,2 = 70% of Vi,2 and
so on ))
 Low Passive Filter Circuit

Kirrchoff’s voltage law (KVL):

Laplace transformation.

Where,

Corner frequency of filter,

Low Passive Filter Circuit

• Signal is not attenuated in the pass band

• Signal completely attenuated in the stop band
Frequency Domain Analysis

Partial fractions and simplification,

The steady-state output would be,

In more standard form,

High –Pass Passive filter
High –Pass Passive filter
6.2.2 Active Filters Using Op-amps

• Passive filters (resistors and capacitors) draw current from the input and will, in addition,
“load” the circuit connected to the output of the filter. Thus, Op-amps can eliminate this
problem.

• The current that in Op-amps is drawn from the input stage is very small (because op-amps
have large internal resistances, of the order of 10 MΩ).
 Op-Amps

• Often used in instrumentation to do the following:

• Boost the amplitude of the signal

• Buffer the signal

• Convert a signal current into a voltage

• Separate a difference signal from unwanted, common–mode signals

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Standard Op-Amp Circuits

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6.2.2 Active Filters Using Op-amps
• Passive filters (resistors and capacitors) draw current from the input and will, in addition,
“load” the circuit connected to the output of the filter. Thus, Op-amps can eliminate this
problem.

• The current that in Op-amps is drawn from the input stage is very small (because op-amps
have large internal resistances, of the order of 10 MΩ).
6.2.2 Active Low Pass Filters Using Op-amps

In negative feedback configuration,

Then
➢Compared with low pass passive
filter
6.2.2 Active High Pass Filters Using Op-amps
Differential Amplifier

• Solving and rearranging, we obtain:

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Electrocardiogram (ECG)

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6.2.6 Op-amps in Analogue Signal Processing

• op-amps can be used to perform simple

or more complex tasks. For instance, to
add two signals, vi and vr, together, an
op-amp and three resistors are used.

• if we set vr to be the
negative value of the DC
offset from a sensor, we will
be able to remove this offset
successfully.
Accelerometer
Example
accelerometer

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DG4FaY7Bws

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6.3 Digital Filters

• Digital filtering uses discrete data points sampled at regular intervals. These data
points are usually sampled from an analogue device such as the output of a
sensor ( an accelerometer to measure vibration in a beam).

• They rely not only on the current value of the measured variable, but also on its
past values

• The analog input signal must first be sampled and digitized using an ADC. The
resulting binary numbers, representing successive sampled values of the input
signal, are transferred to the processor, which carries out numerical calculations
on them.
6.3 Digital Filters
 6.3.1 Input Averaging Filter

• The previously unfiltered values of the given signal are used in the scheme:

• This is called a moving average filter, as it in effect

averages past values of the input signal, each with
its respective weight. Selection of these weights is
often an issue and can be formalized.

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6.3.2 Filter with Memory

• In a filter with memory, previously filtered values (outputs) are used to adjust the
new output. This filter takes the form

Where, the unfiltered signal is uk . And the filtered signal is yk-1

 ≤1

• Varying α will change the extent to which the input signal is filtered. In
particular, a relatively large α weighs in the current value of the input
signal, while a small α weighs in the past (filtered) signal.
Example

A set of data points is measured from a continuous signal as given in Table 6.2. A

simple input averaging filter with  values of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0 is used to filter
these values as depicted later
• α can be chosen based on the proximity of the filtered signal to the general
pattern of the input signal. (fine-tune a or similar parameters of a given filter to fit
the application)!
filters

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 Higher order filters

• First-order filter with a single-pole arrangement gives us a roll-off slope of -

20dB/decade attenuation of frequencies above the cut-off point at ƒ-3dB .

• However, sometimes in filter circuits this -20dB/decade angle of the slope may not
be enough to remove an unwanted signal then two or more stages of filtering can be
used

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 Second Order Filters

• first order filters can be easily converted into second order filters simply by using an
additional RC network within the input or feedback path. “two 1st-order filters
cascaded together with amplification”.

• Most designs of second order filters are generally named after their inventor with the
most common filter types being: Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Sallen-Key.

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 The Sallen-Key filter (low pass)

• The Sallen-Key filter design is one of the most widely known and popular 2nd
order filter designs, requiring only a single op-amplifier for the gain control and
four passive RC components to accomplish the tuning.

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The Sallen-Key filter

• the standard form for a low-pass filter with a dc gain of K:

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 Second Order Low Pass Filter

• Three choices of components are particularly useful:

1. K = 2 (Ra = Rb) - gives good matching and amplification

2. K = 1 - a voltage follower

3. R1 = R2 and C1 = C2, - reduction in cost due to similar components

• K values are the DC gain

• second order filters can exhibit a variety of responses depending upon the
circuits voltage magnification factor, Q at the the cut-off frequency point.
 The Quality Factor, “Q”

• a low pass filter can exhibit a resonant peak in the vicinity of the cut-off frequency, that
is the gain can increases rapidly due to resonance effects of the amplifiers gain.

• Then Q, the quality factor, represents the “peakiness” of this resonance peak, that is
its height and narrowness around the cut-off frequency point, ƒC.

• higher values of Q, or lower values of ζ gives a greater peak to the response and a
faster initial roll-off rate as shown.

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Second Order High Pass Filter

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