J.

J. Appl.
Appl. Res.
Res. Ind.
Ind. Eng.
Eng. Vol.
Vol. 8,
6, No.
No. 13 (2021)
(2019) 63–89
251–267

Journal of Applied Research on Industrial

Engineering
www.journal-aprie.com

A Comprehensive Review on Meta-Heuristic Algorithms and

their Classification with Novel Approach

Hojatollah Rajabi Moshtaghi1, Abbas Toloie Eshlaghy2,, Mohammad Reza Motadel3

1Department of Industrial Management, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
2Department of Industrial Management, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
3Department of Industrial Management, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.

PAPER INFO ABSTRACT

Chronicle: Conventional and classical optimization methods are not efficient enough to
Received: 10 July 2020 deal with complicated, NP-hard, high-dimensional, non-linear, and hybrid
Reviewed: 19 August 2020
problems. In recent years, the application of meta-heuristic algorithms for such
Revised: 04 February 2021
Accepted: 10 February 2021 problems increased dramatically and it is widely used in various fields. These
September 2019 algorithms, in contrast to exact optimization methods, find the solutions which
are very close to the global optimum solution as possible, in such a way that
Keywords: this solution satisfies the threshold constraint with an acceptable level. Most
Meta-Heuristic Algorithms.
of the meta-heuristic algorithms are inspired by natural phenomena. In this
Meta-Heuristic Optimization. research, a comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms is presented to
Classification of Meta-Heuristic introduce a large number of them (i.e. about 110 algorithms). Moreover, this
Algorithms. research provides a brief explanation along with the source of their inspiration
Evolutionary Algorithms. for each algorithm. Also, these algorithms are categorized based on the type of
Swarm Algorithms. algorithms (e.g. swarm-based, evolutionary, physics-based, and human-
based), nature-inspired vs non-nature-inspired based, population-based vs
single-solution based. Finally, we present a novel classification of meta-
heuristic algorithms based on the country of origin.

1. Introduction

From the creation of human beings, they are constantly searching for perfection in many aspects of life.
So, one of the most important concerns in the world is the search for optimal situations [1]. In the real
world, many problems such as transportation, warehousing and product sales locations, communication
networks design, scheduling, planning and etc. are all complicated and hybrid problems. These
problems are practically large in such a way that they cannot be optimally solved within a reasonable
and acceptable time. However, these problems need to be solved, so the alternative way is to accept the
local or sub-optimal solutions with a suitable accuracy and optimization time. As a result, the heuristic
algorithms are developed. They can be very effective and in some cases offer the global optimal

Rajabi Moshtaghi, H., Toloie Eshlaghy, A., & Motadel, M. R. (2021). A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic
algorithms and their classification with novel approach. Journal of applied research on industrial engineering,
8(1), 63-89.


Corresponding author
E-mail address: [email protected]
10.22105/jarie.2021.238926.1180
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 64

solution. But one of their drawbacks is falling into local optimal traps without being able to get out of
the situation. Therefore, meta-heuristic algorithms have been proposed to deal with this drawback [2].
Nowadays, new optimization methods have attracted many attentions and are under the spotlight in
comparison with classical methods. Moreover, the application of new methods in complicated problems
is increasing extensively [3].

Fig. 1. illustrates the optimization methods briefly [4] and [5].

Optimization
methods

Approximate Exact methods

Meta-heuristic methods Heuristic methods Indirec Direct

t
Fig. 1. Optimization methods.

Although, exact methods are very efficient in many problems [6]-[8], but they are not suitable for large-
scale and non-linear problems. The more the size of the problem increases, the more the search space
exponentially increases and it becomes impossible to search the solution space thoroughly [4]. Also,
sometimes it is not possible to obtain the optimal solution with exact methods within a reasonable time
due to the large scale and complexity, the scope of application of optimization in different fields, such
as mathematics, computer science, engineering, economics and management. Such challenges have
made the researcher to accept the local or sub-optimal solutions within a reasonable optimization time
(i.e. approximate methods) [1]. In recent years, the application of meta-heuristic algorithms to solve
NP-hard problems has been increased dramatically and is widely used in various fields. Unlike exact
optimization methods, these approaches find the solutions that are very close to global optimal solution,
in such a way that satisfies the threshold constraint with an acceptable level [9]. Also, these algorithms
can solve such problems in an acceptable time [10]. Laporte and Osman [11] have defined meta-
heuristic algorithm as "an iterative process that intelligently combines some heuristic concepts for
searching and investigating in the whole solution space". Also, according to Voss et al. [12], a meta-
heuristic algorithm is "A high-level iterative process that modifies and categorizes low-level heuristic
solutions to generate high quality solutions. It may also manipulate a single or set of complete or
incomplete solutions, iteratively". Combining meta-heuristic algorithms and their application is
increasing these days. For examples: combinatorial optimization of permutation-based quadratic
assignment problem using optics inspired optimization [13], factual power loss reduction by augmented
monkey optimization algorithm [14] and a multi-level image thresholding approach based on the crow
search algorithm and Otsu method [15].

Meta-heuristic algorithms which are a way to solve optimization problems start by generating random
response (s) then move forward toward optimizing based on their operators and through changing the
created random answers [16]. In general, all meta-heuristic algorithms use the similar mechanism to
find the optimal solution. In most of these algorithms, the search starts by generating one or more
random solutions in an acceptable range of variables. The primary generated solution in population-
based algorithms is called population, colony, group, etc. and also each of solutions is called
chromosome, particle, ant, and etc. Then, using operators and various methods of combining primary
65 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

solutions, new solutions are generated. Moreover, the new solution will be chosen from the previous
ones, and this process will continue until the stop criterion is met [17]. This process is illustrated in Fig.
2.

Start

Generating primary solutions in acceptable range of variables

Choosing a set of solutions, applying operators and generating new solutions

Choosing new population among primary and modified solutions

No
Is stop
criterion
met?
Yes

En
d
Fig. 2. The overall process of meta-heuristic algorithms to find the optimal solution.

In this research, a comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms is presented to introduce a large

number of them (i.e. about 110 algorithms). Also, this research provides a brief explanation along with
the source of their inspiration for each algorithm. Moreover, these algorithms are categorized based on
the type of algorithms (e.g. swarm based, evolutionary, physics based, and human based), nature-
inspired vs. non-nature-inspired based, and finally we present a novel classification of meta-heuristic
algorithms based on the country of origin. Accordingly, the rest of this paper is organized as follows:
in Section 2, a comprehensive list of meta-heuristic algorithms with a brief explanation is provided.
Section 3 discusses about the growth of meta-heuristic algorithm over time while Section 4 classifies
the algorithms. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section 5.

2. A Comprehensive Introduction to 110 Meta-Heuristic Algorithms

A wide range of 110 meta-heuristic algorithms which have been developed in recent years, in order of
presenting time and along with their developers and explanations, are provided in Table 1.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 66

Table 1. A wide range of 110 meta-heuristic algorithms.

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

1 Evolutionary Fogel & Fogel This algorithm is one of the basic approaches for most modern 1965 [18]
Programming and evolutionary methods that defines many operators such as
(EP) mutations and crossover.

2 Genetic Algorithm Holland This algorithm is a searching method for finding the 1975 [19]
(GA) approximate solution of optimization problems using
biological concepts such as inheritance and mutation. This
algorithm is one of the most popular population-based,
heuristic algorithms. The main operator of this algorithm is
combination, but the mutation operator is also used to prevent
unacceptable convergence and falling into the local optimal
traps. This algorithm is based on the Darwin's theory and the
principle of survival of the fittest. Also, the basic idea is to
inherit traits by genes.

3 Scatter Search Glover This algorithm is different from other evolutionary algorithms. 1977 [20]
Algorithm (SSA) It is based on the concept of systematic approaches to
generate new solutions. This systematic approach has some
advantages in comparison with purely randomized choosing
solutions. Systematic approaches are used for diversification
and intensification in searching process.

4 Simulated Kirkpatrick et al. This algorithm is a probability-based method for finding the 1983 [21]
Annealing (SA) global optimal solution in problems with large solution space.
Also, it is single-solution (different from most of meta-heuristic
algorithms). SA is proposed based on the process of melting
and freezing metals on the molecular scale. This process
requires heating and then cooling a material gradually, in
order to obtain a strong and solid crystal structure.

5 Tabu Search (TS) Glover This algorithm works almost like local search algorithms, 1986 [22]
except that it uses a concept called Tabu List to avoid falling
into the local optimal traps. The algorithm starts with an
initial solution and searches for the neighborhood around it
and chooses the best one and moves to that point under some
conditions. Moving from current solution to candidate
neighbor solution is allowed when it is not on the tabu list.
Otherwise, the next neighbor solution, which is ranked next in
the evaluation of neighbor solutions, will be chosen. The
length of the tabu list indicates the maximum number of tabu
iterations in the search process.
 67 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

6 Cultural Reynolds This algorithm is a category of evolutionary algorithms which 1994 [23]
Algorithms (CA) in comparison with other algorithm and along with population
component, has knowledge component too. There are various
classifications of belief space called temporal knowledge,
domain specific knowledge, situational knowledge, and spatial
knowledge.

7 Particle Swarm Kennedy & The algorithm is inspired by group flight of birds. Each 1995 [24]
Optimization Eberhart particle calculates the value of the objective function in a
(PSO) position of solution space. Then, for each particle, by
combining the information of current location and the best
location it previously had, as well as the information of one or
more of the best particles in the group, it chooses the direction
to move. After moving all particles, one step finishes. These
steps are repeated several times to obtain the desired result
i.e. when the stop criterion is met. This algorithm has two
operators: speed updating and position updating operators.

8 Ant Colony Dorigo et al. ACO is inspired by nature which explores the behavior of real 1996 [25]
Optimization ants. This algorithm is one of the population-based meta-
(ACO) heuristic algorithms. Researchers have shown that ants are
social animals that live in colonies, and their behavior is more
about the survival of colony than about the survival of a
component. One of the most interesting and important
behavior of ants is their approaches in finding food, and in
particular how to find the shortest route between food
resources and nests. Communication between ants with each
other or between ants and the environment is based on the use
of a chemical called pheromones. The ants leave a pheromone
trace of themselves while walking. Although this material
evaporates rapidly, but in the short term it remains as the ant's
track on the surface of the earth. When ants want to choose
between two paths, they usually choose a path that has more
pheromones.

9 Differential Storn & Price This algorithm is based on the theory of natural evolution and, 1997 [26]
Evolution (DE) similar to genetic algorithm, is based on mutation and
combination operators. Although this algorithm uses mutation
and combination operators but their utilization is different
from GA. Moreover, in the step of comparison between new
and old population and also choosing the best solution, this
algorithm operates different from GA.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 68

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

10 Variable Mladenović & This algorithm is proposed based on the rules of simple local 1997 [27]
Neighborhood Hansen search. In this algorithm, the solution space is divided into
Search (VNS) several neighborhoods, and then one of these neighbors is
randomly selected and local search is performed. If the
solution is better than the best one recorded, a new
neighborhood will be generated around the solution.

11 Sheep Flocks Kim & Ahn This algorithm is an evolutionary computation algorithm 2001 [28]
Heredity Model based on sheep flocks heredity. It simulates heredity of sheep
(SFHM) flocks in a prairie.

12 Harmony Search Geem et al. Harmony is a relationship between different sound waves with 2001 [29]
(HS) different frequencies. The best harmony provides the best
aesthetic experience for the audiences. This algorithm traces
the similarity between finding a harmony in a music
performance and finding the optimal solution for an
optimization problem.

13 Bacterial Passino The algorithm is inspired by the bacterial motility process for 2002 [30]
Foraging finding food resources. Individual bacterial search behavior,
Optimization probability of reproduction regarding the fact that
(BFO) reproduction is only for those bacteria that are well fed and
finally, bacterial decomposition are the key elements of this
algorithm.

14 Social Cognitive Xie et al. This algorithm is based on the development of knowledge and 2002 [31]
Optimization intelligence in humans and uses the concept that people learn
(SCO) by seeing others and the consequences of their behavior. It
also considers personal, behavioral, and environmental
factors.

15 Shuffled Frog Eusuff & Lansey This algorithm combines deterministic and probabilistic 2003 [32]
Leaping Algorithm approaches. The deterministic aspects allow the algorithm to
(SFLA) efficiently use the solution information to lead the evolutionary
approach while probabilistic aspects guarantee the flexibility
of algorithm. The base of SFL is to simulate the behavior of
frogs to find food in wetlands. The algorithm tries to make a
balance between extensive investigation in a solution space
and searching around possible solutions. In this algorithm,
population consists of a set of frogs (i.e. solutions) and each
frog has a chromosome-like structure similar to genetic
algorithm.

16 Electromagnetism- Birbil & Fang This algorithm is proposed based on electrostatic system rules. 2003 [33]
like algorithm In this algorithm, each particle has a virtual electric charge in
(EMA) such a way that the amount of this charge is related to the
optimality of the point at which the particle is located.
 69 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

17 Space Hsiao et al. The algorithm is inspired by the simulation of several 2005 [34]
Gravitational asteroids in space and they are constantly moving to find the
Algorithm (SGA) heaviest ones. The SGA utilizes Einstein's theory of relativity
and Newton's law of gravitation to search the global optimal
solution. Asteroids change their position independently, so the
computational complexity decreases and the probability of
falling into local optimal traps is very low.

18 Particle Collision Sacco & Oliveira This algorithm is inspired by the nuclear collision reactions, 2005 [35]
Algorithm (PCA) especially scattering and absorption. The PCA structure is
similar to SA but does not rely on user-defined parameters and
does not require a cooling plan.

19 Big Bang-Big Erol & Eksin This algorithm is proposed based on the Big Bang theory and 2006 [36]
Crunch (BB-BC) freezing the universe. In BB-BC, a weighted center of gravity
is firstly constructed using each of the solutions and their
fitness. Then, new solutions are generated in the neighborhood
of this center, using the Gaussian distribution.

20 Group Search He et al. This algorithm is inspired by the behavior of group of animals 2006 [37]
Optimizer (GSO) in the search for food resources. In this algorithm, the group is
divided into three types namely producers, scrounger and
rangers, and each type has its specific behavior.

21 Invasive Weed Mehrabian & This algorithm is inspired by weed colonies. Weed colonies 2006 [38]
Optimization Lucas are strong enough to pose a threat to useful plants. Weeds are
(IWO) also adaptable to environmental changes. Being strong,
random, and adaptable is modeled as a numerical
optimization method.

22 Small-world Du et al. This algorithm is proposed based on some scientific 2006 [39]
Optimization experiments on human communication and networking
Algorithm approaches. This method uses local short-range and random
(SWOA) long-range search agents for local and global search,
respectively.

23 Cat Swarm Shu et al. This algorithm is based on the behavior of cats and has two 2006 [40]
Optimization sub-models, namely: tracking and searching. In this algorithm,
(CSO) cats are considered as the number of solutions. Each cat has a
relative velocity for on each dimension, a proportional value,
and a parameter indicating the status.

24 Saplings Growing Karci & Alatas. This algorithm is inspired by the planting and growth of 2006 [41]
UP Algorithm saplings, which has two stages: the planting stage and the
(SGA) growth stage. Uniform planting is done with the aim of
uniformly distributing the searching agents in the solution
space. The growth stage consists of three operators: mating,
branching, and vaccination.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 70

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

25 Imperialist Atashpaz- In this algorithm, members are considered as countries. 2007 [42]
Competitive Gargari & Lucas Countries are divided into colonial and colonizer groups and
Algorithm (ICA) empires are built. During the iterations, the weak empires
collapse and the strong empire takes control of its colonies.
Convergence occurs when there is only one empire left and all
the other colonies are equal.

26 Artificial Bee Karaboga & In this algorithm, bee group behavior is used to find the food 2007 [43]
Colony Algorithm Basturk resources. The performance of worker bees, watchdogs and
(ABC) scouts are modeled. The equivalent to these three types of
bees, three operators are considered namely deterministic
obtaining information from neighborhood, probabilistic
obtaining information from neighborhood and the searching
for new areas if no improvement is achieved.

27 Central Force Formato Unlike many stochastic algorithms, CFO is a deterministic 2007 [44]
Optimization method and do not need to generate random solutions. In this
(CFO) algorithm, searching process moves under the influence of
gravity in the decision space and changes the position of
agents according to equations and constraints. Therefore,
during the searching process, the solution moves slowly
towards the searches with highest proportion or mass .

28 Integrated Chuang & Jiang This algorithm is based on the concept of gravitational 2007 [45]
Radiation radiation in Einstein's theory of general relativity. This
Algorithm (IRA) important theory is used to search for the optimal solution in
the solution space. In IRA, the search space is regarded as a
simplified astrophysics that contains search agents, and these
agents are randomly distributed in the search space. It is
assumed that the solution which finds the best objective
function has a supernova with an incomplete symmetrically
expanding shape.

29 Multi Point Lamberti & This algorithm utilizes a multi-level simulated annealing 2007 [46]
Simulated Pappalettere scheme where different candidate designs are compared
Annealing simultaneously.
Algorithm (MPSA)

30 River Formation Rabanal et al. This algorithm is inspired by how the river and its bed are 2007 [47]
Dynamics formed using erosion and sedimentation process. Some
Algorithm (RFDA) important factors such as moving from high to low, erosion
and sedimentation are considered in this model .

31 Big Crunch Kripka & Kripka This algorithm is based on closed world theory. The kinetic 2008 [48]
Algorithm (BCA) energy generated by the first cosmic explosion (i.e. the Big
Bang) overcomes the gravitational energy of components. As
the beginning of universe, this explosion will be done with
infinite heat and energy. This process will continue as long as
only one component (i.e. mass) remains in the world and this
leads to an acceptable result.
 71 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

32 Biogeography Simon This algorithm is inspired by the geographical distribution of 2008 [49]
Based biological organisms and uses the basic operators such as
Optimization migration and mutation.
(BBO)

33 Firefly Algorithm Yang The algorithm is inspired by the illumination of firefly insects 2009 [50]
(FFA) to mate, hunt, and scare the enemies. In FFA, insects with the
ability to generate more light attract the weaker insects and it
relates inversely to the distance between them.

34 Paddy Field Premaratne et al. This algorithm starts with randomly spreading the seeds (i.e. 2009 [51]
Algorithm (PFA) search agents). After a while and turning seeds into plants,
those with higher growth (i.e. better fitness) are more likely to
be re-used. All plants spread their seeds to overcome local
optimal traps.

35 Gravitational Rashedi et al. This algorithm is based on the laws of gravity and motion. 2009 [52]
Search Algorithm According to the law of gravity, each particle in the universe
(GSA) attracts another particle with a force that is proportional to
the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the particles. In this algorithm, each agent is
considered as an object and the performance of these objects
is measured by their mass. Therefore, it is expected that at the
end of optimization process the position of object with the
heaviest mass shows the optimal global solution.

36 Cuckoo Search Yang & Deb This algorithm is proposed based on the cuckoo behavior in 2009 [53]
(CS) laying nests of other birds. The final aim is to maximize the
production of chickens while these eggs not to be identified by
the host bird.

37 Hunting Search Oftadeh & This algorithm is inspired by the group hunting of animals 2009 [54]
(HuS) Mahjoob such as lions, wolves and dolphins. The algorithm indicates
that although the hunting methods of these animals are
different, but they share the same approach for hunting and
chasing the prey. In other words, hunters encircle the prey and
gradually tighten the siege to catch it. In addition, each
member of the group adjusts its position according to the
position of its own and other members. If the prey escapes the
siege, the hunters reorganize the group to re-siege the prey.

38 Intelligent Water Shah-Hosseini The algorithm is inspired by the flow of water along the path. 2009 [55]
Drops (IWD) As the water flows between two points, the water speed, the
amount of soil with the water, and the soil bed change. In this
algorithm, these changes are modeled, accordingly. In other
words, intelligent water drops are used as search agents that
work together to find the optimal solution.

39 Artificial Physics Xie et al. This algorithm is inspired by physical forces. In APA, each 2009 [56]
Optimization agent is regarded as a physical particle that has a certain
Algorithm (APOA) mass, velocity and position. Virtual forces move these particles
to areas with better fitness. The amount of fitness depends on
the user defined agent mass. With these physical rules, agents
search the solution space.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 72

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

40 Bacterial Das et al. This algorithm is an evolutionary clustering method to classify 2009 [57]
Evolutionary datasets for optimal number of groups. The algorithm is
Algorithm (BEA) inspired by microbial evolution and utilizes two specific
operators: bacterial mutation and gene transfer operations.

41 Human-inspired Zhang et al. The algorithm mimics search methods according to climbers 2009 [58]
Algorithm (HIA) who use modern facilities such as binoculars and cell phones
to find the highest mountain peak. The interesting feature of
this method is that it divides the search space evenly into sub-
spaces and allocates an equal number of search agents to
them.

42 League Kashan This algorithm is based on the competition between teams in a 2009 [59]
Championship sports league. Search agents are considered as teams that
Algorithm (LCA) compete for several weeks (i.e. iterations). The competition is
between two competitors and the fittest is considered as
winner. At the end of each iteration, all teams are ready to
make changes for the next week.

43 Locust Swarms Chen This algorithm is inspired by the swarm of locusts. The 2009 [60]
(LS) algorithm starts with intelligent starting points. Then, the PSO
method and greedy local search algorithm are used to explore
the search space. Search agents start with a little distance
from the previous solution.

44 Consultant- Iordache This algorithm is based on the direct exchange of information 2010 [61]
Guided Search between individuals within a population. CGS is a collective
(CGS) intelligence technique inspired by the real-world decision
making approaches.

45 Bat Algorithm Yang This algorithm is inspired by the bat sound system for 2010 [62]
(BA) detecting the prey, barrier and nest locations in the darkness.
In BA, each bat changes its speed and position according to
the best existing positions.

46 Charged System Kaveh & In this algorithm, each agent is considered as a charged 2010 [63]
Search (CSS) Talatahari particle (CP) and is a candidate for solution. The law of
motion is also used to guide the CP movements. Each CP
according to the distance and value of the objective function
(i.e. its charge value), is affected by other CPs and the force
applied to each CP determines the new position, velocity and
acceleration.

47 Chemical Lam & Li The algorithm is inspired by the behavior of molecules in 2009 [64]
Reaction chemical reactions and the exchange of energy between them.
Optimization By modeling the chemical combination and decomposition
(CRO) reactions, the molecules behave in such a way that they can
minimize their potential energy (i.e. cost function).

48 Eagle Strategy Yang & Deb This algorithm is a two-step hybrid search method that 2010 [65]
Algorithm (ESA) combines random search with firefly algorithm.

49 Group Counseling Eita & Fahmy This algorithm mimics human problem solving behavior 2010 [66]
Optimization through consultation. Iterations in this algorithm are
(GCO) considered as counseling sessions. In these sessions members
constantly improve their position with the help of themselves
or the counseling team.
 73 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

50 Social Emotional Xu et al. This algorithm uses the concept of human efforts to gain 2010 [67]
Optimization higher social status. Members of a population are treated as
(SEO) individual persons in a society. Each person tries to increase
his /her emotional score. Based on this emotional index and
feedback from other members of the society, social status
becomes updated. Finally, members with the highest social
status are the optimal solution.

51 Galaxy Based Shah-Hosseini This algorithm is inspired by the spiral arm of galaxies to 2011 [68],
Search Algorithm approach optimal solution. This means that GbSA searches the [69]
(GbSA) solution space for better solutions using these spiral-like arms.
To escape the local optimal traps, spiral movements are
improved by chaos.

52 Spiral Dynamics Tamura & This algorithm is inspired by spiral phenomenon in the nature. 2011 [70]
Inspired Yasuda This spiral movement is observed in many structures, such as
Optimization galaxies, tornadoes and vortices. The algorithm uses a
(SDIO) multidimensional spiral to search the solution space. It also
has several control parameters to balance the variation and
intensification.

53 Teaching-learning Rao et al. This algorithm is based on the mutual teaching-learning 2011 [71]
based relationship, while the members of population are treated as
Optimization students of a class. The searching process consists of two
(TLBO) phases: in the first phase the learning process proceeds by
teacher's influence, while in the second phase it is done by
mutual interactions.

54 Anarchic Society Shayeghi & The algorithm simulates the problem as a group with 2012 [72]
Optimization Dadashpour abnormal, unstable and disruptive members to overcome local
(ASO) optimal traps.

55 Current Search Sakulin & This algorithm is based on the electrical flow behavior in 2012 [73]
(CS) Puangdownreong electric circuits. Usually, current chooses the less resistive
path among other paths.

56 Water Cycle Eskandar et al. This algorithm is inspired by the nature of water cycle 2012 [74]
Algorithm (WCA) process. The solutions in this algorithm are: creek, river (i.e.
some of the best solutions) and sea as the best solution. The
algorithm is implemented by moving creeks toward the river
and rivers toward the sea. If the creeks have enough
qualification they can join the river or even the sea.

57 Wolf Search Tang et al. The algorithm is inspired by the life of wolves and how they 2012 [75]
Algorithm (WSA) search for food and survive from threats. In this algorithm,
each agent searches independently while keeps the previous
position in its memory. If the new position is the best among
all previous ones, then algorithm integrates the current agent
with another agent.

58 Mine Blast Sadollah et al. This algorithm is proposed based on a real world mine-blast 2012 [76]
Algorithm (MBA) event. In an explosion a number of explosive bullets are fired.
Each piece of explosive may generate another new explosion.
The explosive component that causes the most damages is
chosen to expand the new mine.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 74

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

59 Atmosphere Yan & Hao This algorithm mimics the behaviors of a cloud in the natural 2013 [77]
Clouds Model world. It simulates the generation, move and spread behavior
(ACM) of a cloud for intensification and diversification / exploration
in the search space.

60 Black Holes Hatamlou The algorithm is inspired by the black hole phenomenon. In 2013 [78]
Algorithm (BHA) this algorithm, the best solution in each iteration is considered
as a black hole that other stars are attracted to it. When a star
becomes very close to the black hole, they merge and a new
star (i.e. solution) creates randomly.

61 Egyptian Vulture Sur et al. The algorithm is inspired by the natural behaviors of Egyptian 2013 [79]
Optimization vultures and how they search for food resources. This
(EVO) algorithm was originally designed for hybrid optimization
problems.

62 Penguins Search Gheraibia & The basic idea of this algorithm is the group behavior of 2013 [80]
Optimization Moussaoui penguins when they go for hunting. Each penguin starts the
Algorithm (PSOA) local search process while he is aware of its own location and
the food that other members were found. The group with the
most food (i.e. fishes) is selected as the best solution.

63 Swallow Swarm Neshat et al. This algorithm is proposed from the behavior of swarm of 2013 [81]
optimization swallows and their movements. The particles in this algorithm
(SSO) are divided into three categories: explorer or discoverer,
aimless and leader.

64 Grey Wolf Mirjalili et al. This algorithm is inspired by gray wolves and mimics the 2014 [82]
Optimizer (GWO) predation process and hierarchy of gray wolves. In GWO, four
types of gray wolves, namely Alpha, Beta, Delta and Omega,
are introduced to simulate leadership hierarchies. In addition,
three major hunting steps called searching for prey, sieging
the prey and attacking to prey are considered in this method.

65 Golden Ball (GB) Osaba et al. This algorithm is based on a multiple population approach 2014 [83]
and relies on the concepts of football game.

66 Animal Migration Li et al. This algorithm is inspired by the group migration of animals 2014 [84]
Optimization and how they leave one group to survive in other ones.
Algorithm
(AMOA)
67 Soccer League Moosavian & The theory behind this approach is inspired by soccer leagues 2014 [85],
Competition Roodsari and is based on the competition between teams and players. [86]
Algorithm (SLC) Competition between teams for better ranking in the league
and internal competition between players for personal
development will result in convergence towards global
optimality. The simulation results of applying the SLC to
nonlinear systems verifies that this algorithm in comparison to
other meta-heuristic algorithms converges to solution faster
and more accurately.

68 Chicken Swarm Meng et al. This algorithm simulates the hierarchical behavior of a group 2014 [87]
(CS) of chickens and consists of: roosters, hens and chickens.
Chickens are divided into several groups. Each group has a
rooster and a large number of hens and chickens and they
compete in a particular hierarchical order.
 75 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

69 Forest Ghaemi & Feizi- This algorithm is based on the process of sowing seeds in a 2014 [88]
Optimization Derakhshi forest. In this algorithm, the model assumes that the seeds
Algorithm (FOA) right under the trees cannot grow, but the seeds scattered
elsewhere may grow and become another trees.

70 Heart Algorithm Hatamlou This algorithm models the optimization problem as the heart 2014 [89]
(HA) and circulatory system. In this method, a member of
population that has the best fits is considered as the heart and
other members are considered as blood molecules. Blood
molecules move toward or against the heart to gain better
fitness.

71 Kaizen De Melo Kaizen is a Japanese approach to solve problems. Unlike 2014 [90]
Programming evolutionary approaches which each agent is a complete
(KP) solution, in this method each expert proposes an idea to solve
the problem and the final solution combines all ideas together.
The fitness of each idea is measured by its contribution to find
the final solution.

72 Exchange Market Ghorbani & This method as an evolutionary algorithm is inspired by the 2014 [91]
Algorithm (EMA) Babaei procedure of trading the shares on stock market.

73 African Buffalo Odili et al. This algorithm draws its inspiration from the behavior of 2015 [92]
Optimization African buffalos in the vast African forests and savannahs.
(ABO) African buffalos are a wild species of domestic cattle and are
always mobile tracking the rainy seasons in different parts of
Africa in search of lush green pastures to satisfy their large
appetites.

74 Elephant Herding Wang at el. This algorithm is a kind of swarm-based meta-heuristic search 2015 [93]
Optimization method, and is inspired by the herding behavior of elephant
(EHO) group.

75 Ions Motion Javidy at el. This algorithm uses the ionic movements and the tensile force 2015 [94]
Algorithm (IMA) and pressure of anions and cations. In this algorithm, the
candidate solutions are divided into two groups: 1-anions
(negative ions) and 2-cations (positive ions). Ions introduce
the candidate solutions for a particular problem and tensile
/pressure forces allow the ions to move in the search space.

76 General Relativity Beiranvand & This algorithm is based on the concept of general theory of 2015 [95]
Search Algorithm Rokrok relativity. In this algorithm, members of population are
(GRSA) modeled as particles in space in such a way that they are not
affected by any forces except gravity. These particles are
designed to reach to their most stable situation and move in
the shortest possible paths. Length of steps and directions are
calculated according to speed and shortest paths.

77 Jaguar Algorithm Chen et al. This algorithm is inspired by the jaguar's hunting behavior. A 2015 [96]
with Learning jaguar aims to catch a prey and moves rapidly toward the
Behavior (JALB) target. Jaguars are also used to go for hunting as a team. This
algorithm mimics the jaguar's hunting behavior to balance
exploration and exploitation.

78 Optics Inspired Kashan A concave mirror converges light beams while a convex 2015 [97]
Optimization mirror diverges light beams. In this algorithm, the optics
(OIO) phenomenon is modeled as an optimizer. This algorithm
considers the search space as a reflective mirror in such a way
that each peak and valley acts as a convex mirror and concave
mirror, respectively.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 76

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

79 Runner-Root Merrikh-Bayat This algorithm models the goals of roots and runners in 2015 [98]
Algorithm (RRA) plants. Runners search for a large area with large steps while
roots search for a small area. The algorithm also has two
functions corresponding to runners and roots for exploration
and exploitation, respectively.

80 Vortex Search Doğan & Ölmez. This method is one of meta-heuristic algorithm which is based 2015 [99]
Algorithm (VSA) on the vertical flow pattern of fluids. This algorithm uses an
adaptive step length mechanism to exploit and explore the
searches.

81 Stochastic Fractal Salimi The algorithm is inspired by the natural phenomenon of 2015 [100]
Search (SFS) growth that uses a mathematical concept called fractal.

82 Prey-Predator Tilahun & Ong The algorithm is inspired by the predator-prey relationship in 2015 [101]
Algorithm (PPA) animals.

83 Water Wave Zheng This algorithm is inspired by the theory of water waves. It is 2015 [102]
Optimization verified that some phenomena which have the characteristics
(WWO) of water waves such as propagation, reflection, and breaking,
can be used to develop an effective mechanisms for searching
in a high-dimensional solution space.

84 Bull Optimization Findik This algorithm modifies the selection process in the genetic 2015 [103]
Algorithm (BOA) algorithm in such a way that only better members can
participate in crossover.

85 Elephant Search Deb et al. In this algorithm, members of a population are considered as 2015 [104]
Algorithm (ESA) elephants in a herd. Male members and female ones are
considered as exploring searching agents and local searching
agent, respectively.

86 Ant Lion Mirjalili The algorithm is inspired by ant lion hunting behaviors and is 2015 [105]
Optimizer (ALO) based on the following steps: random search, trapping,
sieging, catching the prey, and trap reconstruction .

87 Lion Optimization Yazdani & Jolai This algorithm is inspired by the social behavior of lions. 2016 [106]
Algorithm (LOA) Lions live in both resident and nomad types. Adult male lions
freely leave the group and move around. Resident lions are
modeled as local search agents, while nomad lions are
modeled as global search agents for identification and
exploration.

88 Whale Mirjalili & This algorithm is inspired by nature and mimics the social 2016 [107]
Optimization Lewis. behavior of whales. This algorithm has three main steps:
Algorithm (WOA) sieging the prey, attacking to prey (i.e. exploitation step) and
searching for prey (i.e. exploration step).

89 Dynamic Virtual Topal & Altun This algorithm is inspired by bat's ability to generate various 2016 [108]
Bats Algorithm wavelengths and frequencies during hunting process.
(DVBA)
90 Tug of War Kaveh & This algorithm is inspired by tug of war game and is based on 2016 [109]
Optimization Zolghadr population. In this algorithm, each candidate solution is
(TWO) considered as a team to play the game.

91 Virus Liang & Cuevas This algorithm mimics the behavior of viruses in attacking 2016 [110]
Optimization Juarez cells. In this method, the number of viruses in each iteration is
Algorithm (VOA) controlled by the immune system to prevent unwanted growth
of virus population.
 77 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

92 Virus colony Li et al. This algorithm mimics the strategy of virus replication and 2016 [111]
search (VCS) propagation in infecting host cells.

93 Crow Search Askarzadeh This algorithm is inspired by the intelligent behavior of crows 2016 [112]
Algorithm (CSA) and also is a population-based technique. The basic CSA idea
is that crows hide and store their surplus food and find it when
needed.

94 Dragonfly Mirjalili This algorithm is inspired by the social behavior of 2016 [113]
Algorithm (DA) dragonflies when they are searching for food, guiding the
group and escaping from enemy.

95 Camel Algorithm Ibrahim & Ali This algorithm is inspired by the behavior of camel during a 2016 [114]
(CA) desert march. This method considers the factors such as
temperature, water supply, stability, visibility, and ground
conditions.

96 Water Kaveh & This algorithm is based on the behavior of evaporation of 2016 [115]
Evaporation Bakhshpoori water molecules from solid surfaces with different
Optimization characteristics. Water molecules are considered as the
(WEO) members of population and the solid surface is considered as
the solution space. Surface wettability with other molecular
properties is regarded as the search parameters .

97 Thermal Exchange Kaveh & Dadras This algorithm is based on the Newton's law of cooling, which 2017 [116]
Optimization is simple and straightforward.
(TEO)
98 Electro-Search Tabari & Arshad This algorithm is inspired by the movement of electrons 2017 [117]
Algorithm (ESA) around the nucleus of atoms.

99 Grasshopper Saremi et al. This algorithm models the optimization problems as a group of 2017 [118]
Optimisation grasshoppers. In this method the neonatal stage is modeled the
Algorithm (GOA) same as adult stage. Young grasshoppers move slowly with
small steps, while adults move suddenly with bigger steps.

100 Sperm Motility Raouf & Hezam This algorithm is based on the human reproductive system. 2017 [119]
Algorithm (SMA) Search agents (i.e. sperms) spread in solution space randomly.
In this method, the random sperm motility is modeled to search
for ovum. The chemical secretion of ovum attracts the sperm to
the optimal solution.

101 Beetle Swarm Wang & Yang This algorithm is proposed by enhancing the performance of 2018 [120]
Optimization swarm optimization through beetle foraging principles.
Algorithm (BSOA)
102 Chaotic Bird Ismail et al. This algorithm combines the chaotic-based methods with 2018 [121]
Swarm foraging and privilege behaviors to improve exploitation
Optimization quality.
Algorithm
103 Butterfly Arora & Singh This algorithm mimics food search and mating behavior of 2019 [122]
Optimization butterflies, to solve global optimization.
Algorithm
104 Chaotic Arora & Anand This method introduces chaos theory into the optimization 2019 [123]
grasshopper process of GOA. The chaotic maps balance the exploration and
Optimization exploitation efficiently.
Algorithm
(CGOA)
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 78

Row Algorithm Developer(s) Brief explanation Year Ref.

105 Quantum Dolphin Qiao & Yang In this method, quantum search algorithm is introduced into 2019 [124]
Swarm Algorithm Dolphin Swarm Algorithm to escape the local optimum.

106 Emperor Penguins Harifi et al. This algorithm, inspired by the behavior of Emperor Penguins. 2019 [125]
Colony It is controlled by the body heat radiation of the Penguins and
their spiral-like movement in their colony.

107 Shell Game Dehghani et al. This method simulates the rules of a game known as shell game 2020 [126]
Optimization to design an algorithm for solving optimization problems.

108 Darts Game Dehghani et al. This method simulates the rules of Darts game to design an 2020 [127]
Optimizer (DGO) algorithm for solving optimization problems.

109 Capuchin Search Braik et al. This algorithm is inspired by the dynamic behavior of capuchin 2020 [128]
Algorithm monkeys.
(CapSA)
110 Red deer Fathollahi-Fard This algorithm mimics the behavior of Scottish red deer. Its 2020 [129]
Algorithm et al. main inspiration originates from an unusual mating behavior of
Scottish red deer in a breading season.

3. Growth and Expansion of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms

Most of meta-heuristic algorithms have been developed in recent years (i.e. after 2000). The growth
and development process of these algorithms over time is illustrated in Fig. 3.

16

14

12

10

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Fig. 3. Growth and development process of meta-heuristic algorithms over time.

79 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

4. Classification of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms

According to the features of each algorithm, different classifications are introduced. In this section, the
meta-heuristic algorithms are studied and compared from five aspects. Then classifications of
algorithms based on these aspects are presented [4], [91], [103], [130], and [131]. These classifications
are according to:

 The type of algorithms (swarm-based, evolutionary-based, physics-based and human-based).

 Nature-inspired vs. non-nature-inspired.
 The source of inspiration.
 Population based vs. single solution based.
 Based on the country of origin.

The classification of 110 investigated meta-heuristic algorithms based on the type of algorithms
(swarm-based, evolutionary-based, physics-based, human-based), nature-inspired vs. non-nature-
inspired, the source of inspiration and population based vs. single solution based is illustrated in Fig.4.
While Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show the above categories statistically.

The classifications of 110 investigated meta-heuristic algorithm based on the country of origin is
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 80

Meta-heuristic algorithms

Evolutionary Swarm based Physics based Human based Others

EP, GA, SSA, PSO, ACO, GSO, CSO, ABC, SA, EMA, SGOA, PCA, BB- TS, VNS, HS, HA,
CA, DE, FA, CS, HuS, LS, BA, ESA, BC, CFO, IRA, MPSA, SCO, SWOA, HIA, RRA,
SFHM, BFO, WSA, EVO, PSOA, SSO, RFDA, BCA, GSA, IWD, LCA, CGS, GCO, VCS,
SFLA, IWO, GWO, AMOA, CS, JALB, APOA, CSS, CRO, GbSA, SEO, TLBO, ASO, VOA,
SGA, ICA, ALO, PPA, LOA, EHO, ABO, SDIO, CS, WCA, MBA, GB, SLC, TWO, SMA
BBO, PFA, WOA, DVBA, CSA, DA, CA, ACM, BHA, IMA, GRSA, SGO, DGO
BEA, FOA, GOA, BSO, CBSO, BOA, OIO, VSA, WWO, WEO,
KP, EMA, CGOA, RDA, EPC, CSA, TEOA, ESA
SFS, BOA, QDSA
ESA

Non-nature-inspired Nature-inspired

TS, VNS, SSA, CA, HS, EP, GA, SA, PSO, ACO, DE, SFHA, BFO, SFLA, EMA, SGOA, PCA, BB-BC, GSO, IWO, CSO,
SCO, SWOA, ICA, HIA, SGA, ABC, CFO, IRA, MPSA, RFDA, BCA, BBO, FA, PFA, GSA, CS, HuS, IWD, APOA,
LCA, CGS, GCO, SEO, BEA, LS, BA, CSS, CRO, PPA, ESA, GbSA, SDIO, CS, WCA, WSA, MBA, ACM, BHA, EVO,
TLBO, ASO, GB, SLC, KP, PSOA, SSO, GWO, AMOA, CS, FOA, HA, IMA, GRSA, JALB, OIO, RRA, VSA, SFS, PPA,
EMA, TWO, SGO, DGO WWO, BOA, ESA, ALO, EHO, ABO, LOA, WOA, DVBA, CSA, DA, CA, WEO, VCS, VOA,
TEOA, GOA, SMA, BSO, CBSO, BOA, CGOA, RDA, EPC, CSA, QDSA

Human-inspired Physics-inspired Animals-inspired Biology- Trees/plant Others

inspired s-inspired
CA, HS, SCO, SA, MBA, EMA, SGOA, PSO, ACO, SFHM, SFLA, GSO, SSA,
SWOA, ICA, HIA, PCA, BB-BC, CFO, IRA, CSO, ABC, FA, HuS, LS, BA, EP, GA, IWO, SGA, TS,
LCA, CGS, GCO, MPSA, RFDA, BCA, GSA, ESA, WSA, EVO, PSOA, SSO, DE, BFO, PFA, FOA, VNS,
SEO, TLBO, ASO, IWD, APOA, CSS, CROA, GWO, AMOA, CS, JALB, PPA, BBO CS, RRA SFS
GB, SLC, KP, GbSA, SDIO, CS, WCA, BOA, ESA, ALO, EHO, ABO, BEA, HA,
EMAS, TWO, ACM, BHA, IMA, GRSA, LOA, WOA, DVBA, CSA, DA, VCS, VOA,
SGO, DGO OIO, VSA, WWO, WEO, CA, GOA, BSO, CBSO, BOA, SMA
TEOA, ESA CGOA, RDA, EPC, CSA, QDSA

Single solution- Population-based

based
EP, GA, , PSO, ACO, DE, SFHA, BFO, SFLA, EMA, SGOA, PCA, BB-BC, GSO, IWO, CSO, SGA, ABC, CFO, IRA,
TS, SA MPSA, RFDA, BCA, BBO, FA, PFA, GSA, CS, HuS, IWD, APOA, BEA, LS, BA, CSS, CRO, PPA, ESA, GbSA, SDIO,
VNS CS, WCA, WSA, MBA, ACM, BHA, EVO, PSOA, SSO, GWO, AMOA, CS, FOA, HA, IMA, GRSA, JALB, OIO, RRA,
VSA, SFS, PPA, WWO, BOA, ESA, ALO, EHO, ABO, LOA, WOA, DVBA, CSA, DA, CA, WEO, VCS, VOA, TEOA,
GOA, SMA, SSA, CA, HS, SCO, SWOA, ICA, HIA, LCA, CGS, GCO, SEO, TLBO, ASO, GB, SLC, KP, EMA, TWO,
SGO, DGO BSO, CBSO, BOA, CGOA, RDA, EPC, CSA, QDSA

Fig. 4. Classification of 110 investigated meta-heuristic algorithms.

81 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

40 38

35
30
30

25
20
20
17

15

10
5
5

0
Evolutionary Swarm based Physics based Human based Others

Fig. 5. Classification of meta-heuristic algorithms based on their features statistically.

45
41
40

35
30
30

25
19
20

15
11
10
5 4
5

0
Human Physics Animals Biology Trees/plants Others

Fig. 6. Classification of meta-heuristic algorithms based on the source of inspiration statistically.

 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 82

100
88
90

80

70

60

50

40

30
22
20

10

0
Nature-inspired Non-nature-inspired

Fig. 7. Classification of meta-heuristic algorithms based on nature/non-nature-inspired statistically.

120
107

100

80

60

40

20
3
0
Population Based Single Solution Based

Fig. 8. Classification of meta-heuristic algorithms based on population / single solution based statistically.
83 A comprehensive review on meta-heuristic algorithms and their classification with novel approach

Fig. 9. Classifications of 110 investigated meta-heuristic algorithms based on the country of origin.

30 26
25
20
15
15 13
9
10 6 6
5 5 4 5
5 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
0

Fig. 10. Classifications of (110 investigated) meta-heuristic algorithm based on the country of origin
statistically.
 Rajabi Moshtaghi et al./ J. Appl. Res. Ind. Eng. 8(1) (2021) 63-89 84

5. Conclusion

One of the main achievements of this paper is to categorize a large number of meta-heuristic algorithms
(i.e. 110 algorithms) and give a brief explanation for each of them. Most of meta-heuristic algorithms
have been introduced and developed over the last two decades (i.e. 91% of aforementioned algorithms
have been introduced since 2000). Also, most of the meta-heuristic algorithms are inspired by nature in
such a way that almost 80% of them are in this category. Moreover, 74% of algorithms are inspired by
animal’s behavior, physics, and biological laws. In addition, Iran is the country of origin for about 24%
of algorithms and U.S.A is the country of origin for about 14% of algorithms. It should also be
mentioned that, in this research, meta-heuristic algorithms are categorized from different aspects such
as: nature-inspired vs. non-nature-inspired based, swarm based, evolutionary based, physics based,
human based, source of inspiration, population based vs. single solution based and finally based on the
country of origin. For further studies, it is suggested to compare and rank some meta-heuristic
algorithms. It is also recommended to present a new meta-heuristic algorithm through being inspired
by natural or unnatural phenomena.

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