“SMART SHOPPING CART WITH IOT-BASED AUTOMATIC BILLING SYSTEM”

CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As consumer behavior continues to evolve in the digital age, traditional retail environments
are increasingly challenged to meet the expectations of modern shoppers. Long queues at
checkout counters can lead to frustration and dissatisfaction, causing shoppers to seek
alternative options, including online shopping. This shift emphasizes the need for innovation
in physical retail spaces to enhance customer experience and operational efficiency. One of
the primary challenges faced by supermarkets and retail outlets is the inefficiency of the
billing process. Conventional barcode systems, while effective, require manual scanning,
which can be time-consuming, especially during busy shopping periods. This process often
leads to delays, customer complaints, and ultimately lost sales opportunities. To combat this
issue, there is a growing interest in integrating advanced technologies that can facilitate
faster, more efficient shopping experiences. The Smart Shopping Cart with IoT-Based
Automatic Billing System is an innovative solution that leverages RFID technology and IoT
connectivity to transform the way customers shop. By equipping shopping carts with RFID
readers, customers can simply place products with RFID tags into their carts without needing
to wait in line for manual scanning at the checkout.

In addition to enhancing the checkout process, this system also addresses safety concerns
associated with crowded shopping environments. By incorporating ultrasonic sensors, the
smart cart can detect the presence of nearby shoppers and obstacles, helping to prevent
collisions and ensure smooth navigation through aisles. This feature not only enhances
customer safety but also contributes to a more pleasant shopping atmosphere. The integration
of IoT technology further enriches the user experience by enabling real-time data transfer. As
customers complete their shopping, the cart can wirelessly transmit billing information to a
central server, allowing for quick and secure payments.

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1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In traditional retail environments, customers often experience long wait times at
checkout counters due to manual billing processes that rely on barcode scanning. This not
only leads to customer frustration but can also result in lost sales opportunities as shoppers
may abandon their purchases due to extended wait times. Additionally, conventional systems
are prone to errors from damaged barcodes and the need for manual intervention, further
complicating the shopping experience. Moreover, as retail spaces become increasingly
crowded, navigating through aisles while pushing a shopping cart can lead to accidents and
collisions, raising safety concerns. Shoppers are also left with limited visibility of their
spending until the checkout process is complete, making it difficult to manage budgets
effectively during their shopping trips. To address these challenges, there is a pressing need
for an innovative solution that enhances the efficiency of the billing process, improves
customer experience, and ensures safety within retail spaces. The Smart Shopping Cart with
IoT-Based Automatic Billing System aims to solve these issues by integrating RFID
technology and IoT connectivity into a single solution that automates billing, provides real-
time updates, and monitors customer movement, ultimately creating a more convenient and
efficient shopping experience

1.3 OBJECTIVES
1. Enhance Customer Experience: Provide a seamless shopping experience by eliminating
long wait times at checkout counters through automated billing.
2. Integrate RFID Technology: Implement RFID readers in shopping carts to automatically
scan products equipped with RFID tags, ensuring efficient and accurate item tracking.
3. Implement Real-Time Billing: Enable real-time billing calculations as items are added or
removed from the cart, displayed clearly on an integrated LCD screen.
4. Incorporate IoT Connectivity: Utilize IoT technology to wirelessly transmit billing
information to a central server, facilitating quick and secure payment processing.
5. Monitor Customer Flow: Integrate ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles and track
customer movement, enhancing safety and navigation within the store.

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6. Enable Budget Management: Provide customers with the ability to set spending limits,
triggering alerts when their cart total exceeds the specified budget.
7. Data Collection for Retail Analytics: Gather valuable shopping data to help retailers
analyze customer behavior, optimize inventory management, and improve overall store
operations.
8. Promote Cashless Transactions: Facilitate cashless payments through integration with
mobile payment solutions, streamlining the checkout process for customers

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CHAPTER – 2
LITERATURE SURVEY AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Bipin Kumar Yadav (2020);

Proposing a cart system that distributes the whole billing queue into smaller

individual units so that no one has to wait for the billing process at point of sales

(PoS) for specific items. This device uses radiofrequency identification (RFID)

technology to scan each product. A passive RFID sticker tag is attached with all the

products. The sticker tag contains information including name and price of the

product.

Kowshika, Madhumitha S, Madhu Varshini , Megha Lakshmi

(2021);

Even through e-commence and other online applications are growing rapidly the craze

for traditional shopping has never stepped back. One difficulty is to follow up in a

queue for the billing process. There, arises a demand for easy and quick payment of

bills. The proposed Smart Cart in this paper, is capable of generating bill using IoT

along with the mobile cart application. With the use of this mobile application and

trolley, customer can make bill payment in no time. The smart cart uses the RFID tag

and receiver to scan the product, load cell to prevent theft, LCD display and the

Raspberry p i Along with this the customer can also log in with the mobile app which

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will display the list of all the products mentioned and their amount. Once done, the

customer can pay the bill through the mobile application.

P. Chandrasekar and T. Sangeetha(2020),

Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology may not only be useful for

streamlining inventory and supply chains: it could also make shoppers swarm. This

paper provides centralized and automated billing system using RFID and

communication. Each product of shopping mall, super markets will be provided with

a RFID tag, to identify its type. Each shopping cart is designed or implemented with a

Product Identification Device (PID) that contains microcontroller, LCD, an RFID

reader, EEPROM, module. Purchasing product information will be read through a

RFID reader on shopping cart, mean while product information will be stored into

EEPROM attached to it and EEPROM data will be send to Central Billing System

through module

2.2 METHODOLOGY
The Smart Shopping Cart with IoT-Based Automatic Billing System is

developed through a combination of hardware and software integration to enhance the

shopping experience. Each cart is equipped with an RFID reader, a microcontroller, an

LCD display, and ultrasonic sensors. Products in the store are tagged with RFID labels

containing unique identification and pricing details. When a customer places a product

into the cart, the RFID reader scans the tag, and the microcontroller processes the data

to update the total bill, displaying it on the LCD screen in real time. Ultrasonic sensors

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are used to detect the proximity of the customer and obstacles, enabling features such as

customer-following and collision avoidance

CHAPTER 3

BLOCK DIAGRAM , WORKING & REQUIREMENTS

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

12V VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
BATTERY

Ultrasonic MOTOR
sensor DRIVER IC 1

RFID DC MOTORS
READER 1&2

MOTOR
DRIVER IC 1
RFID TAGS

DC MOTORS
3&4
WIFI SERVO
WEB APP
MODULE MOTOR
FIGURE 3.1.1 BLOCK
DIAGRAM

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3.2 WORKING

The Smart Shopping Cart with IoT-Based Automatic Billing System integrates RFID
and IoT technologies to enhance the shopping experience. Each product in the store is fitted
with an RFID tag containing product-specific details like name, price, and unique
identification code. When a customer places a product into the cart, the RFID reader attached
to the cart scans the tag, and the information is sent to a microcontroller. The microcontroller
processes the data and displays the product details and price on an LCD screen attached to the
cart. The total bill is continuously updated as items are added or removed. A key feature of
this project is the customer-following mechanism, which is enabled by ultrasonic sensors.
Instead of manually pushing the cart, the cart autonomously follows the customer throughout
the store. The ultrasonic sensors detect the position and movement of the customer,
maintaining a consistent distance behind them. This eliminates the need for manually moving
the cart, allowing customers to focus solely on selecting products, which enhances
convenience and reduces physical effort.

The system also includes a Wi-Fi module for real-time communication with the
store’s central server. As the customer shops, the cart transmits the updated billing
information to the server, streamlining the checkout process by eliminating manual scanning
at the billing counter. Additionally, customers can set budget limits, and if exceeded, an alert
is triggered. Once shopping is complete, the cart can be locked via a servo motor, ensuring
security while the customer completes the digital payment

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3.3 REQUIREMENTS
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
1. RFID READER
2. RFID TAGS
3. MICROCONTROLLER (ARDUINO NANO)
4. LCD DISPLAY
5. ULTRASONIC SENSORS
6. WI-FI MODULE (ESP8266 OR SIMILAR)
7. LCD DISPLAY
8. POWER SUPPLY (BATTERY OR ADAPTER)
9. BUZZER (FOR BUDGET ALERTS)
10.L293D MOTOR DRIVER BOARD

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

1. PROTEOUS
2. BLUETOOTH CONTROLLER
3. ARDUINO ID
4. EAGLE

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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DESCRIPTIONS

4.1 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1.1 ARDUINO
NANO
Arduino Nano is one type of microcontroller board, and it is designed by Arduino.cc.
It can be built with a microcontroller like Atmega328. This microcontroller is also used
in Arduino UNO. It is a small size board and also flexible with a wide variety of applications.
Other Arduino boards mainly include Arduino Mega, Arduino Pro Mini, Arduino UNO,
Arduino YUN and many more are AVR Development Board, PIC Development
Board, Raspberry Pi, Intel Edison, MSP430 Launchpad, and ESP32 board.

This board has many functions and features like an Arduino Duemilanove board.
However, this Nano board is different in packaging. It doesn’t have any DC jack so that the
power supply can be given using a small USB port otherwise straightly connected to the pins

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like VCC & GND. This board can be supplied with 6 to 20volts using a mini USB port on the
board.

Figure 4.1.1 Arduino-nano-boar

Arduino Nano Features

 ATmega328P Microcontroller is from 8-bit AVR family
 Operating voltage is 5V
 Input voltage (Vin) is 7V to 12V
 Input/Output Pins are 22
 Analog i/p pins are 6 from A0 to A5
 Digital pins are 14
 Power consumption is 19 mA
 I/O pins DC Current is 40 mA
 Flash memory is 32 KB
 SRAM is 2 KB
 EEPROM is 1 KB
 CLK speed is 16 MHz
 Weight-7g
 Size of the printed circuit board is 18 X 45mm
 Supports three communications like SPI, IIC, & USART

Power Pin (Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND): These pins are power pins

 Vin is the input voltage of the board, and it is used when an

external power source is used from 7V to 12V.
 5V is the regulated power supply voltage of the nano board and it is
used to give the supply to the board as well as components.
 3.3V is the minimum voltage which is generated from the voltage
regulator on the board.
 GND is the ground pin of the board

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RST Pin (Reset): This pin is used to reset the microcontroller

Analog Pins (A0-A7): These pins are used to calculate the analog voltage of the
board within the range of 0V to 5V
I/O Pins (Digital Pins from D0 – D13): These pins are used as an i/p
otherwise o/p pins. 0V & 5V
Serial Pins (Tx, Rx): These pins are used to transmit & receive TTL serial data.
External Interrupts (2, 3): These pins are used to activate an interrupt.
PWM (3, 5, 6, 9, 11): These pins are used to provide 8-bit of PWM output.
SPI (10, 11, 12, & 13): These pins are used for supporting SPI
communication.
Inbuilt LED (13): This pin is used to activate the LED.
IIC (A4, A5): These pins are used for supporting TWI communication.
AREF: This pin is used to give reference voltage to the input voltage

Arduino Nano Communication

The communication of an Arduino Nano board can be done using different sources
like using an additional Arduino board, a computer, otherwise using microcontrollers.
The microcontroller using in Nano board (ATmega328) offers serial
communication (UART TTL). This can be accessible at digital pins like TX, and RX.
The Arduino software comprises of a serial monitor to allow easy textual information
to transmit and receive from the board.

The TX & RX LEDs on the Nano board will blink whenever information is being sent
out through the FTDI & USB link in the direction of the computer. The library-like
SoftwareSerial allows serial communication on any of the digital pins on the board.
The microcontroller also supports SPI & I2C (TWI) communication.

Arduino Nano Programming

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The programming of an Arduino nano can be done using the Arduino software. Click
the Tools option and select the nano board. Microcontroller ATmega328 over the
Nano board comes with preprogrammed with a boot loader. This boot loader lets to
upload new code without using an exterior hardware programmer. The
communication of this can be done with the STK500 protocol. Here the boot loader
can also be avoided & the microcontroller program can be done using the header of
in-circuit serial programming or ICSP with an Arduino ISP

4.1.2 LCD DISPLAY

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range
of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in
various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other
multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have
no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven
segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this
LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting
the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed
on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click
to learn more about internal structure of a LCD.

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Figure 4.1.2 16 x 2 LCD Display

Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register when
4 Register Select
high
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

ALL LCD HAVE

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 Eight(8) Data pins

 VCC (Apply 5v here)
 GND (Ground this pin)
 RS (Register select)
 RW (read - write)
 EN (Enable)
 V0 (Set Lcd contrast)

8-Data pins carries 8-bit data or command from an external unit such as microcontroller.
V0 (Set Lcd contrast)
Set lcd contrast here. Best way is to use variable resistor such as potentiometer. Output of the
potentiometer is connected to this pin. Rotate the potentiometer knob forward and backward
to adjust the lcd contrast.

RS (Register select)
Their are two registers in every lcd
1 Command Register
2 Data Register

Command Register
When we send commands to lcd these commands go to Command register and are processed
their.
Commands with their full description are given in the picture below.When RS=0 Command
Register is Selected.

Data Register
When we send Data to lcd it goes to data register and is processed their.
When RS=1 Data Register is selected.

RW (Read - Write)

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When RW=1 We want to read data from lcd.

When RW=0 We want to write to lcd.

EN (Enable signal)
When you select the register(Command and Data) and set RW(read - write) now its
time to execute the instruction. By instruction i mean the 8-bit data or 8-bit command present
on Data lines of lcd.
This requires an extra voltage push to execute the instruction and EN(enable) signal
is used for this purpose. Usually we make it en=0 and when we want to exectue the
instruction we make it. high en=1 for some milli seconds. After this we again make it ground
en=0.high en=1 for some milli seconds. After this we again make it ground en=0.

4.1.3 INTERFACING LCD

Figure 4.1.3 Interfacing of LCD

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VEE pin is meant for adjusting the contrast of the LCD display and the contrast can be
adjusted by varying the voltage at this pin. This is done by connecting one end of a POT to
the Vcc (5V), other end to the Ground and connecting the center terminal (wiper) of of the
POT to the VEE pin. See the circuit diagram for better understanding.

The JHD162A has two built in registers namely data register and command register. Data
register is for placing the data to be displayed , and the command register is to place the
commands. The 16×2 LCD module has a set of commands each meant for doing a particular
job with the display. We will discuss in detail about the commands later. High logic at the RS
pin will select the data register and Low logic at the RS pin will select the command register.
If we make the RS pin high and the put a data in the 8 bit data line (DB0 to DB7) , the LCD
module will recognize it as a data to be displayed . If we make RS pin low and put a data on
the data line, the module will recognize it as a command.

R/W pin is meant for selecting between read and write modes. High level at this pin enables
read mode and low level at this pin enables write mode. E pin is for enabling the module. A
high to low transition at this pin will enable the module.

DB0 to DB7 are the data pins. The data to be displayed and the command instructions are
placed on these pins.

LED+ is the anode of the back light LED and this pin must be connected to Vcc through a
suitable series current limiting resistor. LED- is the cathode of the back light LED and this
pin must be connected to ground.

LCD initialization.

The steps that has to be done for initializing the LCD display is given below and these steps
are common for almost all applications.

 Send 38H to the 8 bit data line for initialization

 Send 0FH for making LCD ON, cursor ON and cursor blinking ON.
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 Send 06H for incrementing cursor position.

 Send 01H for clearing the display and return the cursor.

Sending data to the LCD

The steps for sending data to the LCD module is given below. I have already said that the
LCD module has pins namely RS, R/W and E. It is the logic state of these pins that make the
module to determine whether a given data input is a command or data to be displayed.

 Make R/W low.

 Make RS=0 if data byte is a command and make RS=1 if the data byte is a data to be
displayed.
 Place data byte on the data register.
 Pulse E from high to low.
16×2 LCD module commands.

Command Function

0F LCD ON, Cursor ON, Cursor blinking ON

01 Clear screen

02 Return home

04 Decrement cursor

06 Increment cursor

0E Display ON ,Cursor blinking OFF

80 Force cursor to the beginning of 1st line

C0 Force cursor to the beginning of 2nd line

38 Use 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

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83 Cursor line 1 position 3

3C Activate second line

08 Display OFF, Cursor OFF

C1 Jump to second line, position1

OC Display ON, Cursor OFF

C1 Jump to second line, position1

C2 Jump to second line, position2

4.1.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805 AND 7812

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

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Figure 4.1.4 Regulator circuit

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a
Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown
and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat
sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents.

Internal Block Diagram

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Figure 4.1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.1.6 RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.1.5 ESP8266 Wi-Fi module

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In this tutorial we will show how to connect ESP8266 Wi-Fi module to Arduino. We
will use software serial port. HW serrial port will be available for program uploading and
debugging.

ESP8266 WiFi module is WiFi serial transceiver module, based on ESP8266. Small size and
low cost makes it suitable for sensor nodes. It works on 3.3V and consumes current up to
250mA. Current consumption is quite big so it's usually not powered on battery. If you are
using 5V Arduino, then read ESP8266 WiFi and 5V Arduino connection.

Figure 4.1.7 ESP8266 Wi-Fi module

For arduino board we will use Arduino pro mini 3.3V 8Mhz and software serial port. HW
serrial port will be available for program uploading and debugging. Later you can switch
module to HW serial port. Before we start using ESP8266 WiFi module we need to update
ESP8266 firmware. We use V0.9.2.2 version of firmware. Detail instructions how to update
firmware can be found here. New firmware default baudrate is 9600 which makes possible to
use software serial on Arduino board.

Arduino Pro Mini 3.3V 8Mhzpinout

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Figure 4.1.8 Arduino pro mini pinpoint

ESP8266 module Arduino pro mini module Power supply

VCC VCC 3.3V VCC power supply
GND GND GND power suppy
RST 3
UTXD 10
URXD 11
CH_PHD 3.3V VCC power supply

ESP8266 Features
802.11 b/g/n protocol
Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP
Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network
Integrated PLL, regulators, and power management units
+ 19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode
Integrated temperature sensor

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Supports antenna diversity

Power down leakage current of < 10uA
Integrated low power 32-bit CPU could be used as application processor
SDIO 2.0, SPI, UART
STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1 MIMO
A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4µs guard interval
Wake up and transmit packets in < 2ms

4.1.6 BATTERY:
Lead-acid batteries: These are the most common type of 12-volt battery. They are
relatively inexpensive and widely available, but they are also the heaviest and bulkiest type of
12-volt battery. Lead-acid batteries can be damaged by being overcharged or discharged, and
they need to be regularly maintained.
The batteries are used as a storage device for solar energy which can be further
converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine load such as
irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage, for small units with output less than
one 9v Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage means

Figure 4.1.9 Lead Acid Battery

Since both the photo- voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs, it is necessary that
the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand pattern.

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To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a battery with following
particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life
(3) High reliability
(4) High overall efficiency

4.1.7 MOTOR DRIVER IC:

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as
current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current
signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of
operation, two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse
Direction. The motor operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7
and 10 & 15. Input logic 00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor.

Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result, the
outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input
is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.

Pin Diagram:

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Figure 4.1.10 Pin Diagram For Motor IC

Motor IC Truth Table:

Figure 4.1.11 Truth table For Motor IC

4.1.8 BUZZER

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A buzzer takes some sort of input and emits a sound in response to it. They may use various
means to produce the sound; everything from metal clappers to electromechanical devices.
A buzzer needs to have some way of taking in energy and converting it to acoustic energy.
Many buzzers are part of a larger circuit and take their power directly from the device’s
power source. In other cases, however, the buzzer may be battery powered so that it will go
off in the event of a mains outage. Some devices that provide emergency power have buzzers
on them so that the user knows that they are running on backup power and not on mains
power.

Piezo buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight, simple
construction and low price make it usable in various applications like car/truck reversing
indicator, computers, call bells etc. Piezo buzzer is based on the inverse principle of piezo
electricity discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie. It is the phenomena of generating
electricity when mechanical pressure is applied to certain materials and the vice versa is also
true. Such materials are called piezo electric materials. Piezo electric materials are either
naturally available or manmade. Piezoceramic is class of manmade material, which poses
piezo electric effect and is widely used to make disc, the heart of piezo buzzer.

Figure 4.1.12 Piezo Buzzer

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Encapsulated in a cylindrical plastic coating, it has a hole on the top face for sound to
propagate. A yellow metallic disc which plays an important role in the producing sound can
be seen through the hole

We have a 4 KHz piezo buzzer and a microcontroller (arduino) that outputs that 4 KHz
from one of it's pins. All is fine if I connect the buzzer to the output with one pin and to
the ground with another. Also all works as expected if I try to control it with
TRANSISTOR: +5V to the Base, buzzer between collector and emitter, and the output pin
to the emitter.

 Buzzer between +5 V and the collector

 Output pin connected to the base through 2K2 resistor

 Emitter connected to the ground

I have tried few other configurations with BJT, but result is the same. I use BC337 as a
transistor (AFAIK it is analogue of 2N2222).

Could anybody clarify why this happens?

We,ve measured voltage levels. I have 2.51 V between the microcontroller output and the
ground. I get 5 V / 2 because it generates square waves, isn't it? Then I have 2.1 V around
the base resistor. And, surprisingly I've got 5 V around the buzzer! Shouldn't I get 2.5 V?

Also I noticed that once I measure voltage across the buzzer the sound become a bit
louder. So I've tried to add a resistor in parallel to it.

Figure 4.1.13 Circuit Diagram for Piezo Buzzer

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4.1.9 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic sensor provides an easy method of distance measurement. This sensor is

perfect for any number of applications that require you to perform measurements between
moving or stationary objects. Interfacing to a microcontroller is a snap. A single I/O pin is
used to trigger an ultrasonic burst (well above human hearing) and then "listen" for the echo
return pulse. The sensor measures the time required for the echo return, and returns this value
to the microcontroller as a variable-width pulse via the same I/O pin.

No other measuring method can be successfully put to use on such a wide scale and in so
many different applications. The devices are extremely robust, making them suitable for
even the toughest conditions. The sensor surface cleans itself through vibration, and that is
not the only reason why the sensor is insensitive to dirt. The physical principle—the
propagation of sound—works, with a few exceptions, in practically any environment.

Figure 4.1.14 HC-SRO4 Ultrasonic Sensor

The measuring method employed by ultrasonic sensors has been viewed as an excessively
complex technology, and only used as a “last resort” as a solution for particularly difficult
applications. Those times have long since passed! Ultrasonic sensors
have proven their reliability and endurance in virtually all industrial sectors.
In industrial applications, ultrasonic sensors are characterized by
their reliability and outstanding versatility. Ultrasonic sensors can be used to solve even the
most complex tasks involving object detection or level measurment with millimeter precision.

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Ultrasonic sensors “are based on the measurement of the properties of acoustic waves with
frequencies above the human audible range,” often at roughly 40 kHz . They typically
1)

operate by generating a high-frequency pulse of sound, and then receiving and evaluating the
properties of the echo pulse.
Three different properties of the received echo pulse may be evaluated, for different sensing
purposes. They are:

 Time of flight (for sensing distance)

 Doppler shift (for sensing velocity)
 Amplitude attenuation (for sensing distance, directionality, or attenuation coefficient)
Modes of Operation
1. Time of Flight
1A. Reflection Mode
 In reflection mode (also known as “echo ranging”), an ultrasonic transmitter emits a
short burst of sound in a particular direction. The pulse bounces off a target and
returns to the receiver after a time interval t. The receiver records the length of this
time interval, and calculates the distance travelled r based on the speed of sound c:
 r=c*t 2)

Figure 4.1.15 Ultrasonic sensor in reflection mode

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 Very often, separate transmitting and receiving transducers are placed immediately
next to each other, housed as a single unit. (The PING) Range Finder, Omega
flowmeter and Migatron high-accuracy sensor below are all designed this way.) In
these cases, the distance calculated will be twice the distance from the sensor to the
target.
 Using proper coordination, a single transducer can be used for both emitting the pulse
and receiving the echo. Note that it takes time for the transducer to change modes,
presenting a challenge to short-distance measurement.

1B. Direct Measurement Mode

 In this mode of operation the transmitter and receiver are two separate units that move
relative to each other. For example, the receiver can be fixed to a target that moves
relative to a stationary transmitter, or vice-versa.

Figure 4.1.16 Ultrasonic sensor in Direct Measurement Mode

 Multiple transmitters can be used to increase the directionality of the transmitted
pulse. Lima et al. placed multiple ultrasonic transmitters on a performer, whose
3)

signals were received by multiple receivers in the performance space, enabling a

computer program to triangulate the performer's position.
Doppler Shift
 When a wave reflects off of a moving object, its frequency is shifted by an amount
proportional to the velocity of the object. This fact can be exploited in ultrasonic

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sensing by having the receiver measure not the time of flight but the frequency of the
returning echo pulse. Knowing f and f , the frequency of the emitted and received
e r

pulse, respectively, the velocity v of the target may be calculated:

 f - f = 2 f (v / c) cos(A)
e r e
4)

 where A is the angle between the target's and the pulse's lines of motion.

Amplitude Attenuation
 Ultrasonic sound attenuates much faster than audible sound when propagating through
air. By measuring the intensity of the returning pulse, an estimate of the distance
travelled can be made using the following equation:
 I = Ie 0
-ax 5)

 where I and I are the received and the original intensities, respectively, and
0

where a is the attenuation coefficient (a property of the medium) and x is the distance
travelled by the wave. Attenuation may also be caused by an increased angle between
the target and receiver, which may even deflect the echo somewhere else and not be
heard at all. The effect of distance and angle on the amplitude of the received signal is
illustrated in the following images from (Miranda & Wanderley 2006).

Making Measurements

The three methods above make use of different physical principles, but they all employ the
same measuring procedure. In each case, an ultrasonic sound wave is created, received, and
evaluted..

Pulsed vs. continuous measurement

Time-of-flight-based sensing requires emitting a pulse and waiting for it to return. This
waiting time limits the speed with which successive measurements can be made, without
risking confusion. However, Doppler- and attenuation-based sensing devices do not have the
same restrictions: a constant wave of ultrasound may be emitted, and the received wave's
attenuation or frequency continuously analyzed. This may make measurements speedier,
effectively increasing the sensitivity of the sensor.
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Considerations

The main advantage of ultrasonic sensors is that measurements may be made without
touching or otherwise impeding the target. In addition, depending on the distance measured,
measurement is relatively quick (it takes roughly 6ms for sound to travel 1m). However,
many factors such as temperature, angle, and material may affect measurements.

Here is a list of pitfalls in ultrasonic sensing:

 Weather. Temperature and humidity affect the speed of sound in air. Therefore, range
finders may need to be recalibrated to make accurate measurements in a new
environment. (Or, an on-board temperature sensor may be incorporated.)
 Currents. Temperature variations and air currents can create invisible boundaries that
will reflect ultrasonic waves, so care must be taken to avoid these.
 Angle. For the transmitted wave to echo back to the receiver, the target surface must be
perpendicular to the transmitter. Round objects are therefore most easily sensed since
they always show some perpendicular face. When targeting a flat object, care must be
taken to ensure that its angle with respect to the sensor does not exceed a particular range.
 Dead-zone. Ultrasonic sensors typically have a “dead zone” immediately in front of them
in which objects cannot be detected because they deflect the wave back before the
receiver is operational. (This is because reverberations from the transmitter force the
receiver to pause a moment before beginning to listen for the echo. ) 7)

 Material. Some materials are more absorbent than others, and these will reflect less
ultrasound. This complicates using the attenuation method to measure the distance of
arbitrary objects.

4.1.10 EM-18 RFID Reader

The EM-18 RFID Reader module operating at 125kHz is an inexpensive solution for
your RFID based application. The Reader module comes with an on-chip antenna and can be
powered up with a 5V power supply. Power-up the module and connect the transmit pin of
the module to recieve pin of your microcontroller. Show your card within the reading

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distance and the card number is thrown at the output. Optionally the module can be
configured for also a weigand output.

Typical Applications

• e-Payment

• e-Toll Road Pricing

• e-Ticketing for Events

• e-Ticketing for Public Transport

• Access Control

• PC Access

• Authentication

. Printer / Production Equipment

Figure 4.1.17 EM-18 RFID Reader

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The EM-18 RFID Reader module operating at 125kHz is an inexpensive solution for your
RFID based application. The Reader module comes with an on-chip antenna and can be
powered up with a 5V power supply. Power-up the module and connect the transmit pin of
the module to recieve pin of your microcontroller. Show your card within the reading
distance and the card number is thrown at the output. Optionally the module can be
configured for also a weig and output

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CIRCUIT OF RFID

Figure 4.1.18 Working circuit Diagram for RFID Reader

4.1.11 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

RFID is a form of wireless communication that incorporates the use of electromagnetic or

electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to
uniquely identify an object or person. It uses radio frequency to search, identify, track, and
communicate with items and people.
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a technology that uses electromagnetic
fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. These tags contain
electronically stored information that can be read from several meters away, without
requiring direct line-of-sight. RFID is commonly used in inventory management, asset
tracking, access control, and supply chain logistics due to its efficiency and accuracy in
tracking and managing items.

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It is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission over the web.
Data is digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader. This device
works as a tag or label during which data is read from tags that are stored in the database
through the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside
the road of sight either passive or active RFID.

Figure 4.1.19 RFID General Block Diagram

Types of RFID
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most
fascinating aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug
nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy needed to operate them is supplied in the form of
radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it from
the(less common) active RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.
 UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some
driver’s licenses. Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate
at distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the
reader is able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.

 HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in

your passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a
short-range, typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on
induction rather than backscatter.

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 Passive RFID: Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses
power from the reader. In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and
passive RF tag stored their power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF
tag are used specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a
high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.

o No need embedded power

o Tracking inventory

o Has unique identification number

o Sensitive for interference

 Active RFID: In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a
signal and there is an antenna which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power
source like battery. It has it’s own power source, does not require power from
source/reader.

o Embedded power: communication over large distance

o Has unique identifier /identification number

o Use other devices like sensors

o Better than passive tags in the presence of metal

Working Principle of RFID

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for
Automatic Identification and Data Capture technology which performs object
identification and collection and mapping of the data. An antenna is an device which
converts power into radio waves which are used for communication between reader
and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag
and reads or writes the data into the tag. It may include one processor, package,
storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

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Figure 4.1.20 Working Block Diagram

Working of RFID System
Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and
a transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to
as an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two types of RFID readers- fixed readers and
mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that can be portable or
permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once
activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on
factors including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the
surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a stronger
power source also have a longer read range

Types of RFID Tags

1. Passive Tags
 No built-in power source, relying on the RFID reader.

 Less expensive, longer lifespan, shorter read range (up to a few meters).

2. Active Tags
 Have their own power source (battery), allowing for a longer read range (up to
hundreds of meters).

 More expensive, limited lifespan due to the battery.

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3. Semi-Passive Tags
 Small battery powers the tag’s circuitry.

 Middle ground in terms of cost, range, and lifespan.

Features of RFID
 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.

 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer
environment effect.

 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.

RFID Standards
 ISO 14443

 Components operating at 13.56Mhz

 Power consumption 10mW

 Data throughput is 100 kbps

 Operates at working distance 10 cm

 ISO 15693

 Components operating at 13.56Mhz

 Operating at working distances as high as 1m

 Data throughput few kbps

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Frequency Bands
RFID systems operate in different frequency bands, each with its characteristics:
 Low Frequency (LF, 125-134 kHz): Used for short-range applications (up to 10 cm).
Common in animal tracking and access control.

 High Frequency (HF, 13.56 MHz): Medium range (up to 1 meter) and commonly
used in smart cards, ticketing, and library systems.

 Ultra-High Frequency (UHF, 860-960 MHz): Longer range (up to 12 meters) and
used in inventory management, supply chain, and logistics.

 Microwave Frequency (2.45 GHz): Used for very specific applications with ranges
similar to UHF but with higher data transfer rates.

Challenges of RFID
 Cost: Higher initial setup and tag costs compared to traditional barcodes.

 Interference: Susceptible to interference from metal, liquids, and other RFID

systems.

 Privacy: Concerns about unauthorized tracking and data breaches.

 Standardization: Different frequency standards and protocols can lead to

compatibility issues.

 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.

 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.

Future of RFID
The future of RFID looks promising with advancements in technology and decreasing costs.
Innovations like the integration with the Internet of Things (IoT), enhanced data analytics,
and improved battery life for active tags are expected to drive wider adoption. As RFID
technology continues to evolve, it will play a crucial role in the digitization and automation of
various industries

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4.1.12 RFID TAGS

RFID systems consist of three components in two combinations: a transceiver
(transmitter/receiver) and antenna are usually combined as an RFID reader. A transponder
(transmitter/responder) and antenna are combined to make an RFID tag[22]. An RFID tag is
read when the reader emits a radio signal that activates the transponder, which sends data
back to the transceiver.
A basic RFID system consists of three components:
• An antenna or coil
•A transceiver (with decoder)
• A transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique information
There are two types of transponders, which correlate to the two major types of RFID tags.

• Passive transponders and RFID tags have no energy source of their own, relying on the
energy given off by the reader for the power to respond. Cheaper, passive RFID tags are the
most likely to be used for consumer goods.

• An active transponder or tag has an internal power source, which it uses to generate a signal
in response to a reader. Active transponders are more expensive than passive ones. They can
communicate over miles like ordinary radio communications. They are commonly used in
navigation systems for commercial and private aircraft.

There are many uses of this technology around us today, although they are often invisible to
users. You may find that you are already carrying and using a RFID tag, or even several. At
its most basic level, RFID is a wireless link to uniquely identify objects or people. It is
sometimes called dedicated short range communication (DSRC). RFID systems include
electronic devices called transponders or tags, and reader electronics to communicate with the
tags. These systems communicate via radio signals that carry data either unidirectional or
bidirectional. As the shown in fig 3, [22]when a transponder enters a read zone, its data is
captured by the reader and can then be transferred through standard interfaces to a host
computer, printer, or programmable logic controller for storage or action.[2].

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Figure 4.1.21 Working of RFID Tags

• The antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and to read and write data to it.
• The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more,
depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes
through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal.
•The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data
is passed to the host computer for processing. The purpose of an RFID system is to enable
data to be transmitted by a portable device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and
processed according to the needs of a particular application. The data transmitted by the tag
may provide identification or location information, or specifics about the product tagged,
such as price, color, date of purchase, etc. RFID technology has been used by thousands of
companies for a decade or more.

4.1.13 DC MOTOR

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current (electrical

energy) into mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally
important for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has
been discussed in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we
need to first look into its constructional feature.

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Figure 4.1.22 DC Motor and Its Components

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the
north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below. Now
to go into the details of the operating principle of DC motor its important that we have a
clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on

the arm

Figure 4.1.23 Flemmings Left Hand Rule

Armature conductors of dc motor Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index

finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to

the direction of current (represented by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a

force in the direction (represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction

of field and the current in the conductor.

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We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the

influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF

experienced by the charge is given by:-

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

i.e. it’s the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

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From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction
of current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence
the force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform
field and current is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at

right hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite

direction with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in

direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the

armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in

the rotation of the armature conductor

4.1.14 PUSH BUTTONS

Figure 4.1.24 Push Buttons

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A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring
to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.
Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a
mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be
released. In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of
linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the machine or process have no
electrical circuits for control.

Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping
the machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.

Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation
and to facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop
buttons and are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety.
This large mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to
wear gloves for their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button.

As an aid for operators and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot

light is commonly added to draw the attention of the user and to provide feedback if the
button is pushed. Typically this light is included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens
replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.

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The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on
the back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button
when pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary
contact designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify
the action of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig 4.1.25 push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

4.1.15 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made
out of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical
impurities that are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 4.1.26 Typical LED Fig 4.1.27 circuit symbol

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Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any
application.

Types of LED’S
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the
most common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the
same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used
for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely
tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads.

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Fig 4.1.28 Different types of LED’S

Colors and materials of LED’S

Conventional LED’S are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials,

the following table shows the available colours with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material. LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band
gap of the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly
common. White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The
most common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED
coated with a phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range
spectrum that in addition to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.

4.1.16 DIODES (1N4007)

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half
wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in
mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

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Figure 4.1.29 Circuit Diagram and Graph

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are
as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007
have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current
capacity of 1 Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of
more capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity
cannot be used in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002;
IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used as IN4007.
 The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to
IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to
diode IN4007.

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the Injunction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we
must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens
initially within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper
wire. Thetis, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive
potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave
the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal,
an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing
the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are
repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive
side of the battery.
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Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative
terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal.

4.1.17 RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by

producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such
as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less
well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical
dimensions; it's determined by design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers;
resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

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Figure 4.1.30 Resistors

A resistor is a two-terminalpassiveelectronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor,
a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of
the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a
larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are fundamental electronic components found in virtually all electronic devices. 1
They control the flow of current in circuits by opposing it, with their resistance value
determining the degree of opposition. 2 Manufactured in a wide range of values and sizes,
resistors are crucial for various functions like voltage division, current limiting, and signal
conditioning. 3 Key considerations when selecting a resistor include its resistance value,
tolerance, power rating, voltage rating, temperature coefficient, inductance, and noise
characteristics. These factors, along with the resistor's physical form and size, influence its
suitability for specific applications.

Units

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
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over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI
unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance

Variable resistors

Figure 4.1.31 Variable Resistor

Adjustable resistors
Some wire wound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the
resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is
required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such
a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.

4.1.18 CAPACITORS

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A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors,
an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel,
narrowly separated conductors.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality
factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

Figure 4.1.32 High Value capacitor Figure 4.1.33 Low Value Capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms
of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.

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Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to
the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Theory of operation
Capacitance

Figure 4.1.34 Plate Separations

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric
(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

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Figure 4.1.35 Kelvin electrostatic generator

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor A capacitor consists of two conductors
separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric or
sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the
electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its
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equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount
of energy stored, is given by:

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that
leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on
one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other.
Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional
to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is
added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than
the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in
the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

4.2 SOFTWARE DISCRIPTION

1. Item Recognition Module:
 Description: This module is the core of the automatic billing system. It identifies the
items placed in the shopping cart.
 Technologies: Computer vision (using cameras embedded in the cart), RFID (using
tags on products and readers in the cart), or a combination of both.
 Functionality:

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o Captures images/RFID signals of items placed in the cart.

o Processes the data to identify the product (using image recognition algorithms
or reading RFID tags).
o Retrieves product information (name, price, etc.) from a product database.
 Output: A list of identified items with their corresponding details.
2. Billing Calculation Module:
 Description: This module calculates the total bill based on the identified items.
 Functionality:
o Receives the list of identified items from the Item Recognition Module.
o Calculates the price for each item based on quantity and any applicable
discounts or promotions.
o Calculates the total bill amount.

3. Payment Integration Module:

 Description: This module handles the payment process.
 Functionality:
o Integrates with various payment gateways (credit/debit cards, mobile wallets,
etc.).
o Provides a secure interface for customers to make payments.
o Generates payment receipts.
 Output: Confirmation of successful payment.
4. Inventory Management Module (Optional but Recommended):
 Description: This module updates the store's inventory based on the items purchased.
 Functionality:
o Receives information about purchased items.
o Updates the inventory database to reflect the reduced stock levels.
o Generates alerts for low stock items.
 Output: Updated inventory levels.
5. User Interface (UI) Module:

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 Description: This module provides a user-friendly interface for customers to interact

with the system. This could be a small screen on the cart itself or integration with a
customer's smartphone app.
 Functionality:
o Displays the list of items in the cart.
o Shows the running total.
o Provides options for payment.
o Displays payment confirmation.
 Output: A clear and intuitive display of shopping information.
6. Communication Module:
 Description: This module facilitates communication between the different modules
and with the central server.
 Technologies: IoT protocols (MQTT, CoAP), Wi-Fi, or other wireless communication
technologies.
 Functionality:
o Sends data from the Item Recognition Module to the Billing Calculation
Module.
o Sends payment information to the Payment Integration Module.
o Updates the Inventory Management Module.
o Communicates with the central server for data logging and analysis.
7. Security Module:
 Description: Crucial for protecting sensitive data.
 Functionality:
o Encrypts data transmitted between modules.
o Secures payment transactions.
o Authenticates users and devices.
4.2.1 Software Technologies:
 Programming Languages: Python (with libraries like OpenCV for image recognition),
Java, C++, Node.js.
 Databases: SQL (MySQL, PostgreSQL) or NoSQL (MongoDB).

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 Cloud Platforms (Optional): AWS, Google Cloud, Azure (for data storage,
processing, and scalability).
 IoT Platforms (Optional): AWS IoT, Azure IoT Hub, Google Cloud IoT Core.
This description provides a comprehensive overview of the software components required for
a smart shopping cart system. The specific technologies and implementation details may vary
depending on the chosen architecture and requirements.

CHAPTER – 5
ADAVNTAGES, DISADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS
5.1 ADVANTAGES
 Reduced checkout time: No more waiting in long lines at the checkout counter. The

automatic billing system calculates the total cost of items in the cart, making the

checkout process quick and seamless.

 Improved shopping experience: Customers can enjoy a more convenient and efficient

shopping experience, saving time and effort.

 Accurate billing: The automated system reduces the risk of human errors in

calculating the bill, ensuring accurate pricing and preventing overcharging.

 Real-time information: Customers can view the total cost of their purchases in real-

time as they add items to the cart, helping them stay within their budget.

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 Easy payment options: The system can be integrated with various payment methods,

including mobile wallets and credit cards, offering customers flexibility and

convenience.

 Increased efficiency: The automated billing system streamlines the checkout process,

allowing retailers to serve more customers in less time.

 Reduced labour costs: Retailers can reduce the number of staff required for checkout,

saving on labour costs.

 Improved inventory management: The system can track items being added to carts,

providing real-time data on product demand and helping retailers manage their

inventory more effectively.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. High Initial Cost: Implementing RFID and IoT technology in shopping carts requires
a significant investment in hardware (RFID tags, readers, IoT modules, ultrasonic
sensors) and infrastructure (servers, wireless networks, and software).
2. Maintenance and Upkeep: The system requires regular maintenance to ensure all
components (RFID readers, ultrasonic sensors, LCD screens, and IoT modules)
function correctly, which can be costly and time-consuming.
3. Compatibility Issues: Not all products currently use RFID tags. Ensuring universal
compatibility would require significant collaboration with manufacturers, adding
complexity and expense.
4. Technical Challenges: The system relies heavily on uninterrupted IoT connectivity.
Any network disruptions or server downtimes could halt the billing process and
inconvenience customers.
5. Security Concerns: The wireless transmission of billing data and the use of IoT
devices pose potential cybersecurity risks, such as data breaches or unauthorized
access.

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6. Learning Curve for Customers: Some customers, especially those less familiar with
technology, might find it challenging to adapt to using a smart cart, potentially
reducing its overall effectiveness.
7. RFID Limitations: RFID tags can occasionally fail to be read due to interference from
metals or liquids, leading to inaccuracies in billing or inventory tracking.
8. Risk of Theft: Automated systems might make it easier for individuals to tamper with
RFID tags or manipulate billing data, increasing the risk of shoplifting.
9. Crowded Environments: While ultrasonic sensors aim to prevent collisions, their
effectiveness may be limited in extremely crowded settings, especially during peak
shopping hours.

5.3 APPLICATION
1. Supermarkets and Retail Stores: Automates the billing process, enhancing customer

experience and reducing checkout time.

2. Shopping Malls: Provides a seamless, smart shopping experience with real-time billing

and product tracking.

3. Hypermarkets: Helps manage large inventories and ensures efficient customer service

through automated systems.

4. Grocery Stores: Speeds up the shopping process by eliminating manual billing,

improving customer convenience.

5. Self-Checkout Kiosks: Can be integrated into self-checkout stations to enable faster,

RFID-based scanning.

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CHAPTER – 6
CONCLUSION , FUTURE SCOPE & REFERENCES

6.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the Smart Shopping Cart with IoT-Based Automatic Billing System is a

transformative solution designed to address the inefficiencies and challenges of traditional

retail environments. By integrating advanced RFID technology, IoT connectivity, and

ultrasonic sensors, this project not only streamlines the billing process but also enhances the

overall shopping experience. Customers benefit from reduced wait times, real-time expense

tracking, and safer navigation in crowded spaces, while retailers gain valuable insights into

consumer behavior and inventory management. This system promotes the adoption of

cashless transactions, ensuring a modern, seamless, and secure checkout process. Ultimately,

the project bridges the gap between physical and digital shopping experiences, creating a

smarter, more efficient, and customer-centric retail ecosystem.

6.2 FUTURE SCOPE

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1. Integration with Mobile Applications: Develop dedicated mobile apps to enhance

the shopping experience further. These apps could allow customers to view their cart

contents, apply discounts, access personalized offers, and make payments directly

through their smartphones.

2. AI and Machine Learning Integration: Incorporate AI and machine learning

algorithms to analyse customer behaviour and provide personalized shopping

recommendations.

3. Advanced Payment Methods: Introduce support for emerging payment technologies

such as biometric authentication, NFC payments, and cryptocurrency for a wider

range of transaction options.

4. Expanded Safety Features: Implement additional sensors to detect potential hazards

like spills or obstructions in aisles, providing real-time alerts to customers and staff.

5. Integration with Smart Shelves: Link shopping carts with smart shelf technologies

to provide real-time product information, availability, and promotions directly on the

cart's display.

6. Sustainability Features: Introduce features like tracking carbon footprint for

purchased items, promoting eco-friendly products, and encouraging the use of

reusable shopping bags.

7. Cloud Connectivity and Remote Monitoring: Store billing and customer data on a

cloud platform to enable remote monitoring and management for store owners.

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8. Multi-Store Shopping Assistance: Create a system where customers can manage

their shopping across multiple stores, transferring their cart details seamlessly for a

unified shopping experience.

This future scope highlights the potential to scale and adapt the system across diverse

applications while continuously enhancing customer experience, operational

efficiency, and technological integration.

6.3 REFERANCES

[1] H. H. Chiang et al., "Development of smart shopping carts with customer oriented
service", 2016

[2]K. Prasiddhi, Dhanashri H. Gawali, "Innovative shopping cart for smart cities",
Recent Trends in Electronics Information & Communication Technology (RTEICT),
2017

[3] Komal Ambekar, Vinayak Dhole, Supriya Sharma, Tushar Wadekar, Smart
Shopping Trolley Using RFID, International Journal of Advanced Research in
Computer Engineering & Technology (IJARCET), 4 (10), 2015

[4] M. Vanitha Sheba, Brintha Rajakumari, RFID Enabled Smart Billing System,
Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol 8, 2015.

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