Unit 4

Data Communication And Computer Network

1) Network Communication model.

The network communication model is like a set of steps that shows how information
travels from one computer to another over a network, such as the internet. Think of it as a guide
that helps different devices "talk" to each other. The most popular model for understanding how
networks work is called the OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection). The OSI Model breaks
down the process into seven layers. Each layer has a specific job that makes sure data moves
smoothly from one device to another

Type of Network communication mode .

1) OSI Model
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection) is a framework that helps us
understand how computers and other devices communicate over a network. It
breaks down the process of communication into seven distinct layers, each
performing a specific function. Think of it like a system where each layer has a
job to do, and they all work together to ensure that data travels smoothly from
one device to another.

The OSI model helps to break down the process of communication into understandable
layers, making it easier to:

● Diagnose network problems: If there’s an issue with your network connection,

you can figure out exactly where things are going wrong.
● Design networks: Engineers can design networks by working on one layer at a
time, ensuring everything works together smoothly.
● Standardize communication: It ensures that devices from different
manufacturers can communicate because they follow the same model.

1. Application Layer (Layer 7)

● What it does: This is the topmost layer where users interact with the network. It
includes all the applications and processes that need network communication,
like browsing the web, sending emails, or transferring files.
● Example: When you use a web browser (like Chrome or Firefox) to open a
website, or when you send an email using Outlook, you are interacting with the
application layer.
2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

● What it does: This layer is responsible for how data is presented and formatted.
It translates the data into a format that the application layer can understand. It
also handles encryption (for security) and compression (to reduce the size of the
data).
● Example: When you send a picture through an app, the presentation layer
makes sure the image is converted into a format the recipient's device can
display. It also encrypts data for secure transmission (like when you're shopping
online).

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

● What it does: The session layer manages the communication sessions between
devices. It opens, maintains, and closes connections. Essentially, it controls the
flow of data during a session between two devices.
● Example: When you're logged into a website, the session layer keeps you
logged in until you log out. If you were to pause and resume a video, the session
layer ensures that the connection stays active without starting over.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

● What it does: The transport layer is responsible for ensuring that data is sent
reliably and completely. It breaks large chunks of data into smaller packets and
ensures that all packets are delivered correctly and in order. If any packets are
lost or corrupted, it requests them to be resent.
● Example: When you're loading a webpage, the transport layer ensures all the
tiny bits of data (text, images, etc.) arrive without errors. If some data is missing
or out of order, it asks for a resend. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
works here to ensure reliable data transfer.

5. Network Layer (Layer 3)

● What it does: The network layer is in charge of routing data from the sender to the
receiver, even if they are on different networks. It uses logical addresses (like IP
addresses) to figure out the best path for data to travel.
 ● Example: When you send an email or visit a website, the network layer uses IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses to figure out where to send the data and how to find the recipient’s
device, even if they’re on a completely different network.

6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

● What it does: This layer is responsible for making sure data is transferred correctly over
a specific link or network (like Ethernet or Wi-Fi). It packages the data into frames and
ensures they are error-free and delivered to the correct device on the local network.
● Example: If you are connected to Wi-Fi, the data link layer is what makes sure your
laptop and the router communicate correctly. It uses MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses to send data to the right device within a local area network (LAN).

7.Physical Layer (Layer 1)

● What it does: This is the lowest layer, and it deals with the physical hardware used to
transmit the data, like cables, switches, and wireless signals. It converts data into
electrical signals, light pulses, or radio waves to move it from one device to another.
● Example: The physical layer is what makes your device actually connect to the internet.
It’s the wires, Wi-Fi signals, or fiber optics that carry the data physically from one device
to another.

2) The TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)

The TCP/IP Model is simpler and more focused on the protocols used in real-
world communication, especially on the internet. It combines some of the OSI
model's layers into fewer steps, typically broken down into four layers:

1.Application Layer (Top Layer):

● This is where you interact with your computer or device.

● It’s the apps and services you use, like web browsers, email apps, or messaging
services.
● Example: When you use Google Chrome to open a website, the Application Layer
handles the communication between your browser and the internet.

2.Transport Layer:

● This layer makes sure that the data is sent correctly and reliably.
● It’s like a postal service that makes sure the letters (data) are complete, in order, and
error-free.
 ● Example: The Transport Layer uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to ensure that
the data sent from your browser to the website is reliable.

3.Internet Layer:

● This layer is like the addressing system of the internet. It ensures the data
knows where to go.
● It uses IP (Internet Protocol) to figure out the best route to deliver the data to
the correct destination (computer or server).
● Example: When you type a website address (like www.example.com), this layer
helps direct the data to the correct server using its IP address.

4. Network Access Layer (Bottom Layer):

● This layer is responsible for physically moving the data through the network.
● It’s like the delivery trucks that carry the letters across streets, highways, or
even through the air (Wi-Fi).
● Example: Whether you’re connected through Wi-Fi or a wired connection, this
layer deals with how data travels over that physical connection.

Why Are These Models Important?

Network communication models are important because they provide a standard way to
think about data transmission. They help:

● Ensure compatibility: Devices from different manufacturers and operating

systems can communicate because they follow the same model.
● Troubleshoot issues: If something goes wrong (like a slow website or dropped
internet connection), these models make it easier to figure out where the problem
might be.
● Develop better systems: Engineers can design better software, hardware, and
protocols based on these models to improve the efficiency of communication.

Network Protocol —

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

● What it does: It ensures reliable data transmission between devices.

● How it works: It breaks data into small chunks called packets, sends them, and
makes sure all packets are received in the right order. If any packet is lost, it will
be sent again.
 ● Use case: Used when you need accurate and reliable delivery, like loading a
website or sending an email.
● Example: When you're visiting a website, TCP ensures that the page loads
correctly and completely.

2. IP (Internet Protocol)

● What it does: It helps route data to the correct device by using an IP address
(unique address for every device).
● How it works: It assigns addresses to data packets and ensures they reach the
correct destination.
● Use case: IP is used by every device on the internet to get and send data to the
right place.
● Example: When you send an email or access a website, your device uses IP to
find the correct server.

3. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

● What it does: It defines how browsers (like Chrome or Firefox) communicate with
web servers to load websites.
● How it works: It specifies how requests for data (like opening a webpage) and
responses (like receiving the webpage content) should be formatted.
● Use case: Used when you're browsing websites.
● Example: When you type in a URL like "www.example.com", the browser uses
HTTP to request the web page from the server.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

● What it does: It allows files to be transferred from one computer to another over a
network.
● How it works: FTP lets you upload or download files between devices (like
between your computer and a server).
● Use case: Used for transferring files, especially on web servers.
● Example: When you upload a picture to a website or download software, FTP is
often the protocol behind the scenes.

5. DNS (Domain Name System)

● What it does: It translates website names (like www.google.com) into IP

addresses (like 172.217.9.46) so that computers can understand where to send
data.
● How it works: When you type in a website address, DNS helps your computer
find the server's IP address.
● Use case: Used whenever you visit a website.
 ● Example: You type in "www.youtube.com," and DNS helps your browser find the
YouTube server's address.

6. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

● What it does: It is used for sending email messages between servers.

● How it works: It sends emails from your email client (like Gmail or Outlook) to the
recipient's email server.
● Use case: Used when sending emails.
● Example: When you click "send" on an email, SMTP is responsible for
transferring that email to the recipient's server.

Key Features of Protocols

1. Syntax: Defines the structure of the data (like how a letter has an envelope with a
proper address and message inside).
2. Semantics: Defines the meaning of the signals and how they should be
interpreted (like what "Hello" means when someone says it).
3. Timing: Specifies when and how fast data can be sent (like how fast you talk
when you're on the phone, so both people can understand).

In Summary:

● Network protocols are like the rules for a game, making sure that devices and
systems can "talk" to each other without confusion.
● There are many types of protocols, each with a different job (sending files,
browsing websites, etc.), but they all work together to make the internet run
smoothly.

What is Physical Addressing?

Physical addressing is used to identify devices on a network by their unique hardware

address. Unlike logical addresses (like IP addresses), which are used to route data
across networks, physical addresses are used within a specific local network (like your
home or office Wi-Fi) to direct data to the correct device.

It's called "physical" because it refers to an address tied to the actual hardware of a
device (such as the network card in a laptop, smartphone, or router), rather than a
logical address used by software.

Physical Addressing vs. Logical Addressing (IP Addressing)

 ● Physical Addressing (MAC Address):

○ Used to identify devices at the hardware level.

○ Works within a local network.
○ Cannot be changed easily (it's burned into the hardware).
○ Example: MAC addresses like 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.
● Logical Addressing (IP Address):

○ Used to identify devices at the network level.

○ Can be changed dynamically (like when you connect to different
networks).
○ Helps route data over the internet or between different networks.
○ Example: IP addresses like 192.168.1.10 (IPv4) or
2001:0db8::ff00:42:8329 (IPv6).

What is an IP Address?

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is like a home address for your device on
the internet or any network. It's a unique number that helps identify where your device
(like your computer, phone, or tablet) is located so that it can send and receive
information.

Just like how your house address lets the postal service know where to deliver letters,
an IP address helps computers and other devices send data to the right place.

Key Points to :

1. Uniqueness: Every device connected to a network (whether it's the internet or a

local network) has a unique IP address.

2. Two Types of IP Addresses:

○ IPv4: The older version. It's made of 4 numbers separated by dots, like
192.168.1.1. It’s the most common type used today.
○ IPv6: The newer version. It’s made of 8 groups of numbers separated by
colons, like 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334. This was created
because the world is running out of IPv4 addresses.
3. Public vs. Private:

○ Public IP Address: This is the address that identifies your device to the
outside world, like when you browse the internet.
 ○ Private IP Address: These are used for devices inside your home or local
network, like your phone, laptop, or printer. They aren’t visible to the world
outside your home.

What is IPv4?

4. IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It's the fourth version of the
protocol that helps devices communicate with each other over the internet and
local networks. Think of it as a unique "address" that identifies a device on a
network, much like a house address helps the postman deliver letters to the right
house.

Key Features of IPv4:

1. 32-bit Address:

○ IPv4 uses 32 bits (which are just 1s and 0s) to create an address. This
means it can generate a huge number of unique addresses.
○ In total, IPv4 can provide about 4.3 billion addresses (but that’s running
out, which is why IPv6 was introduced).
2. Format:

○ IPv4 addresses are written as four numbers (each between 0 and 255)
separated by dots.
○ Example: 192.168.1.1
■ Each part of the address (like 192, 168, etc.) is called an octet.
Each octet can be any number between 0 and 255.
3. Public and Private IPs:

○ Public IP Address: This is the address that identifies your device on the
internet.
○ Private IP Address: This is used within your local network (like your
home Wi-Fi) to identify your devices (like your phone, laptop, or printer).

What is IPv6?

IPv6 stands for Internet Protocol version 6, and it’s the new version of the Internet
Protocol that was introduced to replace IPv4. IPv6 was created because IPv4 was
running out of unique addresses as more and more devices were connected to the
internet.
You can think of IPv6 as a bigger and better address system for the internet, which
can support a massive number of devices.

Key Features of IPv6:

1. 128-bit Address:

○ Unlike IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses, IPv6 uses 128 bits. This
means that IPv6 can create a huge number of unique addresses (about
340 undecillion addresses—that’s a 340 followed by 36 zeros!).

Format:

● IPv6 addresses are written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits (using
numbers 0-9 and letters A-F), separated by colons.

● Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

● Shortened version: You can drop leading zeros or use double colons to
represent multiple groups of zeros.

○ Example: 2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334