Reactivity 1.

3
Combustion reactions of
the alkanes
 Reactions of the alkanes
Alkanes react with oxygen in combustion reactions,
usually producing carbon dioxide and water.
Alkanes make very good fuels as they release large
polymerization

amounts of heat when they burn (exothermic reactions).

Alkane ΔHoc (kJ mol-1)
Methane - 891
Ethane - 1561
Propane - 2219
Butane - 2878
Pentane - 3509
 Reactions of the alkanes
Complete combustion (excess of oxygen):
polymerization

Incomplete combustion (lack of oxygen):

(s)
Reactions of the alkanes
2H2O(g)
polymerization
2H2O(g)
2H2O(g)
Combustion reactions of
the alcohols
 Reactions of the alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
polymerization

CH3OH CH3CH2OH CH3CH2CH2OH

Methanol Ethanol Propan-1-ol
 Reactions of the alcohols
These ΔHoc values can be found in section 13 of the IB
chemistry data booklet.
Alcohol ΔH c (kJ mol-1)
o
polymerization

Methanol - 726
Ethanol - 1367
Propan-1-ol - 2021
Butan-1-ol - 2676
As the number of carbon atoms increases, the enthalpy
change also increases.
 Reactions of the alcohols
Alcohols undergo combustion in excess oxygen
(complete combustion) to form carbon dioxide
polymerization
and water.
 Reactions of the alcohols
Alcohols undergo combustion in a limited supply
of oxygen (incomplete combustion) to form
polymerization
carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon (C).
Reactions of metals and
non-metals with oxygen
 Reactions of metals and non-metals
Reaction of reactive metals and non-metals
Reactive metals such as magnesium react
polymerization
with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Non-metals such as carbon react with oxygen
to form non-metal oxides.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
 Renewable and non-
renewable energy sources
 Energy sources
Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished.
 Energy sources
Energy source Advantage Disadvantage
Renewable and
Solar Not available at night
sustainable
Wind turbines are
Renewable and
Wind unsightly and create
sustainable
noise
Large areas of land
Renewable and
Hydroelectric are flooded to create
sustainable
the reservoir
 Energy sources
Energy source Advantage Disadvantage
Renewable and Only suited to
Geothermal
sustainable particular regions
Land used to grow
Only renewable and
biomass crops could
Biomass sustainable if crops
be used to grow food
are regrown
crops instead
Renewable and Can disrupt the
Tidal
sustainable migration of fish
 Energy sources
Non–renewable energy sources are finite.
Fossil fuels
 Fossil fuels
Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological
compounds that contained carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen.
They were formed over millions of years, from the
remains of dead organisms, in anaerobic conditions.
Coal was formed from dead plant material.
Oil and natural gas were formed from dead marine
organisms.
 Fossil fuels
Oil (crude oil, petroleum) is a complex mixture of straight-
chain, branched, cyclic, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Natural gas is composed mainly of methane, with varying
amounts of ethane, propane, and butane as well as
hydrogen sulfide.

A man taking a bath in

crude oil in Azerbaijan.
 Fossil fuels
Formation of coal
Swamp Water
300 million years ago 100 million years ago

Rocks and sediment

Sediment
Dead plants Coal

Giant plants die Plants become Coal is formed

in swamps. buried under under high heat
layers of sediment and pressure.
and water.
 Fossil fuels
Formation of oil and natural gas
Ocean Ocean
300-400 million years ago 50-100 million years ago

Sand and silt

Rock
Sand and silt
Plant and animal remains Oil and gas deposits

Sea creatures and Remains are buried Oil and gas deposits
plants die and are deeper - high heat, are reached by
buried on the sea pressure forms oil drilling on land or
floor. and natural gas. at sea.
 Advantages and
disadvantages of fossil
fuels
 Fossil fuels
Global energy usage by source

Number of years remaining

120

50 55
coal natural gas
oil nuclear power
hydroelectricity biomass COAL OIL GAS

other renewable sources

Fossil fuels are a finite resource and may be exhausted in

the foreseeable future.
 Fossil fuels
Advantages Disadvantages
Coal is relatively inexpensive As with all fossil fuels, coal is
finite (non-renewable)
Coal has a high specific energy When burned, coal produces
and high energy density CO2 which is a greenhouse gas
Coal can be converted into When burned, coal also
liquid fuels and gases produces SO2 which causes
acid deposition
Coal is distributed throughout The mining of coal can cause
the world environmental damage
 Fossil fuels
Advantages Disadvantages
Petroleum products are As with all fossil fuels, crude oil
relatively inexpensive is finite (non-renewable)
Petroleum products generally When burned, petroleum
have high specific energies and products produce CO2 which is
energy densities a greenhouse gas
Ease of transport (gasoline) Drilling for and transporting
crude oil can cause
environmental damage
Feedstock for petrochemicals Uneven distribution worldwide
 Fossil fuels
Advantages Disadvantages
Natural gas is a relatively clean As with all fossil fuels, natural
fuel gas is finite (non-renewable)
Natural gas has a higher specific When burned, natural gas
energy than coal and oil produces CO2 which is a
greenhouse gas
Ease of transport (pressurized Lower energy density than coal
containers) and oil
Does not contribute to acid Uneven distribution in the
deposition world
Evaluating the amount of CO2
produced by different fuels
 CO2 produced by different fuels
The table shows the heat released per 1 kg of fuel
burned and the mass of CO2 produced.
Percent Heat released per 1 kg Mass of CO2 produced per
Fuel
carbon of fuel burned / MJ 1 kg of fuel burned / kg
Methane 75 55.5 2.74
Coal 80 32.8 3.66
Butane 83 49.5 3.03
Octane 84 47.9 3.08
Decane 85 47.6 3.10
 CO2 produced by different fuels
Combustion of 1 kg of methane
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔH = -891 kJ mol-1
Heat released:
n(CH4) = 1000 g / 16.04 g mol-1 = 62.34 mol
62.34 mol × 891 kJ mol-1 = 55545 kJ = 55.5 MJ
CO2 produced:
Ratio of CH4 to CO2 is 1:1
n(CO2) = 62.34 mol
m(CO2) = 62.34 mol × 44.01 g mol-1 = 2744 g = 2.74 kg
 CO2 produced by different fuels
The greater the percent carbon of the fuel, the less
heat released per unit mass.
This is because of the greater tendency for incomplete
combustion as the length of the carbon chain
increases.
Methane produces more heat per unit mass than
butane because butane has a greater tendency to
undergo incomplete combustion.
 CO2 produced by different fuels
The greater the the percent carbon of the fuel, the
greater the mass of CO2 produced per unit mass.
Butane produces more CO2 per unit mass than
methane because of the higher percent carbon.
Evidence for global
warming
 Global warming

Increasing CO2 levels and the Earth’s average temperature show

clear correlation, but wide variations in the surface temperature of
the Earth have occurred frequently in the past.
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis
In photosynthesis, light
energy from the sun is
converted into chemical
energy.
C6H12O6 It occurs in green plants in
the presence of a light
absorbing pigment called
chlorophyll.
light
Biofuels
 Biofuels
Biofuels are fuels whose energy is obtained from biological
carbon fixation.
Carbon fixation is a process that takes inorganic carbon
(CO2) and converts it into organic compounds.

The glucose produced in photosynthesis can be

fermented to produce ethanol which can be used
as a biofuel.
 Biofuels
Ethanol can be produced by fermenting starchy plants
such as corn, wheat, barley or potatoes.

This process is carried out at a temperature of 37oC

in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) by yeast
which provides an enzyme to catalyze the reaction.
 Biofuels
The ethanol produced in fermentation can be mixed
with gasoline (petrol).
Gasohol is a mixture of 90 % gasoline and 10 % ethanol.
Brazil was one of the first
countries to make
widespread use of ethanol
blended with gasoline.
The ethanol is produced
from sugarcane.
 Biofuels
The ethanol produced in fermentation can be
mixed with gasoline (petrol).
Gasohol (E10 blend) is a mixture of 90% gasoline
and 10% ethanol.
E10 blends are typically rated 2-3 octane numbers
higher than regular gasoline.
The use of E10 blends can also reduce emissions
of carbon monoxide (CO).
 Biofuels
Advantages of biofuels:
Biofuels are renewable and readily available.
If crops are regrown, biofuels can be sustainable.
Disadvantages of biofuels:
The production of crops for biofuels means less land
is available for food crops.
Biofuels have lower specific energy than fossil fuels.
Growing and harvesting crops for biofuels produces
large amounts of CO2
Fuel cells
 Fuel cells
A fuel cell converts the chemical potential energy stored
in a fuel into electrical energy.
Unlike secondary cells, fuel cells require a constant
source of fuel such as hydrogen gas.
Hydrogen fuel cell Methanol fuel cell
 Hydrogen fuel cell

Anode: 2H2(g) → 4H+(aq) + 4e-

Cathode: O2 + 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2O(l)
 Methanol fuel cell

Anode: CH3OH(l) + H2O(l) → CO2(g) + 6H+(aq) + 6e-

𝟑
Cathode: 6H (aq) + O2(g) + 6e- → 3H2O(l)
+
𝟐