Vol. 23 No.

7 FEBRUARY 1970 THREE SHILLINGS

Btectric

Speed

Controller

Providing
continuous
control from \
near-zero to
m,
maximum

/
z Decimal Coinage Calculator

Comprehensive Timing Circuit

 1

in i
Radio Constructor

Incorporating THE RADIO AMATEUR FEBRUARY 1970

Vol. 23 No. 7 CONTENTS

EXPERIMENTER'S POWER SUPPLY 394

Published Monthly (1st of Month) THE GOOD, THE BAD & THE UGLY 400
First Published 1947
DECIMAL COINAGE CALCULATOR 401
(Suggested Circuit No. 231)
Editorial and Advertising Offices NEWS AND COMMENT 404
57 MAI DA VALE LONDON W9
COMPREHENSIVE TIMING UNIT 406
KALEIDOSCOPE 410
Telephone Telegrams
01-286 6141 Databux, London FROM DEAD RECKONING TO
PINPOINT NAVIGATION 411
RADIO AUSTRALIA LISTENER'S CLUB 412
© Data Publications Ltd., 1970. Contents
may only be reproduced after obtaining TAPE RECORDING BIRDSONG 413
prior permission from the Editor. Short
abstracts or references are allowable CAN ANYONE HELP? 414
provided acknowledgement of source is NOW HEAR THESE 415
given.
Annual Subscription 42s. (U.S.A. and ELECTRIC DRILL SPEED CONTROLLER 416
Canada $5) including postage. Remit- DEVELOPING THE "SPONTAFLEX"
tances should be made payable to "Data SHORT WAVE RECEIVER 420
Publications Ltd.". Overseas readers
please pay by cheque or International SIMPLE FREQUENCY METER 424
Money Order.
Queries. We regret that we are unable CURRENT SCHEDULES 426
to answer queries other than those VOLTMETERS AND OHMMETERS
arising from articles appearing in this (Understanding Radio) 427
magazine nor can we advise on modifi-
cations to equipment described. Queries
should be submitted in writing and CURRENT TRENDS 432
accompanied by a stamped addressed
envelope for reply. IN YOUR WORKSHOP 433
Correspondence should be addressed to RADIO TOPICS 439
the Editor, Advertising Manager, Sub-
scription Manager or the Publishers as LATE NEWS 441
appropriate.
BOOK REVIEW 441
Opinions expressed by contributors are
not necessarily those of the Editor or LAST LOOK ROUND 441
proprietors.
RADIO CONSTRUCTOR'S DATA SHEET
Production.—Letterpress. No. 35 (Bias Resistor Voltages) iii

Published in Great Britain by the Proprietors and

Publishers, Data Publications Ltd, 57 Maida Vale, MARCH ISSUE WILL BE PUBLISHED
London, W.9.
The Radio Constructor is printed by Kent Paper OH MARCH 2nd
Company Ltd, London and Ashford, Kent.
 EXPERIMENTER'S POWER PACK
The basis of the variable voltage part of the cir-
cuit is shown in Fig. 2(a). The principle is the same
Experimenter's as for the zener-controlled circuit of Fig. 1(b), except
that it is the variable voltage from the potential
divider VR1 which is now applied to the transistor
base. The transformer and rectifiers provide a nearly
constant d.c. supply (subject to mains variations)
Power Supply which is smoothed by Cl. C2 provides further
smoothing to the base of the transistor (except when
the slider of RV1 is at maximum) so that the out-
by put from the emitter is very smooth. If we say that
Rb is approximately the combined parallel resistance
of the two parts of RV1 (divided by the slider) plus
C. CROSBIE the supply resistance, the output resistance is approxi-
mately equal to Rb divided by the transistor current
gain. The output capacitance is approximately equal
Employing simple basic principles, this to C2 multiplied by transistor current gain (over the
frequency range at which this gain is exhibited).
power unit offers a continuously variable We require the power supply to offer currents of
output voltage ranging from zero to 25 volts. up to 1 amp and, if we use the circuit of Fig. 2(a),
An overload protection circuit enables output it will be necessary for RV1 to provide current to
the base of the transistor which is equal to this
current to be limited to any desired level figure divided by the transistor gain. This makes
up to 1 amp. A further feature is the pro- it necessary for RV1 to have a relatively very low
vision of an optional trigger circuit which value, whereupon it has to be a high-power com-
ponent. This difficulty is overcome by changing the
gives a visual indication when the overload transistor for a 'super-alpha' pair, as shown in Fig.
circuit commences to operate 2(b). The overall gain is now very much higher,
being approximately equal to the product of the
current gains of the individual transistors. If
The simplest type of constant-voltage power RV1 is given a fairly low resistance the current
supply is composed of a resistor in series with a drawn from its slider for high output currents is
zener diode, as in Fig. 1(a). This arrangement negligibly low compared with the standing current
wastes both current and voltage although, for a mains flowing through it, with the result that the output
power unit, a small power loss can be tolerated. Also, from the emitter of TR2 is the voltage at the slider
the power 'wasted' by the zener diode generates heat of RV1 less about 0.4 volt due to the base-emitter
in this component whereupon, for large power sup- drop in both transistors. (This assumes germanium
plies, the zener diode needs to be a high-power com-
ponent. The power supply has an output impedance Series
equal to the parallel combination of the series resist- resistor
—MW—
ance and the slope resistance of the zener diode. The
latter is usually very much smaller than the former v
in Zener v
out
but will still, nevertheless, be several ohms or more. unregulated diode ' regulated
Adding an emitter-follower amplifier as in Fig. 1(b)
facilitates the use of a low power zener diode, and + o- -o +
the output impedance becomes equal to the emitter
resistance of the transistor plus the sum of the zener (a)
diode slope resistance and transistor base resistance
divided by the transistor current gain. All the transistor
parameters here refer to its use in common emitter.
Since the emitter resistance is of the order of 0.050
only for power transistors, and since the base resist- Series :
ance will be much lower than the zener diode slope resistor;
resistance, the output impedance is approximately Vin
equal to zener diode slope resistance divided by tran- unregulated
sistor current gain. Vout
The power supply circuit to be described in this Zener regulated
article takes advantage of the reduced output im- diode
pedance offered by inserting a transistor between the + o- -o +
control voltage (provided in Fig. 1(b) by the zener
diode) and the output terminals. It is intended, how- (b)
ever, to function purely as a variable voltage power
supply offering voltages up to 25 volts and currents Fig. 1(a). A simple means of obtaining
up to 1 amp without stabilisation. As such, it will be power supply regulation
particularly useful for the experimenter and amateur (b). Adding an emitter follower results in
constructor. An overload protection circuit is in- reduced output impedance, together with
cluded. lower dissipation in the zener diode
394 the radio constructor
transistors.) RV1 could be fitted with a scale cali-
brated directly in terms of output voltage.
PROTECTION
The circuit of Fig. 2(b) offers no protection against
overload, and a very heay current could flow in TR2
if the output were accidentally short-circuited. A
l amp fuse in series with TR1 emitter would provide
some protection, but could not be relied upon to
act rapidly enough to protect TR2 in the worst cases.
For protection, a circuit element having a constant
current characteristic is required, and a transistor
may be employed as a constant current device by
taking advantage of its collector voltage/current nm
characteristic. Fig. 3(a) illustrates a typical character-
istic for a transistor with a fixed bias current. Below
the 'knee' of the curve, which corresponds on the
current axis to It multiplied by the transistor gain,
the transistor exhibits very low resistance whilst,
above the 'knee', any increase in current can only be
achieved by large increases in applied voltage. For A view underneath the chassis of the power supply
a power transistor the slope resistance beyond the
'knee' may be about lOOQ, while the actual resistance it is close enough to one to provide adequate pro-
may fall to about 30Q. Thus in practice, while a tection for a power supply unit.
power transistor is not a true constant-current device. The method of protection is shown in Fig. 3(b).

d2

RV
A.C. D4
mains

^out
variable

(a)

d2 TR

A.C. ^3 D4 i h HBrs
mams
o—
C2
^out
variable
■0 +

(b)
Fig. 2(a). Adapting the circuit of Fig. 1(b) to provide a
variable output voltage
(b). Employing a 'super-alpha pair' in place of a single
transistor further improves performance
FEBRUARY 1970 395
 Knee R3 take the place of the protection transistor in Fig.
3(b). Suitable component values and types are given
in the Components List. R2 is found in the following
manner. First set RV2 to maximum and RV1 to mid-
range. Connect an ammeter across the output ter-
minals and try different resistors in the R2 position
until one is found which causes 2 amps to pass
Collector through the ammeter. Start with about lOOkfi and
current reduce the value carefully.
A particular characteristic of power transistor be-
haviour, not so far taken into account, is leakage
current (i.e. the collector-emitter current which is
passed when no base current is present). The dis-
advantage resulting from leakage current in the cir-
Collector voltage cuit as so far discussed is that the voltage at the
emitter of TR2 can rise above the voltage at the
slider of RV1. This is due to leakage current and
(a) occurs when the required output is at a low voltage
and current. The effect is nullified by the inclusion
of the 680fi resistor, R6, across the output terminals.
If the leakage effect remains serious, resistor Rl may
be reduced to about 3612.
v
out As a final point, the mains on-off switch is ganged
protected with RV2. This potentiometer is wired such that the
unit is switched off when RV2 slider is at the positive

unprotected
Protection COMPONENTS
transistor
(Fig. 4)
Resistors:
(N.B. RV1 and RV2 should be standard com
+o ponents, not miniature).
Rl 100f2 \ watt 10%
(b) R2 See text, i- watt
R3 100f2 ^ watt 10%
Fig. 3(a). Typical collector characteristic for R4 IkO 1 watt 10%
a transistor with fixed base current R5 22012 i watt 10%
(b). The characteristic enables a transistor R6 680f2 2 watt 20%
to be employed in the basic protection circuit RV1 3 k 12 wirewound
shown here RV2 5kn carbon, linear, with switch SI
Capacitors:
The protection transistor is connected in series with C1 2,000pF electrolytic, 30V wkg.
the output from the power supply and its base C2 100/j.F electrolytic, 30V wkg.
is coupled via the fixed resistor, R, to a constant C3 2/jF electrolytic, 30V wkg.
direct voltage, shown as a battery for convenience. T ransformer:
In this way the transistor will behave as the T1 Douglas type MT3AT (Henry's
characteristic of Fig. 3(a), and will only have a Radio)
significant voltage across it when the 'knee' current
is reached. Semiconductors:
This approach ensures protection of the power TR1 OC36
supply, but what of the circuit being supplied? The TR2 OC36
latter will often be in the nature of an experimental TR3 ACY17
prototype, and it may be very desirable to protect it TR4 OC36
from currents which would damage it but not the D1-D4 Silicon rectifiers, minimum rating
power supply. The need now arises for a protection 2 amps, 35 p.i.v. (e.g. RS50AF)
circuit whose protection current can be varied. Since Switch:
the protection current is proportional to lb the SI d.p.s.t, part of RV2
obvious approach is to vary the lb in Fig. 3(a). To Pilot Lamp:
enable the protection transistor to be run from a PL1 6V 100mA, LES (Henry's Radio
small potentiometer across the main d.c. supply, the —see text)
transistor of Fig. 3(b) is replaced by a 'super-alpha' Miscellaneous:
pair, and Fig. 4 shows the power supply of Fig. 2(b) Mica washers and insulating bushes (for
modified to incorporate protection. In Fig. 4 the TR1, TR2 and TR4)
mains transformer, diodes D1 to D4, capacitors C1 LES lamp holder, insulated—see text.
and C2, Rl, RV1, and transistors TR1 and TR2 2 knobs
are the same as in Fig. 2(b). 2 terminals
RV2 and R2 provide the adjustable bias current Chassis, panel, etc.
whence the protection current is set. TR3, TR4 and
396 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
end of its track, where it selects lowest protection
current.
Fig. 5(a) indicates the overload performance of the
unit when RV1 is set to 5 volts and RV2 is set to
100mA. The dashed line indicates ideal overload
protection, whilst the solid line shows the perform-
ance obtained in practice. Fig. 5(b) shows the
results given for settings of 10 volts and 300mA.

INDICATION OF PROTECTION
There remains one thing missing from the unit.
The output voltage is adjustable and both the unit
and its load are protected against excess current —
but no indication is provided in the unit as to whether
the protection circuit has gone into operation.
One method of providing an indication would
be to insert an ammeter in the output circuit with
a range switch to select different current ranges. A
second method would be to connect a voltmeter Front view of the prototype supply unit. The
component behind the mains transformer is
across the output terminals. A third method, and that capacitor C1. RV1 and RV2 are marked
which was adopted in the prototype, is to sense the 'V and T respectively
voltage across TR4. If there is more than a fraction
of a volt across this transistor the protection circuit XR5 is taken above the voltage across R10 (plus
is beginning to operate. Whatever method of indica- the small Vbe in TR5), TR5 begins to conduct. The
tion is employed the unit should be switched off voltage at its collector falls, causing TR6 to be
when protection commences to come into effect. switched off and the bulb to be extinguished. R8 and
A circuit which senses the voltage across TR4 will the bulb (when lit) both have about the same
now be described and this can be added as an resistance so that the trigger circuit takes the same
optional extra to the unit if so desired. current in either of its two states. The single series
The sensing circuit is the Schmitt trigger shown resistor, R12, may in consequence be used to provide
in Fig. 6, where the voltage across TR4 is applied a suitable voltage for the trigger from the main recti-
via R7 to TR5. It can be seen that if this voltage fied supply in the power unit.
is less than that across RIO, TR5 is held off and TR6 Thus, the protection circuit indicating lamp remains
conducts, causing the bulb, PL2, to light up. In this illuminated until the current drawn from the unit
condition, TR6 is held on by the potential divider starts to exceed the protection current selected by
given by R8-plus-R9 and Rll. When the base of RV2. It then extinguishes, whereupon the unit should

PL,

30 V
24V
20V
240V
AO. TR
I TR2
mains 02 OC36 OC35
ov
Variable-
ganged ^ -voltage
to RV2 I cza Current 6
5 protected
RV contro output
RV
"2
Voltage
control OC36
C3 ' r3
ACYI7 OC36 ACY17 *3 ^5
I
Fig. 4. Complete circuit diagram for the power supply, with variable voltage and
variable maximum current controls
FEBRUARY 1970 397
be switched off. The cause of the overload should
be removed before the unit is switched on again.
COMPONENTS
PERFORMANCE
(Fig. 6)
The performance of the power supply should be Resistors:
adequate for the requirements of experimenters. The (All resistors are \ watt 10% unless other-
output impedance varies with the setting of RV1, wise stated)
and is typically around 3Q. Output voltages extend R7 1.5kQ
up to 25 volts. R8 68(2
The output power is limited by TR2. Low voltage R9 680Q
high current outputs (e.g. 3 volts at 1 amp) cause RIO IOO
Rll 1800
R12 220Q 3 watt
ISOi
Transistors:
TR5 OC81
TR6 OC81
RV| set 5 volts Pilot Lamp and Holder:
RV2 set IOO mA PL2 6V 100mA, LES (Flenry's Radio)
LES lamp holder, insulated—see text
too
TR2 to be run fairly close to maximum power dis-
Output sipation. At high voltage outputs, the output current
current may safely exceed the nominal 1 amp maximum
figure for the unit, a typical example being given by
(mA) an output of 20 volts at 2 amps.
CONSTRUCTION
The prototype was assembled on an 18 s.w.g.
aluminium chassis measuring 1\ by 5|- by 2\ in., this
being fitted with an 18 s.w.g. aluminium front panel
measuring 6 by Sin. The chassis forms a heat sink for
TR1, TR2 and TR4, and these are secured to its sur-
face with mica washers and insulating bushes. Care
must be taken to ensure that there are no burrs on
the chassis holes or any other surface irregularities
Output voltage which may reduce the efficiency of the thermal
(a) coupling between the transistors and the chassis.
This point applies, in particular, to TR2, and it would
6OO RV. set to lOvolts be a good plan to apply a thin film of silicone grease
RV set to 300mA to both sides of the mica washer before fitting this
transistor. Silicone grease may also be employed for
500 TR1 and TR4.
A cut-out in the chassis takes the mains trans-
former specified, and the remainder of the com-
400 ponents were assembled on a sheet of perforated
Paxolin with turret tags tapped in.
Both potentiometers should be wired such that
Output their sliders are at minimum (the positive end of the
current 300 track) when their spindles are fully anti-clock-
(mA) wise. It should be noted, incidentally, that
200 potentiometers with large diameters permit smoother
adjustment. Voltage and current scales may be
marked out on 2 in. diameter discs screwed or glued
IOO to the bottoms of the two control knobs. (The current
scale is calibrated with the aid of an external am-
meter connected across the output terminals.) The
exterior parts of the chassis may be painted matt
black to assist heat radiation.
Output voltage The mains transformer has a multi-tap secondary,
the OV and 20V taps being employed for the power
(b) supply. A 6 volt supply (from the 24V and 30V taps)
is taken from the secondary to supply a 6 volt panel
Fig. 5(a). Output characteristic for the light. It should be noted here that the Components
supply when RV2 is set to 100mA List for Fig. 4 specifies a 6 volt 100mA LES lamp
(b). The output characteristic for a setting for PL1, in order that it may match the similar lamp,
of 300mA PL2, employed in the protection indicator circuit. If,
398 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 (SS^dot
R OC8I
TRa i2;

v
out r
9

11 - TR5 TR6
OC8I OC8[
TR4
R
IO;

Circuit of fig. 4
Fig. 6. An optional trigger circuit. This causes PL2 to extinguish
when the protection circuit commences to operate

however, the latter is not incorporated in the power for by the insulated mounting. Care should be taken to
unit, PL1 can be any 6 volt pilot light. see that the bulb holders used for the lamps are of the
There is no connection between any part of the type which have both contacts isolated from the
power supply circuit and the chassis. So far as the mounting bracket.
power transistors are concerned, this point is catered

EARTH STATION TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS

CONFERENCE IN ELECTRONICS
An account of the research and development policies
The conference on earth station technology which is in the Japanese electronics industry is to be given at
to be held at the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the international symposium on management and
Savoy Place, London W.C.2., from the 14th to 16th economics in the electronics industry to be held in
Edinburgh from the 17th to 20th March 1970. S.
October 1970, will consider the international opera- Shima, managing director of the Sony Corporation,
tional experience that has been acquired with the will give the keynote address in the session on the
present generation of earth stations and the existing management of innovation, making particular re-
systems of communication satellites. ference to research and development. Technological
innovation in electronics in recent years has taken
Planning for the Intelsat IV systems and the various Japan to second place in the world production league
military, regional and domestic satellite systems is well for electronic equipment and components.
advanced, and considerable developments are taking Keynote addresses will be given in the other sessions
at the symposium on; marketing, A. L. Humphreys,
place in earth station technology. The conference pro- managing director. International Computers Ltd.;
gramme will include: the interaction between satellite management services, A. Chargueraud, president, Die-
parameters and earth station characteristics; earth bold Europe SA, France; manpower and training, F,
station configuration; electrical, mechanical and struc- Metcalfe, chief education and training officer, EITB;
tural aspects of earth station aerials; aerial teed sys- the role of governments, Lord Beeching; economics
and scale of manufacture, C. H. Villiers, managing
tems; high-power transmitters; low-noise amplifiers; director. Industrial Reorganisation Corporation.
modems, frequency conversion equipment, monitoring The symposium is being organised by the Institution
and control and operational and reliability aspects. of Electrical Engineers, in association with the Institu-
tion of Electronic & Radio Engineers, the Institute of
The conference is being organised by the IEE in Physics & the Physical Society and the Institute of
association with the Institution of Electronic & Radio Mathematics and its Applications, together with the
Engineers and the Institute of Electrical & Electronics support of thirteen other professional and government
Engineers. Further details and registration forms will organisations and learned societies.
Further details of the symposium and registration
be available in due course from the Manager, Con- forms are now available from the Manager, Con-
ference Department, IEE, Savoy Place, London, ference Department, IEE, Savoy Place, London,
W.C.2. W.C.2.
FEBRUARY 1970 399
 vi
m
DECIMAL
m m
COINAGE

CALCULATOR
n m.
is

by G. A. FRENCH
mm.
/

AS IS EVIDENT FROM THE NEW and that it is easy to judge the corresponding quantity of New
coins filtering out from the New Pence equivalent to the near- Pence runs in the series 10, 20,
banks into our pockets, the est half New Penny. 30 and so on. At the same time,
day when Britain changes over to The calculator operates from the when the quantity of shillings is
decimal coinage creeps inexorably mains supply and, to keep con- odd the corresponding quantity of
nearer. The relationship between structional costs to a minimum, New Pence runs in the series 5, 15,
the present shillings and the future does not incorporate a voltage stab- 25, 35 and so on. If we add
New Pence is quite easy to grasp, ilising circuit. It should not, in current pennies to an even number
but the mental conversion from consequence, be employed in of shillings, the corresponding
current pennies to New Pence is locations where mains voltage fluc- quantity of additional New Pence
considerably more difficult, this be- tuations are high. An adjustment is falls between zero and 5. Similarly,
ing due to the 12 : 5 ratio which available to cater for long-term if we add current pennies to an
exists between them. The awkward- changes in mains voltage. odd number of shillings, the corres-
ness of this ratio is demonstrated ponding quantity of additional New
when one considers that the quan- CIRCUIT OPERATION Pence falls between 5 and 10.
tity of New Pence equal to one We may now turn to Fig. 1
current penny is 0.4166 . . . recurr- To appreciate how the circuit which shows the circuitry employed
ing! operates, it is first of all necessary in the calculator. For the purpose
This article describes a simple to consider the processes involved of explanation, we shall assume
calculating device which enables when converting from shillings to that Rl, R2 and R3 are all exactly
present currency to be converted New Pence. 1 shilling is equal to equal to 1012, and that the current
to New Pence by way of a simple 5 New Pence, 2 shillings are equal drawn by meter Ml is negligibly
potentiometer circuit and a meter. to 10 New Pence, 3 shillings are low when compared with the curr-
Shillings are initially converted to equal to 15 New Pence, 4 shillings ent flowing in R3. The mains
New Pence from a table, and curr- are equal to 20 New Pence, and so supply is applied to Tl, whose
ent pennies are next set up on the on. As may be seen, when the 6.3 volt secondary feeds the circuit
calculator controls. The meter of number of shillings is even the comprising Rl, R2 and R3 via
the calculator then indicates the
quantity of New Pence correspond-
ing to the current pennies. Exactly s
2
the same function can, of course, On-Off
be carried out by a printed conver-
sion chart, with the obvious result Odd I On
that a calculator doing the same shillings'
job should not be an expensiye
device. The present circuit has, in n
consequence, been designed around 2kn or 2-5kn A.C
a very small number of standard positions w.w. Dd i linear 6'3V mains
components, and it is anticipated
that many, if not all, of these will
already be available in the average Even 2ka
constructor's spares box. The cal- shillings
culator possesses the considerable IOA O-lmA
advantages over a printed conver-
sion chart that it is very easy to
consult, that it offers an output
indication in a manner that non- Fig. 1. The circuit employed by the coinage calculator. The text
technical people will find attractive, gives important details on the relative values of R1, R2 and R3
FEBRUARY 1970 401
 rectifier 1)1. Alternate rectified
positive half-cycles become avail-
able on the cathode (the left-hand
electrode in Fig. 1) of Dl. Due to Table
the mechanical inertia in the move-
ment of meter Ml there is no
necessity for these half-cycles to be
smoothed, and circuit operation is OLD NEW
just the same as would be given PENCE PENCE
if a steady direct voltage were SHILLINGS
applied to Rl, R2 and R3 EVEN ODD
Meter Ml is a 0-lmA meter
having a scale calibrated from 0 to
(W[th many 0-lmA meters such
a calibration merely necessitates
the addition of a nought after the
1 at f.s.d. to make "10", the
decimal points preceding the previ-
ous figures on the scale being
sufficiently small in size to be
ignored.) After switching on, the Fig. 2. A suitable panel layout for the calculator
circuit can, if necessary, be initially
set up by putting SI to "odd shill-
m8 R3 S Iider fuIly to
thf "17rl™
the 12d endn off its
- track, and left is a Table, this being a repro- age values. It will be seen that R3
adjusting R4 for f.s.d. indication in duction of Table I accompanying is always in circuit, with either Rl
the meter. If, subsequently, SI is this article. The Table is consulted or R2 in series according to the
put to the "Even Shillings" position, to find the quantity of New Pence setting of SI. Thus, Dl is always
the bottom end of R3 track con- corresponding to the whole number presented with a 2012 load, and
nects direct to the lower supply of shillings in the sum to be con- the r.m.s. current which flows
line whilst the top end of the track verted. SI is next set to "Even" (assuming an "ideal" rectifier) is
connects to the upper supply line or "Odd" according to whether the 220mA. The consequent dissipation
via RI Adjusting R3 will then qantity of shillings is even or odd. in either Rl, R2 or R3 is slightly
cause the meter to give indications Finally, R3 is adjusted to the quan- less than 0.5 watt, and all three
between zero and 5. R3 can, there- tity of current pennies in the sum, components should be rated at 1
tore, be calibrated in terms of curr- whereupon the additional New watt or more. Wirewound potentio-
ent pennies from zero to 12. Putt- Pence are indicated by the meter. meters with a value of 1012 are,
To take an example, let us convert incidentally, available from Home
•n8 the
in
0
,u' Jbottom
"Ohd end
Shillings"
of R3 results
track 12s. 7d. to New Pence. Since the Radio under Cat. No. VR25 for 1
connecting to the lower supply line quantity of shillings is 12, we set watt and Cat. No. VR22A for 3
via R2 and the top end connecting SI to "Even", after which we ad- watts. (The writer used a Cat. No.
direct to the upper supply line. just R3 to 7. The Table indicates yR22A potentiometer for check-
"60 + " for 12s, and the meter will ing the prototype circuit.)
show 2.9. The corresponding New At an average rectified voltage
Pence value is therefore 63 to the of 3, the average current flow in
TABLE I nearest New Penny. Should the sum R3 is 150mA, whereupon the curr-
we wish to convert be 5s. 10d., ent drawn by meter Ml is relative-
Shillings New Pence switch SI is set to "Odd" and R3 ly quite low in comparison. In any
adjusted to 10. The meter will in- event, R3 is directly calibrated
0,1 dicate 9.2, whereupon the result is against meter readings on the
0+ 29 to the nearest New Penny.
2,3 "Even Shillings" range, whereupon
10+ the current drawn by the meter
4,5 20+ PRACTICAL POINTS cannot effect the accuracy of the
6,7 30+ calibration on this range at all.
Some practical points have next The process adopted for setting up
8,9 40+ to be considered. Transformer T1 Rl and R2 (to be described later)
is a small 6.3 volt heater trans- ensures that the effect of meter
10,11 50+ former. Dl is any silicon rectifier current on R3 calibration when SI
12,13 60+ capable of passing a forward curr- is set to "Odd Shillings" is very
ent of 500mA or more: in the small indeed.
14,15 70+ prototype the writer employed a It will probably be advisable to
16,17 80+ Lucas DD000. Due to the forward have R4 adjustable from outside
18,19 90+ voltage drop in Dl the average the housing of the calculator, so
rectified voltage available for Rl, that it may be slightly reset, if
20 100 R2 and R3 is somewhat lower than necessary, after any long period of
the calculated figure of 4 volts time. Both this component and the
which would be provided by an on-off switch, S2, may be mounted
"ideal" rectifier. In practice, an on the side of the housing, away
Adjusting R3 results, this time, in average voltage of about 3 volts from the front panel shown in Fig.
corresponding indications in the can be expected. The meter reading 2. SI, also shown in Fig. 2, should
meter between 5 and 10. The pre- is proportional to average voltage, be a rotary component.
vious calibration of R3 will still and R4 and R5 are given values
hold good, however, and the meter which provide an f.s.d. reading at SETTING-UP AND
indications will be equal to the 3 volts when R4 slider is fairly CALIBRATION
previous ones plus 5. near the centre of its track.
Fig. 2 shows a suggested panel Heat dissipation in Rl, R2 and In the explanation of circuit
layout for the calculator. On the R3 is due to the r.m.s. values of operation given earier it was assum-
the rectified a.c. and not the aver- ed that Rl, R2 and R3 were all
402
THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 exactly 1011. In practice this cannot Next, set SI to "Odd Shillings"
occur, and the process of setting up and adjust R3 slider fully to the
the instrument consists of adjusting bottom end of its track. Adjust the
the values of R1 and R2 so that value of R2 until the meter reads BUY THIS
they become equal to R3. exactly 5. Then, set SI to "Even
There are two possible appro- Shillings", turn R3 slider fully to BEST SELLER
aches here. One consists of using the top end of its track, and adjust
preset variable resistors for R1 and R1 until the meter again reads
R2 and of adjusting these as requir- exactly 5. If R1 and R2 were close
ed for the desired values. This to 1052 in the first place, the ad-
method will probably be considered justments of their values will not
by the average constructor as being upset the earlier adjustments for T.V. FAULT FINDING
too expensive in components, and meter readings at 10 and zero. With
he will prefer to use the second, SI set to "Even Shillings" the 405/625 LINES
alternative, approach. This consists range offered by R3 should now be
of initally fitting, in the R1 and from exactly zero to 5 on the
R2 positions, fixed resistors whose meter, and with SI set to "Odd
values are slightly higher than that Shillings", it should now be from
of R3 and of then bringing these exactly 5 to 10. If all is satisfac-
values down by connecting higher tory here, the setting-up procedure
value fixed resistors, as required, is complete. Any subsequent adjust-
across the initial resistors. Such a ments due to change in mains volt-
technique will be familiar to the age may be made with the aid of -'-
constructor who had to provide R4.
very close tolerance resistance
values for meter shunts and the TABLE II
like, and is quite quick and easy 8'6
to carry out. The basic 1011 resis-
tors in the R1 and R2 position Meter Indication
must be wirewound types with a
dissipation rating of 1 watt or Old Pence "Odd
more. Any higher value resistors "Even
connected across them to reduce Shillings" Shillings" REVISED & ENLARGED
" the overall resistance may be car-
bon types. If sufficient nominal 10S2 0 0 5 Edited by J. R. Davies
resistors are available to allow sel- 1 0,42 5.42
ection, two of these having values 124 pages only 8/6
slightly greater than R3 should be 2 0.83 5.83
chosen with the aid of an ohmmeter. 3 1.25 6.25 Over 100 illustrations, including
Should no suitable 10n resistors be 4 1.67 6.67 60 photographs of a television
to hand, it is quite in order to screen after the appropriate
slightly reduce the value of R3 by 5 2.08 7.08 faults have been deliberately
connecting a fixed resistor of the 6 2.5 7.5 introduced.
order of, say, 15052 to 20052 across 7 2.92 7.92
• its track and commencing the sel- Comprehensive Fault Finding
ection procedure once more. 8 3.33 8.33 Guide cross-referenced to
In the instructions which follow 9 3.75 8.75 methods of fault rectification
next, the process described as described at greater length in
10 4.17 9.17 the text.
"adjusting" R1 or R2 refers to
either the setting-up of a preset 11 4.58 9.58
variable resistor, or the addition of 12 5 10 Price 8/6 from your
higher value resistors across an Bookseller
existing fixed resistor.
After wiring up the instrument or post this Coupon together
with resistance values in the R1 and The next process consists of cal- with remittance for 9/2
R2 positions which are slightly ibrating the scale of R3. This is (to include postage) to
greater than the value of R3. switch carried out with SI in the "Even
on and set SI to "Odd Shillings". Shillings" position against meter DATA PUBLICATIONS LTD.
Set R3 slider fully to the top end readings. Calibration is in discrete 57 Maida Vale, London, W.9
of its track and adjust R4 for ex- steps of single current pennies
actly full-scale deflection. Switch SI ("Old Pence") from 0 to 12, R3
to "Even Shillings" and _ set R3 being adjusted to give the meter
fully to the bottom end of its track. indications shown in Table II. The Please send me the 4th re-
The meter should now indicate indications given in this Table are vised edition of TV Fault Find-
zero. If the potentiometer construc- calculated to 2 decimal places but ing, Data Book No. 5. ■
tion does not allow its slider to it will not be possible in practice I enclose cheque/crossed postal order
go completely to the bottom end to resolve meter readings to quite
of its track, the meter will give a as high an accuracy as this. When for
small forward indication. Should calibration is complete, SI is
this happen, set the meter to zero switched to "Odd Shillings", where- NAME ...
by means of its own zero-adjust upon it should be found that the ADDRESS
screw. The fact that the meter needle calibration holds good . for the
will subsequently give an indication corresponding column of figures in
to the left of zero on the scale Table II.
when the unit is switched off is of The calculator is then complete
no consequence. Repeat these two and ready for use. B.C. Block Letters Please
adjustments. ■ U
FEBRUARY 1970 40
 COMPREHENSIVE

TIMING UNIT

by

R. W. COLES

The author initially intended this design to function as an "electronic egg-

timer", but it is capable of many more applications than are represented by
such a simple domestic chore. Of particular interest is the manner in which
theoretical semiconductor circuits are successfully put to practical use

This article describes the construction of a base to collector and forming in effect a four-layer
very interesting timing circuit which, although it diode, as shown in Fig. 2. This combination acts in
was originally intended for the simple job of the same manner as a thyristor, the firing potential
timing boiled eggs, gives a useful insight into pulse being set by the potential divider R3, R4.
circuit techniques and can be easily adapted to time When the unit is switched on, C1 begins to charge
almost anything. In its egg-timer form the circuit slowly through Rl. At this time both TR1 and TR2
forms a small battery powered unit which gives an are cut off, the only current through them being
audible warning on the completion of the timing leakage current, which will be very small for silicon
period. It is very simple to operate, the only control transistors. When C1 has charged to a voltage that
being a toggle switch, and even this could be dis- makes the emitter of TR1 more positive than its base,
pensed with ! TR1 turns on and forward-biases the base-emitter
junction of TR2, which also turns on. This action
CIRCUIT OPERATION is regenerative, driving both devices hard on and at
the same time discharging C1 and short-circuiting R4.
The circuit, shown in Fig. 1, is divisible into four However, when C1 has discharged the base-emitter
separate parts, each with a separate function. It may junction of TR1 is no longer forward-biased, and
at first sight appear to be rather complicated and both devices turn off abruptly. The overall effect is
potentially expensive but, in these days of cheaply to produce a fast square negative pulse at the output,
available silicon transistors, it is often easier to which is taken from the junction of R3 and R4 and
design a circuit using transistors and resistors liberally used to turn off the normally "on" side (TR4) of
than to employ the "cheese-paring" techniques which the bistable given by TR3 and TR4.
were essential in the heyday of the germanium tran- The actual time taken for the circuit to reach its
sistor. Those earlier transistors were expensive to "firing" potential is determined by both the CR time
buy and required more discrete components for their of Rl and Cl, and the aiming potential set by R3
successful operation. and R4. The CR time (microfarads times megohms)
The main timing element consists of what is known of Rl and Cl is in practice 150 seconds, but to time
to the writer as a "Hook circuit", but which seems an egg we need in the region of 240 seconds. The
to have as many names as it has uses. TR1 and TR2 firing potential is therefore set so that the circuit
are a p.n.p.-n.p.n. complementary pair connected switches on at 1.5 to 1.75 times CR. As can be
seen from the voltage-time curve of Fig. 3, the
capacitor charges exponentially, and therefore for
the highest accuracy the trigger point should be set
at less than 1 x CR time. Nevertheless, the accuracy
required for egg timing is easily realised with the
present arrangement, which is always within 5
seconds after a 4-minute timing period. Should any
constructor require a higher repeat accuracy, this
is easily arranged by increasing the value of Cl and
decreasing the aiming potential by adjustment of the
values of R3 and R4.
When the TR1, TR2 combination turns on, the
negative pulse produced is passed to the base of TR4
which then cuts off and, by means of the usual
bistable d.c. cross-coupling, turns on TR3 thus
reversing the state of the bistable. When TR3 turns
on, the lower end of R2 falls to slightly above the
406 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 Latch bistable and
Timing circuit switch Warning circuit
Re On
ww
Off
r
9 r
IO§ R
|| Output
transducer
R
C4 C5 I2
>R| TR
I ec
2N2894 TR3
2N2369A
9V
TR4 ' 6 r
TR7
2N2369A 2N2369A 2N2369A

TR2 "13
2N930 Tr5
2N2369A On

OfT
-W^A- 3
b
V—N
r o o 2N2894
2N930 Lead-outs
2N2369A
Fig. 1. The circuit of the comprehensive timing device. The
output transducer may be an ear-piece or speaker

potential of the negative supply line, thereby prevent- resistors. This capacitor simply ensures that, when
ing the timing circuit from initiating another period. the unit is switched on, TR4 always turns on first,
The emitter circuit of TR3 is made up of the base- thereby cutting off TR3. The forward-biased silicon
emitter junction of TR5, which becomes forward- diode, D2, in the emitter circuit of TR4 compensates
biased and switches hard on, and in its turn provides for the base-emitter junction of TR5 and keeps the
a d.c. path to the negative supply line for the astable bistable symmetrical.
multivibrator (TR6 and TR7). This begins to oscillate When the multivibrator begins to oscillate it could
at about 250Hz, giving an audible warning note conceivably trigger the bistable and switch itself off
which is transmitted by the earpiece or speaker in due to feedback via the supply rail. To prevent this,
the collector circuit of TR7. The bistable circuit itself R8 and C3 are included as a decoupling network
is quite normal except that it has a "speed-up" for the bistable supply line. An unforeseen snag was
capacitor, C2, across only one of the cross-coupling encountered with the writer's prototype and consisted

Capacitors
COMPONENTS C1 1 50/j.F electrolytic, 10V wkg.
(see text)
Resistors C2 0.04/j,F, paper or plastic foil
(All fixed values 10% £ watt unless otherwise C3 IOO/j.F electrolytic, 10V wkg.
stated) C4 0.47/xF, paper or plastic foil
R1 IMO 5% C5 0.47/iF, paper or plastic foil
R2 5600
R3 18kn 5% ' Semiconductors
R4 27kn 5% (see text) TRI 2N2894
R5 4.7ka TR2 2N930
R6 4.7kn TR3 - TR7 2N2369a
R7 560a D1 1N3065
R8 47fl D2 1N3065
R9 330a
RIO 4.7kn Switch
Rll 4.7kfl SI d.p.d.t, type as required
R12 See text Miscellaneous
R13 22kn 9 volt battery
R14 lOOfl Ear-piece or speaker (see text)
FEBRUARY 1970
407
of the production of a very quiet high frequency TR1, which is a p.n.p. 2N2894. TR2, 2N930, is a
whistle when the multivibrator was supposedly very low leakage type. TR3 to TR7 are 2N2369a's.
switched off. This was found to be due to the leakage The transistors are available from advertisers in this
current of TR5 allowing the circuit to oscillate at a magazine (such as Bi-Pre-Pak, Ltd., who also list
very low voltage. The inclusion of R13 cured the the diodes used for D1 and D2). There is no reason
fault by keeping the base of TR7 at a negative why other types of silicon transistor should not be
potential with respect to its emitter when TR5 is used, and substitutes will no doubt suggest them-
turned off. selves to the experienced constructor. Miniature sili-
SI is used to switch on the 9 volt supply to initiate con switching diodes type 1N3065 were employed
the timing period. When set to the "Off" position for D1 and D2, though here again almost any type
it connects C1 to the negative supply line via R15, could be substituted directly. C1 should be the best
enabling C1 to discharge. If for any reason the unit type of capacitor available, preferably tantalum if
is switched off before the end of a timing period, the required value can be obtained, to preserve
the possibility of a stored charge shortening a sub- timing accuracy. (Readers may have difficulty in
sequent period is thus removed. obtaining a ISOjaF tantalum capacitor through usual
mail-order retail channels. A suitable alternative
COMPONENTS would be given by the use of a 100/xF 12 volt
tantalum capacitor and a 47/xF 35 volt tantalum
The transistors used by the writer were silicon capacitor in parallel, both being available from
planar types, all being of the n.p.n. variety except Henry's Radio, Ltd. The working voltage of the
component or components used can be higher than
the 10 volt figure quoted in the Components List.—
Editor.)
The timer should provide a period of about four
minutes with the values stated, but if this is not
realised the value of R4 should be increased or
reduced accordingly. Replacing R4 with a skeleton
preset potentiometer of some 50kf2 will provide a
5 very convenient method of setting up the timer,
though the writer found it possible to adjust the
prototype to the accuracy required in its present
application by using fixed resistors on a trial and
error basis.
(a) Fast non-linear
rise time Slow rise time ^

Voltage

5xCR
(b)
Time
Fig. 3. The exponential charging curve of a
capacitor when charging by way of a series
resistor

The audio transducer employed by the writer was

an old magnetic ear-piece of 1200 impedance. When
suitably mounted, this provides a loud enough warn-
ing for one room. A 40Q miniature speaker was
also tried with good results, but the power available
from the multivibrator is insufficient to drive a load
of less than about 250S7 so a series resistor to make
CO the load up to at least this value must always be
Fig. 2. Two transistors connected as in (a) used. With the 120Q ear-piece, R12 was 180Q.
can be shown, by way of the intermediate step The on-off switch can be any d.p.d.t. type, and
in (b), to be equivalent to the 4-layer diode in the writer is at present thinking of replacing it with
(c). This diode has the characteristics of a a mercury switch, which would allow an even closer
thyristor approach to the conventional egg-timer. To start the
408 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
timer would merely entail inverting it, and vice-
versa.
The 9 volt supply can be provided by a small dry NEW HANJHPAK
battery, and its life will be extensive, current drain
being roughly 15mA during the timing period and
50mA when producing a warning note.
CONSTRUCTION PANEL SIGNS
An old transistbr radio case measuring about 5
by 3 by Hin. was used as a container for the com- IDEAL FOR WORKSHOP USE
plete timer and its battery. This has proved to be
a good choice as the compact size makes it popular
in the kitchen where space is always at a premium!
The switch was mounted in the hole left by the ■
tuning control, and the ear-piece was glued to the
loudspeaker grille with Evo-Stik adhesive. m
m
All the timer components except C1 and R14 were
assembled on a piece of Veroboard measuring 2^
by lin. C1 and R14 were mounted near the switch.
Squeezing all the components onto such a small
board means that miniature capacitors must be used.
Inexperienced constructors, or those with normal
size capacitors, would be well advised to allow them- HSI
selves more room.
• Easy to fix
PERFORMANCE
• Permanent and durable
The writer's prototype has braved kitchen heat- • Stapled in booklet form
waves and Ice Ages together with the attentions of
a critical band of egg eaters, and has met with • Designed to hang above workbench
approval from all. The period accuracy is within • Pocket for loose cuttings
plus or minus 5 seconds always, and it has been
found that a double period produces excellent hard- • Professional finish
boiled eggs!
★ Sel3 Wording—WHITE
★ Set 4 Wording—BLACK
★ Set 5 DIALS—clear background
★ Set 6 DIALS—black background
COMPUTERS
The most important and potentially far-reaching The Perfect Transfer for
computer meeting ever held will take place in Llan- the Home Constructor
dudno, Wales, in July 1970.
At Llandudno will gather together the original com- Each Set contains Six Sheets
puter pioneers, many of whom have never met before.
The purpose of the meeting is to pool together the
experience and ideas of important men from several 5(- per set
countries, and, by listening to an exchange of view- (postage 4d.)
points, seek to forecast what is likely to happen in the
future as a result of using computers even more widely.
The speaker from IBM in particular will show how To Data Publications Ltd.
he is aware of the tremendous responsibility his com- 57 Maida Vale, London, W.9
pany (the largest computer manufacturer in the world)
has, and its effect on the lives and well-being of Please supply:
millions of humans. Set 3 Set 4 Set 5 Set 6
The School has been arranged by the longest estab- I enclose^cheque/crossed postal order for
lished independent computer consultant company in
Europe, and which company is still family owned. Name
The two-day school will be held at Llandudno, Address
N. Wales, on Wednesday and Thursday, 8th and 9th
July 1970. Applications for enrolment should be made
to - Computer Consultants (International) Ltd., G.P.O.
Box 8, Llandudno. Cables "Computers, Llandudno". BLOCK LETTERS PLEASE
Telephone Enfield 7185 or Llandudno 75171.
FEBRUARY 1970 409
 FROM DEAR RECKONING TO

PINPOINT NA VIGA TION

WHEN MEN FIRST EMBARKED ocean currents, a typical merchant ALREADY INSTALLED
on the trackless oceans in ship often loses one to three days
their search for new lands at sea. Omega will give these lost Omega solid-state radio receivers
and new treasures, they guided days back to the shippers. are already aboard two of the
their crude vessels with the oldest It will also give sea and air world's newest commercial ocean-
navigational aid of all—dead reck- travellers a greater measure of safe- going ships—Cunard's Queen Eliza-
oning. ty. Omega will swiftly pinpoint the beth 3, and the Manchester Line's
Since then, the sailor's naviga- location of a crippled ship or Challenge.
tional abililty has undergone many downed airliner, and hasten the Some day all 16,000 large ocean-
improvements. No longer does he arrival of rescuers. going ships of the Free World's
rely on dead reckoning.
The master on. the bridge of a
modern ship has an electronically ANCHOR ANCHOR
controlled wheel, and close at hand
are meticulously detailed charts, ACTIVE SPAN
radar scopes, magnetic and elect- :
ronic compasses, a gyro-compass,
and a short-wave radio. Also with- DOWN LEAD
in reach is the dependable sextant,
invented in 1730, with which he /TRUNK
can scan the night sky for constell-
ations to guide him over the waters. HELIX HOUSE
The latest advance is a highly
accurate navigation system devel-
oped by the U.S. Navy and called
Omega. It is a low-frequency radio
system—efficient, swift and virtu-
ally errorproof—which should even-
tually benefit all seafaring nations.
The Omega system consists of Above: The chief elements
eight transmitters strategically locat- of a typical Omega trans-
ed around the world. Four of these mitting station with a four-
are already in operation and the wire antenna spanning a
remainder will be completed by valley or fiord. Each of the
1972. eight stations in the global
The Omega system could mean system sends out a continu-
considerable savings to the mari- ous pulsed signal (right) for
time industry. Time at sea will be one second out of every 10
reduced, insurance premiums low- seconds. Signals from all sta-
ered and port arrival times more tions are synchronised and
accurately determined. Stevedores picked up by planes and
and dock facilities will be more ships to establish their pre- I I I ill
effectively used. I ll.il i
cise locations. Signals can I it II I
By sailing off course due to navi- be picked up 40 feet under 1-1 see—t
gational errors and the vagaries of the sea
FEBRUARY 1970
411
 merchant fleet and 8,000 smaller also can block the signals. Only one station transmits a giv-
ships and boats may be using the In contrast, Omega transmitters en frequency at a given time. The
system. In the next 20 years, about produce very low-frequency radio pulses from each station differ
60,000 Omega receivers are expect- waves—operating on a band be- slightly in length to aid in recog-
ed to be in use throughout the tween 10 and 14 kilohertz as com- nition at the receiver set aboard the
world. pared to Loran's 100 kilohertz and ship, submarine or aircraft.
Omega had its origins 18 years a home radio set which receives The signals from all stations are
ago when the U.S. Naval Research signals in a 550-1,500 kilohertz synchronised precisely by the use
Laboratory started using long range, range. These very low-frequency of highly accurate atomic clocks.
very low-frequency radio waves to signals radiate outward from the Thus, the phase of the signals at
achieve navigational performance Omega transmitter and bounce back various stations will not drift from
over greater distances. and forth between the ionosphere each other by more than one micro-
A three-station transmitter net- and the earth. They can be picked second per day.
work was initially established to up by position-seeking ships as far Although the transmitter stations
cover about a quarter of the globe. as 8,000 miles from the transmitters. are geographically independent of
When two years of tests with the This enables ships equipped with each other, synchronisation is main-
network proved its efficiency and Omega receivers to fix their posi- tained by daily corrections supplied
accuracy, the U.S. Navy ordered tions easily, quickly and very accur- by a "lead" station. Present plans
Omega receiver sets to equip sur- ately by calculations based on inter- call for this station to be the one
face and underwater craft. secting signals from any two at Haiku, Hawaii.
When the world-wide network is stations. Each Omega receiver—models
in full operation there will be trans- Each of the eight transmitters weighing 50 to 100 pounds and
mitters in Minnesota, Hawaii, will have a four-wire antenna span about 20 inches in height, width
Norway, Trinidad, Japan, either stretched across a huge valley or and depth—measures the phase
New Zealand or Australia, Chile fiord. The antenna at Bratland, difference of signals received from
or Argentina, and La Reunion Norway, for example, spans 11,000 any two stations. Two of the three
Island off the coast of Madagascar. feet and has a mid-span height of intersecting lines of position estab-
Each station will cost less than 1,435 feet. The antenna at Trinidad lish the receiver's position.
$1 million. measures 4,800 feet and is 800 feet These selected lines of position
Omega will complement the pre- high at mid-span. are automatically displayed on the
sent leading navigational system, front panel of the receiver. Sky-
Loran, which covers part of the HOW IT WORKS wave corrections, taken from U.S.
northern hemisphere. Loran uses Naval Oceanographic Office tables,
high-frequency radio waves which All transmitters in the Omega are applied, then corrected lines of
unfortunately are absorbed by the network will radiate about one kilo- position are plotted for the position
ionosphere, and so are lost for watt of power and will send a fix on an appropriate Omega chart.
navigational purposes to ships more continuous pulsed signal on a given Typical time to obtain a fix is
than a few hundred miles from the frequency for about one out of about one minute.
source of the signals. Bad weather every 10 seconds.

Radio Australia runs a Listener's Club for those

LISTENERS' CLUB A who send in a series of regular reception reports. To
qualify for membership, short wave listeners should
provide 12 reception reports at a rate of two per month
over a period of six months. When the 12 reports have
been received, the club lapel badge and membership
certificate, illustrated here, will be forwarded to the
reporter.
Each reception report should be numbered con-
secutively from 1 to 12 by the reporter to assist R.
•VZ Australia staff in the keeping of records. The essential
4>: details of the reception report required by the engineers
are: type of receiver, name of programme, frequency,
date and time (GMT) and also some comments on
reception qualify. To standardise and simplify reports,
R. Australia will issue a special reception card upon
application.
Reception reports should be addressed to: "Listeners'
mm
I Club", Radio Australia, Melbourne, 3000, Australia,
or, in the case of U.K. listeners to R. Australia, 54
Portland Place, London, W.l. Verification QSL cards
will be issued for each correct report.
The best listening times for the U.K. are: 0645 to
0745 GMT on 9.56MHz (3138 metres) or 11.71MHz
(25.62 metres); 1500 to 1730 GMT on 9.54MHz (31.45
metres) or 11.74MHz (2535 metres).
B
412 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 WHY SING?
TAPE Before one can enjoy the taped results, it is neces-
sary to know why birds sing and call.
Among the interests of many readers may be that
of ornithology - the science and study of birds - and
RECORDING this, is one the writer shares with them. Personal
observation, together with the reading of published
material, has led to agreement with the generally
accepted conclusion that birds sing and use their
BIRDSONG limited vocabulary for a number of reasons.
Birdsong, especially during our Springtime or at
the commencement of a particular breeding season,
NOW THAT SPRING IS UPON US, WHY NOT RECORD has the twin functions of laying a claim to nesting
some birds - the feathered variety - and their territory and of attracting a mating partner - this
songs? As a complete change from taping music of course being the song of the male of the species.
of various kinds, family gatherings and personal inter-
views, or Dx broadcast interval signals, etc., such a
pursuit will be found most rewarding.
Even the complete newcomer to tape recording may
preserve on tape the colourful songs and "language"
of our feathered friends freezing, as it were, an enjoy-
able moment of time, to be unfrozen later in the Mams lead
comfort of one's own home. Contrary to some beliefs
it does not require expensive equipment nor is a Recorder
portable (battery operated) machine strictly necessary.
For the average tape recording beginner, it is only
necessary to acquire an extended mains lead, properly
and safely connected to the recorder, with the garden Table Microphone
as the hunting ground. Choose a dry sunny period and Fig. 1. The simplest method of obtaining bird-
place the recorder on a wooden table or chair. song on tape with a mains-operated machine-
Birdsong has always fascinated man and the record- In some cases the mains or microphone lead
ing of such tuneful songs will be found to be one of will require lengthening. The microphone is
the most enjoyable of tape recording enterprises. Most hung in a convenient bush or tree
of us have no doubt heard over the BBC many of the
birdsong recordings of the famous Ludwig Koch - In consequence, we enter into the realm of "lan-
the German musician who specialised in this field. guage". Song as a language imparts information from
However, birdsong recording is not all tlmt new - it one bird to another. But it is only one part of the
was going on during the early part of this century, vocabulary, and birds have a number of differing
the sounds being recorded on the old wax cylinders calls apart from song, each with its special meaning
of the day. It remains a fact that only a few bird and carrying its own message. Probably the most
vocabularies, as distinct from song only, have been important of these is a "statement" of identity in
completely recorded - and there are something like terms of species and sex - this call in nearly all
200 or so British bird species. This leaves the field instances being produced by the male. It has been
of birdsong recording wide open for the amateur found that even variations in rhythm and pitch of
enthusiast. song are used to identify the singer's "name". The

"DISCOVERY"
BEGINNER'S RECEIVER
The insignia shown alongside is that of the "Dis-
covery" Beginner's Receiver to be featured NEXT
MONTH.
The MARCH issue will include easy-to-read en-
larged Workshop Plans (see page 410 for details)
which may be detached for ease of reference and use
on the workbench. 11
Written especially for the beginner, this 2-valve,
4-stage design - ECC83, ECL82 - has an integral
power supply (BY100 silicon rectifier) and features a
grounded-grid input stage. An efficient reaction circuit
with absence of "dead spots" is a feature of the design.
Coverage is from 30 to 1.7MHz (approx.) and the
medium wave-band. receiver from the panel/chassis drilling instructions
The project is one with which the beginner could (even the drill sizes are quoted) to the final testing of
well commence constructional activities - each step the circuit. If you are a beginner then this will be your
being numbered throughout the entire building of the chance to begin!
FEBRUARY 1970 413
 writer has on tape a singularly individual song of a at llin. per second, with successive speeds being twice
blackbird which has resided in his garden for the as fast as the previous rate, these being 1|, 3i, 7y,
past three years. Highly original, unmistakably dis- 15 and 30in. per second. The more expensive
tinctive and tuneful, it is the bird's own rendering machines exhibit the faster recording tape speeds,
of a human tune; and it is often followed by a good these resulting in recordings of higher fidelity but,
imitation of a man whistling his dog! also, higher running costs. The speed most favoured
The successful taping of territorial claimant song by birdsong recording experts is 15in. per second,
is one of the most rewarding of any recording but the non-specialist will do quite well with a speed
activity. It also happens to be the easiest to record of 3| or 7-j i.p.s. Many excellent recordings have
by virtue of the fact that the song is repeated again been made at these latter two speeds.
and again, often from dawn to dusk, and may there- The microphone used with the recorder has also
fore be recorded many times, enabling the enthusiast a great bearing on the quality of the recording.
to select any passage that he prefers. Some birdsong recording specialists have found a
Taping the dawn chorus is a very simple operation. sensitive moving-coil microphone to be the best for
It is common knowledge that more birds break into this type of work, as it is less affected by wind noise.
song for the half-hour or so around break of day in Fig. 1 shows the simplest method of recording
the Spring than at any other time. The writer has birdsong, using a mains-operated recorder connected
found from experience that the first to command the to the household mains supply and the microphone
opening introduction to the chorus is the blackbird, hung in a bush or tree. The major shortcoming with
this bird usually commencing some time prior to this method of working is that it is not always pos-
actual daybreak. In the writer's locality, this is fol- sible to select a particular song or call.
lowed by the song thrush and the robin, with the
male pheasant delivering his "kronk, kronk" as the Parabolic Sound source
rhythm percussion section! reflector
Alarm or warning calls of birds are more probably
the province of the specialist equipped with a port-
able recorder who can position himself in a vantage
point along a hedge or in woodland. There is how-
ever one common alarm call which the beginner can
easily record in his garden, this being the blackbird's
well-known "tik, tik tik". Fig. 2. A better method of obtaining birdsong
There is, of course, much more to be said about recordings using a parabolic reflector. Note
that the microphone is turned away from the
birds and their songs and calls, but space does not sound source and towards the reflector dish
permit further discussion here. Those interested are
advised to join and enlist the aid of the local ornitho-
logical group. PARABOLIC REFLECTOR
PREPARATION Fig. 2 shows the microphone used in conjunction
with a parabolic reflector. The reflector acts as a
Most readers of this article will already have a directional "sound-collector", reflecting the sound
tape recorder but where a new machine is to be reaching it from its front towards the microphone
purchased the points to consider, apart from cost, mounted at its focal point. The use of a parabolic
are quality of reproduction, tape speeds, spool run- reflector enables birdsong to be recorded at many
ning time and, where a portable unit is desired, the times the distance possible with an ordinary micro-
weight and battery life. phone simply suspended from a bush or tree. With
Recording tape speed is important as it provides a well designed reflector it is possible to record songs
a rough measure of the quality with which the bird- and calls up to thirty or forty times the distance
songs and calls will be recorded. Tape speeds begin obtainable with an open microphone. Particular note

CAN ANYONE HELP?

Requests for information are inserted in this feature free of charge, subject to space being available.
Users of this service undertake to acknowledge all letters, etc., received and to reimburse all reasonable
expenses incurred by correspondents. Circuits, manuals, service sheets, etc., lent by readers must be
returned in good condition within a reasonable period of time.
Solartron 'Scope CT316 10S j 16605.—J. A. Lee, Radio Cossor 'Scope type 1042. — P. Dorrington, 383 Spen
& TV, High Street, Southminster, Essex — circuit or Lane, Leeds 16 — loan of circuit diagram or hand-
manual required, any reasonable price paid. book.
R220 Receiver. — K. R. Diamond, 209 Allerton Road,
BC221 Frequency Meter. — E. I. Sanby, 53 Prieska Liverpool 18 — loan of circuit diagram for this re-
Road, Sybrand Park, Cape Town, Republic of S. ceiver and also for the 58 Set transmitter/receiver.
Africa — has a calibration book for serial No. 4855 EMI Oscilloscope Type QD101 or WMI. — N. B.
and requires, in exchange, calibration book for serial Miller, 29 Chadacre Road, Stoneleigh, Surrey —
No. 6572. short term loan of operating manual.
414 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
should be taken of the fact that the microphone is
positioned to face into the reflector and not towards
the sound source. Many experiments may be carried NOW HEAR THESE
out with simple parabolic reflectors by the home All times GMT. Information correct at time of
hobbyist. The first reflector used by the writer some preparation.
years ago was an ordinary colander lined with tin-
foil - both being purloined from the kitchen! Other 0 N. VIETNAM
reflectors tried have been an old megaphone - highly 15018kHz Voice of Vietnam, Hanoi. Broadcasts in
directive but short ranged - a discarded electric fire English are at 0500, 1000, 1300, 1530, 2000 and 2300
bowl and a large metal mixing bowl or pan. Many on 7360kHz, 7416kHz, 9840kHz, 10224kHz, 11840kHz
constructors will no doubt be able to produce the and 15018kHz - this last channel provides the best re-
metalwork required in their workshops. A com- ception for U.K. listeners.
mercially made parabolic reflector, designed with 0 MEXICO
birdsong recordists in mind, is also available, this
being manufactured by Grampian Reproducers Ltd., 9535kHz XERMX Radio Mexico. This station has
Hanworth Trading Estate, Feltham, Middlesex. been reported being heard after Berne, Switzerland,
closes. XERMX closes down between 0430 to 0545
FUN AND GAMES when Berne opens transmission. Reports are requested
and the address is: Apartado 20, 100 Mexico City.
Much fun can be had with the tape recorder once Reporters will receive souvenirs.
several birdsong and call tapes have been made. 0 PANAMA
Where a variable speed recorder is used, replaying 6030kHz HP5B Radio Miramar, Panama. This is a
the tape at a reduced speed can be quite instructive. newcomer to the short waves (November last) and
The warblings of a wren, for instance, oscillate at operates a schedule from 1030 to 0330. The address is;
around 4,000 cycles per second and are too fast for Apartado 4402, Panama 7.
each note to be differentiated by the human ear. If
one has been fortunate enough to record this sound 0 VENEZUALA
the notes become intelligible when the recording is 9720kHz YVTR Radio Merida, Merida. This one
slowed down. It has been found that the wren can is another newcomer and has a power of IkW.
deliver approximately ten different notes per second! Schedule 1000 to 2200. Address: Radio Merida,
Another game is that of playing back the recording Avenida Principal, Merida, Venezuala.
to the bird in its own habitat, this often resulting in 4990kHz YVMQ Radio Barquisimeto. For those
the bird assuming the sound to come from a terri- who want to record on tape a Venezualan station, they
torial intruder. It has been noted that most birds will could not do better than tune to this frequency between
break into an excited aggressive song to repel the 0100 to 0400. Reception is good and will be improving
imagined boarder! An adaptation of this game is in the next few weeks as the S. American 'season'
to quickly switch from playback to record, at suitable approaches.
points in the battle of song; the end result being © BOLIVIA
some highly instructive "crosstalk". 5025kHz La Cruz del Sur, La Paz. This is a new
channel, the station having moved from 4985kHz
MOONLIGHT SONATA during late October last year. Reports are requested
Not all birdsong or bird call recordings need be and will be verified by QSL card. Postal address is:
made at dawn or early morning. Many of course Cajon 1408, La Paz, Bolivia.
can be made during the day, bearing in mind possible 0 KUWAIT
extraneous and unwanted sounds. Again, some of the 4967.5kHz Kuwait. The English programme is radia-
most interesting recordings can be made at eventide ted from 1630 to 21.00 GMT. In November use of a
and early night. new frequency of 15185kHz commenced, being heard
One may not be able to tape the Moonlight Sonata with English programme from 0400 to 0600 GMT.
at the far end of the lawn but excellent recordings English to Europe on 15385kHz from 1600 to
can be obtained, by those who live in rural or semi- 1900 GMT.
rural areas, by recording Nature's own version of 0 TOGO
the sonata. This can include the settling-down-to-
roost calls of the male pheasant, owl hoots and 5047kHz Radio Togo, Lome. Weekdays, this station
screeches, and even that most beautiful sound of all is on the air at 0530 - 0900, 1200 - 1400 and 1630 -
- the song of the nightingale. 2300 GMT. Saturdays at 0530 - 0900 and 1200 - 2300
GMT. Sundays from 0530 - 2300 GMT. Languages
used are French, English and several African dialects.
Other outlets are; 6155kHz (4kW) and 7265kHz
(lOOkW). The 5047kHz transmitter has a power of
lOOkW.
RJ.R.A. 1970 LONDON EXHIBITION 0 KOREA
15115kHz Voice of Free Korea, Seoul. Broadcasts
The Radio and Television Retailers Association is in English beamed to Europe are from 0600 to
to hold a trade show in conjunction with its annual 0700 GMT on this channel and on 15430kHz from
conference next year. The conference is to be held 0300 to 0400 beamed to N. America.
at the Grosvenor House Hotel from 31st March to Acknowledgements to ISWL, Swedish Dx'ers, and
2nd April. Previous conferences have been held in our own listening post.
the provinces.
FEBRUARY 1970
415
 ELECTRIC DRILL

SPEED

CONTROLLER

by

R. M. MARSTON

Taking advantage of the facilities offered by a currently available triac, this

unit provides continuous control, from near-zero to maximum, of the speed of
electric drills

This device enables the speed of an electric CIRCUIT OPERATION

drill to be smoothly varied from near-zero to
full, and to be set at any intermediate value. The The circuit of the drill speed-controller is shown in
unit is of particular value when using an electric Fig. 1. The heart of the unit is the device marked Ql;
drill in sanding, buffing, polishing, or sawing opera- this device is known under a variety of names, but
tions, or when drilling large-sized holes. that used by its manufacturer is "triac". The basic

To e ectnc
drill
Mains socket on unit
t
! i
To 3-way
mains plug

Qi MT2
40512
R4

MT, C4

Fig, 1. The circuit of the electric drill speed controller

416 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR

characteristics of the triac are as follows.
The triac is a sohd-state high voltage power switch
which is either open circuit or short circuit between
main terminal 1 (MT1) and main terminal 2 (MT2).
These terminals can be connected to arty polarity of
supply voltage, so the device can act as a switch for Cover Feature
both d.c. and a.c. loads. AMAMM
The triac is normally open circuit between its two
main terminals, thus acting as an open circuit switch,
but it can be made to act as a short circuit switch by
applying a suitable trigger voltage or pulse to its gate
terminal. This gate signal can be of either polarity,
and must have an amplitude of about 35 volts; it Suppose, then, that R2 is set for minimum phase
only needs to be applied for a few microseconds, delay. In this case Q1 is open circuit at the start of
however, to ensure full turn-on of the triac. Once each half-cycle, and the full mains voltage is applied
the triac has been turned on the gate loses control, to the phase delay network. 5° after the start of each
and the device stays on so long as its main current half-cycle, however, Q1 gate voltage rises to about 35
(between MT1 and MT2) exceeds a fairly low "hold- volts, and Q1 is triggered on and self-latches, thus
ing" value. When the main current falls below this remaining in the short circuit condition for the
value the device automatically turns off again, and remaining 175° of the half-cycle. The triac is thus
remains off until it is triggered back on by a further on (acting like a short circuit switch) for almost the
gate pulse. full duration of each half cycle, enabling the drill
Thus, when the triac is used with an a.c. supply, to operate at maximum power.
and is triggered on via the gate during the early part
of a half-cycle, it remains on until the end of that
half-cycle, even though the gate signal may be re-
moved in the meantime. At the end of the half-cycle
the triac switches off automatically as its MT1 to COMPONENTS
MT2 voltage (and thus current) falls momentarily
to zero. Resistors
Having examined the basic action of the triac, we (All fixed values 10% i watt)
can now look at the circuit of Fig. 1 to see how the Rl 3.3kfi
device is used. Here, the electric drill is connected in R2 250kO potentiometer, linear, 1 watt
series with the triac via 3-way mains socket SKT1, R3 SOOkfl potentiometer, preset, skeleton,
the combination being wired across the mains supply vertical mounting
line via SI and Fl. Rl, R2, R3, R4, C1 and C2 R4 15kQ
function together as a variable phase shift network, R5 10012
and enable the a.c. voltage on Q1 gate to be effec-
tively delayed, relative to that on MT2, by any Capacitors
amount between about 5° and 170°, depending on C1 O.l/i, 250V a.c. wkg., paper or
the setting of R2. plastic foil
C2 0.1/iF, 200V wkg., paper or
plastic foil
-1-21- C3 0.1/iF, 250V a.c. wkg., paper or
Heat radiator plastic foil
Gate C4 0.22/xF, 250V a.c. wkg., paper or
\ = MT2
\ plastic foil
T riac
o o / Ql Triac type 40512 (R.C.A.)
Switch
SI 5 amp s.p.s.t. switch
0-87 II A T
o o Fuse
Fl 5 amp cartridge fuse
II
Neon Lamp
o o NE1 240 volt neon lamp in panel-mounting
holder complete with series resistor
Socket
MT1 SKT1 3-way mains socket
40512 (Bottom view) Miscellaneous
Veroboard, 0.1 Sin. matrix, 3^in. by 2iin.
Note; A-mounting holes (see Fig. 3)
T - mounting tabs Panel-mounting fuse holder
Knob
Fig. 2. The underside of the 40512 triac, 3-core mains lead
showing connections and mounting tabs
FEBRUARY 1970 417
 Suppose, on the other hand, that R2 is set for a visual indication when the unit is connected to the
maximum phase delay. Q1 is again open circuit at mains line with SI closed.
the start of each half-cycle, but in thise case the gate
potential does not rise to 35 volts until 170° after
the half-cycle has started. Q1 is, in consequence, only CONSTRUCTION AND USE
turned on for the final 10° of each 180° half-cycle The unit can be used with the 50Hz 240 volt mains
and very little of the available mains power is power supply. The specified triac is supplied with an
applied to the drill, which therefore operates at a integral heat radiator, and can handle r.m.s. currents
low speed. up to a maximum of 2 amps at 25 °C without extra
Thus, the drill power can be varied all the way heat sinking. Thus, the unit can control drill powers
from full to near-zero by varying the phase delay up to 480 watts on 240 volt supplies.
by means of R2. In the circuit, R5 and C4 prevent Fig. 2 gives a bottom view of the 40512 triac. The
incorrect triggering of the triac due to an effect gate and MT1 are brought out at the two leads
known as "commutating", whilst C3 helps to keep identified in the diagram. The heat radiator and case
high frequency switching transients (from the triac) provide the connection to MT2. Note that, since it
out of the mains power lines. Neon lamp NE1 gives is common to MT2, the heat radiator is "live" and

A-mounting holes

-ai/a4

o o ( o" J o o • 301

no d
2l/8'

o (Orb o ZO 9.E
A
O O O O O (o)O » O Q

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 14 15 16 i7 i8 19 20 21 22 23
FU

link
o O &
■ d 1^2 3
Lugs(MT2) 0 0

Q x
/ ' \
/
c=r j ,G cV_. C4
C3 / 'MT,
/✓
link
C2 link O O o
zt: x: o J o

Fig. 3. Copper and component sides of the Veroboard assembly

used in the prototype

418 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR

must not be touched when the unit is connected to
the mains.
Constructional details of the unit are in no way
critical, and can be varied to satisfy individual tastes.
The prototype unit uses Q1 without additional heat
sinking, and the components are assembled in a metal
case measuring 6in. by 4in. by 2yin., as shown in
the photographs. Ql, Rl, R3, R4, R5 and C1 to C4
are all mounted on a 3yin. by 2Jin. piece of Vero-
board with O.lSin. hole spacing, as illustrated in Fig. A
3. The copper strips are cut at the points indicated.
This panel is mounted over R2, and is secured above
it by two |in. long insulated spacing pillars. These
pillars ensure that the mounting metalwork at the
holes marked "A" is reliably insulated from the
metal case in which the Veroboard assembly is fitted.
The copper strips adjacent to the mounting holes
carry voltages at mains potential, whereupon it is
essential that the method of mounting provides reli-
able insulation between these points and the metal
case. The case is earthed to the earth lead from the
3-way mains plug. In the prototype, the function of V
SI is carried out by the switch in the switched socket
mounted on the front panel, this being wired into
circuit in the required manner.

L N

NE SKTj
To 3-way
mains plug The components mounted inside the unit case
occur it will be necessary to fix Ql to an additional
heat sink and provide more ventilation.
The unit is then complete and ready for use.
Fig. 4. The connections external to the Vero-
board assembly EDITOR S NOTE
The maximum r.m.s. on-state current rating quoted
The case is fitted with a perforated rear cover and by R.C.A. for the 40512 in free air is 2 amps at 250C,
has four rubber feet to assist in providing ventilation the current being linearly derated to zero at 100°C.
for the triac. The connections external to the Vero- Most electric drills are rated well below 2 amps; if the
board assembly are shown in Fig. 4. unit is used with drills whose current requirements
When construction of the unit is complete, set R3 approach this figure, the triac should be provided with
at mid-value, connect the electric drill via SKT1, adequate ventilation. The 40512 triac specified is avail-
able from Electrovalue, 32a St. Judes Road, Englefield
connect the unit to the mains, and switch on by Green, Egham, Surrey.
means of SI. Check that the neon lamp lights up, It will be noted that R2 is specified as a 1 watt
then with R2 set to maximum value (for minimum potentiometer. Suitable types here are standard (as
speed), adjust R3 to give a near-zero drill speed. opposed to miniature) potentiometers with "moulded"
Now check that the drill speed can be smoothly carbon tracks, these being available from Home Radio
varied from near-zero to maximum by means of R2. and other suppliers.
Check also that Ql does not overheat, but remember A final point is that it is important to ensure that the
that Ql is "live", so disconnect from the mains earth connection from the mains supply is reliably
carried through to the earth socket on SKT1. _
before touching this component. If overheating does

THE "A1RLANE" RECEIVER

The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications has addressee of any message (whether sent by wireless
drawn our attention to Section 5(b) of the Wireless telegraphy or not) which neither the person using the
Telegraphy Act, 1949. apparatus nor any person on whose behalf he is acting
is authorised by the Minister to receive; or
The Section reads as follows:- (ii) except in the course of legal proceedings or for
Any person who, otherwise than under the authority of the purpose of any report thereof, discloses any inform-
the Minister or in the course of his duty as a servant of ation as to the contents, sender or addressee of any
message, being information which would not have come
the Crown, either- to his knowledge but for the use of wireless telegraphy
(i) uses any wireless telegraphy apparatus with intent apparatus by him or by another person, shall be guilty
to obtain information as to the contents, sender or of an offence under this Act.
FEBRUARY 1970 419
 C5, D1 and the battery connectors
should be removed and replaced in
the same circuit positions, but with
polarity reversed in each case. The
new components TR1, TR2, R2, R3,
DEVELOPING THE VRl and L3 should now be soldered
into position. Fig. 1 shows the rele-
vant part of the original layout, and
Fig. 2 shows how the altered com-
ponents should now be connected.
Note that the new TR1 and TR2
SS Jf have crossed lead-outs so the collec-
tor lead, in each case, should be
SPONTAFLEX covered with a small piece of insu-
lated sleeving.
Disconnect the L2 starting lead
from the fixed vanes tag of VC3 and
solder pin 1 of the Denco coil (L3)
direct to the VC3 tag instead. Then
solder the L2 lead just disconnected
SHORT WAVE to pin 6 of L3, and add a short
lead from L3 pin 6 to the vacant
tag of SI (a), as illustrated in Fig. 2.
L3 should take up the position
RECEIVER shown in Fig. 2. It is necessary, too,
to join two tags of Sl(b), as also
shown in Fig. 2. Whereas, previous-
ly, there were two "off" positions
by on the switch, there is now only
one, next to Band 5. All other com-
ponents remain without alteration.
SIR DOUGLAS HALL, K.C.M.G., M.A.(Oxon) The core of L3 should be adjusted
so that about fin. of the threaded
brass rod protrudes.
CHECKING THE CIRCUIT
The "Spontaflex" DRC2 short wave receiver, published in
an earlier issue, has proved to be very popular with readers. The receiver, as so far modified,
may next be checked. It is impor-
This article describes modifications which enable more tant that VRl should not be ad-
modern transistors to be incorporated, whereupon perform- justed so that less than about a
quarter of the track is left between
ance and frequency range are further improved the slider and the end connected to
the positive supply rail, or there is
a danger that excessive current will
flow later, particularly when TR3 is
added. In the first place the slider of
CONSIDERABLE INTEREST HAS VRl should be set to the half-way
been taken in the author's in the new version of the receiver position and the receiver tried out
DRC2 1receiver described in an are referred to as Bands 1 to 5, on, say. Band 2. Oscillation should
earlier issue , so that it seems worth Band 5 being the lowest in fre- be easily available. If not, something
while passing on to readers develop- quency. Later, when Denco coils is wrong and connections should be
ments which have taken place since. are mentioned, they will be referred checked. Then switch to Band 1,
These developments double the fre- to as Range 2 to Range 5, Range 2 open the vanes of VC3 completely
quency coverage, taking it up to being the lowest in frequency. This and adjust VRl, if necessary, so
35MHz, and enable signals to be complies with the manufacturer's that oscillation is easy and smooth.
heard through a small speaker in- nomenclature. Next check on Band 4 with the
corporated with the set which still, vanes of VC3 closed and make sure
however, remains essentially a head- EXTRA BAND that oscillation is satisfactory. If
phone receiver so far as DX recep- necessary, find a compromise posi-
In order to enable an extra high tion for the slider of VRl which
tion is concerned. If powerful frequency Band to be incorporated
speaker reproduction of weaker suits both Band 1 with the vanes of
stations is required, an external (Band 1) it is necessary to change VC3 open, and Band 4 with the
amplifier can always be plugged in to over to n.p.n. silicon transistors, vanes of VC3 closed. These two
the phone socket. and two 2N 3707's will be needed. tuning points will probably be
Also required are two resistors, each found to be the most critical for
This article is primarily intended 1.2kfl, and a small preset potentio-
for those who have already built the satisfactory reaction, and the best
original receiver, or who have the meter of 50kS2. The coil used for position for the one is not always
relevant issue of the magazine. this Band is a Denco, valve type. the best position for the other. En-
To avoid confusion it should be Miniature Dual Purpose, Range 5, sure also that reaction on Band 5
stated that the 5 switched positions Blue or White. These components is satisfactory.
appear in the Components List for It will be seen from the circuit
this article as TR1, TR2, R2, R3, of Fig. 4 that adjustment is now
1 Sir Douglas Hall, "The 'Spontaflex' Tran- VR1 and L3. made to the resistance in the collec-
sistor Short Wave Receiver", The Radio First, the five components bearing tor load of TR2 (common to the
Constructor, January. 1968. The receiver these numbers which appear in the base of TR1) rather than to the re-
was also referred to as "DRC2", this stand-
ing for "Double Reflex Colpitts 2".— original receiver should be removed sistance in the emitter circuit of
Editor. and put in the spares box. Next C4, TR1 as was done in the original
420 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 design. The modified form of con-
trol has a larger effective range and TR
causes less alteration to the collector
current of TR1, which is an advant-
age if TR3 is added.
WAVE TRAP
A second modification which is s
useful in areas where a strong la 5lb
medium wave signal tends to break
through—especially on Band 5—is C3
the incorporation of a wave trap.
This is given by L4 and VC4 con- VR,
nected in parallel and positioned as
shown in Fig. 3. (Fig. 3 also shows Kr TRo
a further modification incorporating 0
PP7
VR2, this being described later.) If
the interfering station has a wave-
length of 300 metres or more, L4 KS7
should have 50 turns of 32 s.w.g.
enamelled wire close-wound on a
paper sleeve fitted over a piece of Fig. 1. Original layout, showing components affected by the
fin. ferrite rod about liin. long. If modifications
the wavelength of the offending
station is less than 300 metres, L4 cut a hole in it for the speaker. The
should have 35 turns. In each case inclusive of Denco valve type
VC4 should be a preset capacitor prototype uses a 3in. speaker with Miniature Dual Purpose coils,
with a maximum value of about a square frame, obtained from White. These White coils are in-
500pF. It is important that capaci- Henry's Radio. This now takes the tended as oscillator coils for an i.f.
tance in the wave trap circuit should place of the plywood "foot", the of 1.6MHz, but have just the right
not be too low or the injection of panel being cut away for about fin. inductance for this receiver. Only
short wave signals into the circuit to make room for the, speaker, the tuned winding is used. No con-
will be impeded. which is attached to the panel by nections are made to Sl(a). A B9A
two thin wood screws. It is clear yalveholder is required, with pin 1
that in either instance a suitable joined to the fixed vanes of VC3
OUTPUT STAGE hole will have to be cut in the case and pins 2, 3, 4 and 6 to the moving
and covered, on the inside, with a vanes. This multi-pin connection is
fhe speaker output stage some piece of expanded metal to protect
further components are required necessary as different Range coils
These are a 2} or 3in. round 312 the speaker. have different pin connections. The
speaker, output transformer Tl, a coils may then be plugged in as re-
2N2926G transistor (available from PLUG-IN COILS quired.
Amatronix, Ltd.), capacitors C6 and Some readers have said that they
C7, resistor R4, toggle switch S2 Some readers have asked about are only interested in the 80 and
and a 3-way tagstrip. These com- the possibility of using plug-in coils 160 metre bands. Both these bands
ponents are mounted as shown in in place of the special home-made can be covered by a Denco Range
coil and switching circuit specified. 2 White coil with the core suitably
PjS- 3- Tl is fixed by soldering one Experiments have shown that, pro- adjusted.
of the feet of its clamp to a solder vided VC3 is replaced with a 160pF
tag held under one of the mounting A disadvantage with the plug-in
screws for the existing tagboard. Do component, it is possible to obtain coils is that a 160pF tuning capaci-
not attempt to save the cost of Tl coverage from about 35MHz to tor must be used and this results
by using an 80S2 speaker. With a about 1.2MHz using Ranges 5 to 2 in some loss of efficiency at the low
9-volt supply and a small current New connections New VR|
flowing, this would offer a very bad New TR|
match for TR3, and there would be
a considerable loss of efficiency.
Switch S2 is included to switch New R
the output stage in or out as desired,
and a hole is required in the panel Bb
for its bush. As may be seen from
Fig. 4, when S2_is open TR3 has Sin slb
no bias for its base and will not New
conduct. With S2 closed, base bias
becomes available, and TR3 con-
ducts and amplifies. If the receiver
is critically tuned to a weak station Pin
when the speaker is switched in or
out, slight readjustment of tuning J
and reaction may be needed owing
to a small consequent change in bias PR 7
for TR1 and TR2. In most cases New TR2
this effect will not be noticed.
If a 2)in, speaker is used, it can VC3
be mounted on the plywood "foot"
already in position to enable the Pin I
receiver to be used without a case. F/g. 2. The modifications in layout and wiring resulting from
It will, of course, be necessary to fitting new transistors in the TR1 and TR2 positions and extending
remove this piece of plywood and the frequency range
FEBRUARY 1970
421
 on the 10 metre band, particularly
Speaker l
4 plugged into if headphones are used, so that it
VR 3/84hole is an advantage to use long necked
knobs for the slow motion drive
on
VC3, and on VC2. Alternatively,
an inch or so of insulated tubing
Aerial socket can be added as extension rods. On
b, vc the 10 metre band the length of the
gcy^hii TR
aerial has a considerable effect and
3 it is worth experimenting to find a
red gre length which gives freedom from
hand capacitance troubles. Excellent^
3-way tag-strip hand capacitance-free results on 10
R4?6 metres are obtained with the proto-
white type using a fairly long outside
(not inverted L aerial, although for most
used; other bands this aerial causes selec-
tivity problems even when VC1 is.
VC2 adjusted to the minimum position.
For general use, about four yards
of wire slung across the room is
satisfactory. An earth, which may
be the earthed socket of a mains
Fig. 3. Adding an output stage for a speaker, together with an > plug, provides far greater sensi-
adjustable aerial loading circuit and a wave trap tivity on Bands 4 and 5, has a use-
ful effect on Band 3, very little
frequency end of each Range, as advantage on Band 2, and none
tion is complicated by the fact that whatsoever on Band 1.
compared with the IGOpF capacitor LI, with stray capacitances, forms
used with the home-made coil. It a tuned circuit not far removed It may be found that VC1, the
is useful to remember that lOOpF from that of the incoming signal. series aerial capacitor originally
across 111 will tune to the same One reader has reported an im- fitted, will not provide sufficient
frequency as lOpF across 10//H. selectivity on the new Band 1, even
Other things being equal, the vol- provement by using a 5mH choke when fully open. The minimum
for LI. This, however, may intro- capacitance may still be too great
tage of the signal received will be duce some losses at 10 metres, due
100 times greater with the lOpF to larger stray capacitance. to allow, say, powerful stations on
capacitor than with the lOOpF the 13 metre band to be separated.
Although the receiver is very free In this event, a modification to.
capacitor - the equivalent of quite from hand capacitance effects on all
a useful r.f. amplifying stage. the original Bands, whether an earth potentiometer coupling, as shown
in Figs. 3 and 4, will prove a con-
NEW TRANSISTORS connection is used or not, this siderable help. VC1 is replaced by
nuisance can begin to be noticeable a fixed capacitor, C8, and variable
Constructors who are not in-
terested in frequencies higher than
about 15MHz will gain less advan-
tage by changing over to the new
transistors. But the 10, 11, 13 and
15 metre bands cannot be received bl-| VR
with the original design and the Tvc4
new transistors also ensure excellent
reception of the 16 metre band,
which was not too reliable with the
previous transistors. There may, in-
cidentally, well be disappointment
if a small earphone is employed. ~w- Off +9V
The DLR5 headphones, as originally TR TR
specified, are strongly recommended Ri ^ 2N3707 2N3707
and will prove vastly more sensi- ^4 V
C3 V
s
lbn
tive. Off
AERIAL-EARTH LOADING
As was described in the earlier TR
article, the greater the aerial-to- 2N2926G
earth loading, the greater will be VC2
the amplification. Increasing the R-g Cg n U .r
aerial coupling, by closing the vanes ::Di c
6 S gRa
Tr
of VC1, will generally require the I
reaction control, VC2, to be moved Phones
back.- In fact, at the low frequency
end of Band 5 it may be found
that the receiver will oscillate even
with VC2 fully open if aerial coup- be e
ling is too tight. But here the posi- 2N3707
2N2926G
2 VC1 was a lOOpF solid dielectric variable Lead-outs
capacitor fitted in series between the aerial
and the emitter of TR1 in the previous Fig. 4. The circuit of the receiver with all modifications
design.—Editor. incorporated
422 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 COMPONENTS
Components Retained From Phones Capacitors
Previous Design Headset type DLR5 (Henry's C6 1 00/jF electrolytic, 3V
Resistor Radio, Ltd.) wkg.
R1 330S2 i watt, 10% Dial Drive C7 0.05/iF
Vernier Drive type T501 C8 lOOpF
Capacitors (Eagle) VC4 500pF preset
C1 22pF Plugs, Sockets Inductors
C2 0.1 Phone jack and plug L3 Denco Miniature Dual
C3 0.0015pF Aerial socket Purpose Coil, valve
C4 1 00/jF electrolytic, 9V Earth socket type, Blue or White,
wkg. Battery connector clips Range 5.
C5 IOOuF electrolytic, 3V Battery L4 See text
wkg. 9 volt battery type PP7 (Ever T1 Output transformer type
VC2 lOOpF variable, solid Ready) LT700 (Eagle) or
dielectric Miscellaneous similar
VC3 lOOpF variable, air- 6-way tagboard, 2i x 2jin.
spaced T ransistors
New Components for Modified TR1 2N3707
Inductors Receiver TR2 2N3707
LI 2.5mH choke (Repanco) Resistors TR3 2N2926G
L2 See text of January 1968 (All fixed values i watt 10%)
article Switch
R2 L2kn S2 s.p.s.t, toggle
Diode R3 1.2kl2
D1 OA81 R4 I20O Speaker
VR1 50ki2 miniature poten- 3n, 2j or 3in. round
Switch tiometer, preset, linear Miscellaneous
SI 2-pole 6-way miniature VR2 2kn potentiometer, 3-way tagstrip
rotary linear (see text) Hin. of fin. dia. ferrite rod

coupling is provided by VR2. The headphones are used and the speaker Bands 2 to 5, and the Blue Denco
value of this component is not very is switched out, less than 1mA is coil added for Band 1, are shown
critical, but 2ktl will be found to drawn from the battery. in the accompanying table.
give smooth, progressive coupling It is not proposed to repeat all
on all Bands. With the prototype TABLE the detailed instructions given in
VR2 was also found a great help in Frequency ranges with the modi- the earlier article, nor to describe,
removing hand capacitance on 10 fied receiver. again, the passage of a signal
metres when the length of the aerial through the receiver. But Fig. 4,
was introducing this effect. It will which shows all the modifications
be noted that at the zero coupling Band Frequency range mentioned in this article, together
position the aerial is coupled to (MHz) with the Components List, should
earth through C2, though powerful enable experienced constructors to
stations will still be received with 1 35-16 make the receiver even if they do
critical reaction, being picked up 2 18.5-8.8 not have the earlier article by them.
direct on the wiring and coil. In But they will have to design their
Fig. 3, VR2 is mounted in the posi- 3 10.4-4.72 own coil unit, or use plug-in coils
tion previously occupied by VCl. 4 5.2-2.38 as described.
5 2.75-1.21 Editor's Note. Copies of the January
PROTOTYPE OPERATION 1968 issue, containing the article
describing the original "Spontaflex"
In the prototype of the modified The ranges covered by the 5 receiver, are available for 3/6 post
receiver, TR1 draws TOO/iA, TR2 Bands with the prototype, using paid from Data Publications, Ltd.
250/iA and TR3 7mA. Thus, when the original home-made coil for

LOW LIGHT LEVEL TV CAMERA TUBE NEW MICROELECTRONIC

The latest addition to the range of TV camera tubes INTERCONNECTION SYSTEM
manufactured by English Electric Valve Co. Ltd., com-
bines the low-noise read-out of a 3in. image isocon tube Hawker Siddeley Dynamics, Hatfield, Herts., has intro-
with the additional light amplification of a single stage duced a new microelectronic interconnection system for
image intensifier. The resultant type P8012 tube will give integrated circuits - Mynapak. It is a development of
good pictures under overcast starlight conditions. an earlier system, Micropak, with applications in the
The intensifier stage, a P899B, has a curved faceplate data transmission and handling and control engineering
for use with a mirror optical system, though with a fields.
corrector lens fitted it can also be used with a refractive In a package measuring 5 cm by 2.5 cm by 0.4 cm
optical system. The intensifier output screen and the Sin. thick, Mynapak can contain up to 25 integrated circuits
image isocon (type P887) photocathode are both fitted and 25 other thick film and chip components to cus-
with fused fibre optic faceplates, which coupled together tomer's specification.
provide an efficient transfer of the intensifier output image The package has 40 leads in 'dual in-line' format (20
onto the photocathode of the isocon. leads on each of the 5 cm sides) on 0.25 cm centres.
Both the P899B and P887 can be supplied separately Mynapak can dissipate up to six watts without a heat
if required. sink.
FEBRUARY 1970 423
 SIMPLE FREQUENCY METER

by

J. B. DANCE, M.Sc.

This article describes a neat and reliable circuit design for a direct-reading
frequency meter capable of working up to 1MHz. It may be made up as a
single-range instrument, or it may incorporate a switch offering up to five
different ranges

Frequency may be measured and indicated by changes occur in the amplitude of the voltage or
either analogue or digital techniques. If digital current generated by the circuit. This voltage or
techniques are employed, each of the input pulses current is displayed on a meter which is calibrated
is counted over a certain period (for example, 1 to indicate frequency. Such a frequency meter is
second) and the total number of counts is displayed known as a ratemeter when it is used for nucleonic
in the form of digits (possibly by cold cathode instrumentation.
numerical indicator tubes). In general, analogue instruments tend to be more
In the case of analogue circuits, however, a voltage economical to construct than digital instruments, but
or a current proportional to the input frequency is the latter can provide greater accuracy. If an ana-
generated. As the input frequency changes, analogus logue display of a current is to have an accuracy of

+ 9V

R
6i
+ 6-8V (stabilised)

O-SmA
R2 D3 ,
-WW—i L, IS2068
^•SpH Cf
D, -IK
C2 EA403 r
8
-WH ■w—|
d2
EA403
Input
TR I Irs
tr2 TR3 TR4
P346A P346A P346A P346A

sc
P346A
Lead-outs
Fig. 1. A simple frequency meter with a single range. The values
of capacitor Cf are as shown in the Table

424 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR

±1%, a good meter is required. On the other hand,
if a digital instrument is used to count each cycle of
a 10MHz waveform for 1 second, it is possible to COMPONENTS
arrange that the error in the display of the frequency
is little more than 1 part in 107. However, such in- (N.B. This list applies to Fig. 1. See text for
struments can be very complex. additional components required for circuit
of Fig. 2).
THE CIRCUIT
Resistors
The circuit to be described is a simple analogue (All fixed values 5% i watt)
frequency meter employing only four economically R1 IkO
priced transistors. It can be constructed to provide a R2 4.7kn
single range or, with an additional switch and com- R3 lOkQ
ponents, five switched ranges covering 10Hz to R4 33012
1 MHz. (The lowest frequency which may be reliably R5 Ikfl
measured is 10Hz.) R6 10012
The input signal, the frequency of which is to be R7 51012
measured, should exceed 2 volts peak to peak and R8 4.7kl2
should be supplied from a source resistance less than R9 51012
5kO. The power supply required is 9 volts at about Rf 10kl2 preset potentiometer
50mA. Capacitors
C1 10/xF electrolytic, 12V wkg.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION C2 1 OOpF ceramic
The first two transistors in the circuit of Fig. 1 Cf See Table
form a trigger circuit which switches over rapidly Inductor
each time the input voltage rises and falls. The out- LI 6.5/xH coil (see text)
put pulses from this part of the circuit pass through
the lOOpF capacitor C2 which, in conjunction with Semiconductors
R5 differentiates the pulses. The negative parts of the TR1-TR4 P346A
differentiated pulses cannot pass through Dl. On the Dl, D2 EA403
other hand, the positive parts do pass through this D3 6.8 volt zener diode type 1S2068
diode, and they are used to switch transistor TR3 Meter
to conduction. Ml moving-coil meter, 0-5mA
The transistors TR3 and TR4 form a monostable
circuit in which TR4 is normally conducting. When Switch
TR3 is switched to conduction, TR4 is switched off, SI s.p.s.t. on-off
but the circuit returns to its quiescent state after a
time determined by the product of the values of Rf Battery
and Cf. 9-volt battery
When TR3 conducts, a current passes through the
meter and R7 to TR3 collector. The magnitude of
this current is dependent on the potential of point A rising pulses for the operation of the monostable
and on the collector voltage of TR3. The potential circuit. Even if the input voltage changes rather
of point A is kept constant by the use of the 6.8 volt slowly (e.g. if it is a sine wave), the first two tran-
zener diode, D3, whilst the collector voltage is also sistors still switch rapidly.
constant (=V.at) during conduction. Thus the mag-
nitude of the current passing through the meter is CALIBRATION
constant.
If the value of Rf or Cf is altered, the duration of
TABLE the current pulses through the meter will be changed
and this will affect the meter deflection for a certain
Full-Soale Deflection (Hz) Value of Cf (/iF) input frequency. Thus the desired value of the full-
scale deflection may be obtained by a suitable choice
100 1 of Rf and Cf.
1,000 0.1 The value of Cf may be selected from the Table
to cover the desired frequency range. The instrument
10,000 0.01 is cahbrated by feeding a signal from a generator to
100,000 0.001 the input of the circuit, this signal having a frequency
1,000,000 0.0001 equal to the desired full-scale deflection. The value of
Rf is then adjusted so that a full-scale deflection is
obtained.
The value of Cf for various values of full scale
If the current passing during the pulses is kept deflection is shown in the Table.
constant, the deflection of the meter is proportional The lowest frequency range may, of course, be
to the pulse duration and the number of pulses per calibrated using the 50Hz mains supply to give a
second. For a given value of Rf and Cf, the deflec- half-scale deflection. The mains supply should be
tion is therefore proportional to the input frequency. connected to a transformer and a low voltage output
The first two transistors are used to provide sharply from the latter connected to the input of the fre-
FEBRUARY 1970 425
 quency meter. A valve heater transformer supplying
6.3 volt r.m.s. can be used for this purpose. COMPONENTS
The value of Cf may . be selected from the Table
MULTI-RANGE INSTRUMENT
j"S
inchu diameter
enamelled
former to copper wirea wound
produce on ahalf
coil about 0.4
If a multi-range instrument is required, alternative an inch in length is suitable. The wire may be about
values of the capacitor Cf may be switched into the 26 s.w.g.
circuit as shown in Fig. 2. These capacitors have the The trimming potentiometers should, for long-term
values shown in the diagram. accuracy, be high grade types. The transistors and
+ 6-8V (stabilised) ^desare readily available devices, obtainable from
LSI Electronic Components Ltd.
IOkng|- CONSTRUCTION
M| O-OOOIuF lOkn lOkn lOkn lOkn
0-5mA The circuit may be conveniently constructed on the
normal type of Lektrokit insulated board which has
O'OOIpF holes spaced at 0.1 inch intervals to take tapered
—IB—-s solder pins. Only about a third of one of these
boards is required and this may be cut from a com-
O-OlpF plete board by means of a small saw either before
-il~? or after the components have been soldered in posi-
0-I>JF tion. The board measures 4 by 4J inches and is
Lektrokit Part No. LK-141, whilst the solder pins
1—^ are Lektrokit Part No. LK-3011. Both are available
luF trom Home Radio (Components) Ltd.
8 —II A 9 volt battery of the type used in transistor
ww— radios is generally the most convenient source of
power, since the instrument is then independent of a
Do mains supply. However, the mains can be used as
EA403 a source of power if a transformer providing an out-
Range put of about 7 volts r.m.s. is employed; the output
selector trom this transformer is half-wave rectified by a
' "3 TR4 switch ar
a4MJ/jT, l^ smoothed with a capacitor of about
12V wkg.
The completed circuit board may be fixed in a small
,nt0 one face
Fig. 2. Modifications to the circuit of Fig. 1 of which the meter has been
ntted The size of the box required will depend on
when a multi-range instrument is required. The whether a range switch is to be used, on the size of
remainder of the circuit is exactly as shown meter used and possibly on the size of the battery
in Fig. 1 to be employed. A range of suitable diecast boxes is
E: c available from Home Radio (Components) Ltd. Some
i ^l range should be calibrated separately and constructors will, of course, doubtless prefer to make
the full-scale deflection of each should be adjusted
by the associated potentiometer shown in Fig 2 If their own box for the unit.
precision capacitors are used for the five capacitors
it may be possible to achieve satisfactory results with ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
only one variable resistor, but it is normally both
economical and more convenient to use readily avail- The circuit described in this article is a design
able standard components in the circuit given. published by SGS (United Kingdom) Ltd., to whom
due acknowledgements are made. —

CURRENT SCHEDULES
* RADIO SWEDEN
This English language schedule for Europe IS to . ^5kHz (49 55 metres), 1930 to 2030 GMT (2030
2130 BST), also on 9665kHz (31.04 metres).
current until March 1st.
9625, 15315kHz (31.17, 19.59 metres) 1100 to -A- U.S.A.
1130 GMT (12.00 to 12.30 BST) Radio New York Worldwide schedule for Europe
6065, 962SkHz (49.46, 31 17 metres) 2045 to is as follows: ^
2115 GMT (2145 to 2215 BST). 16 8 1 metres 1700 to
11705, 15155kHz (25.63, 19.80 metres") 2245 tr> tto V^^
2230 BST) and - . on 21530kHz
)' 2130metres)
(13.93 GMT (1800
1700
2315 GMT (2345 to 0015 BST) to 2015 GMT (1800 to 2115 BST). On Sundays only
transmissions end at 1600 GMT (1700 BST).
* SWITZERLAND Later transmissions for Europe are on 1180SkHz
Current until May 2nd, the English language ( 7 .l^e„t,res)' 2200 to 2330 GMT (2300 to 0030 BST)
schedule is as follows:
to 2245 BST)Z (19'43 metres)' 2025 t0 2145 GMT (2125
PLM metres), 1130 to 1230 GMT (1230 th e
. I SWL and electronics hobbyist, Dx-ing
1641 Same 0n Worldwide is radiated at 1735 GMT (1835 BST) on
11865kL (2L28 metmst' ^ ^ ^ Saturdays and at 1905 GMT (2005 BST) on Sundays.
426
THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 f
2tcVLC
UNDERSTANDING

VOLTMETERS AND
OHMMETERS

by W, 0, Ator/ey

IN LAST MONTH'S ISSUE WE CON- will often carry out the two-step voltages and currents, whereupon
tinued our examination of the procedure of first checking the vol- the current reading meter has the
moving-coil meter and discussed tage across, say, a resistor and then same usefulness as the voltmeter.
the manner in which it is used for measuring the value of that resistor A moving-coil meter is capable
measuring current. We saw that the when the appropriate equipment of indicating voltage on its own,
current .at which the meter offers has been switched off. The current in so far that the current flowing
full-scale deflection (or. f.s.d.) may which flows in the resistor may through its coil is directly propor-
be increased by connecting a shunt then be rapidly calculated, the tional to the voltage across its
across its terminals, and we dealt overall process being considerably terminals. Thus, a 0-lmA meter
with the simple equation employ- quicker than is given by physically having a resistance of 10012 will
ed for calculating the value of that disconnecting one end of the resis- give an f.s.d. indication when the
shunt. We next examined the mov- tor and inserting a' current indicat- voltage across its terminals is 0.1
ing-coil meter as used in a multi- ing meter in series. In laboratory volt since (from the Ohm's Law
testmeter having a number of design and development work, on equation, E=IR) that is the voltage
switched current ranges and saw the other hand, meters are used required to cause 1mA to flow in
how the "universal shunt" circuit to provide precise measurements a resistance of 100S2. Other com-
operates. rather than to merely locate the monly encountered moving-coil
We now turn to the techniques presence of obviously incorrect meters will also give f.s.d. readings
involved when the moving-coil
meter is employed for the measure-
ment of voltage.
MOVING COIL VOLTMETERS iSeries resistor 900n
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument terminals tOOOn
which, as its name implies, is in- O-lmA
tended to indicate the voltage lOOn
existing between two circuit points.
The voltmeter is simply connected
across these two points and there
is no necessity to make any phys- (b)
ical alterations to the circuit to (a)
which it is applied. This is a
different state of affairs to that
which occurs when a current in-
dicating meter is used, since the
latter has to be inserted in series : 9,900n
with the circuit whose current flow
is to be measured. For this lO.OOOn 200n
reason, the voltmeter is normally kO-lmA
a much more useful tool when lOOn \ JO-5mA
servicing or fault-finding work is
being carried out, since it is in
most cases a much quicker oper-
ation to measure voltages in a piece (c) (d)
of equipment than it is to measure
currents. The measurement of cur- Fig. 1 (a). A voltmeter formed by a combination of a moving-coil
rent requires that a circuit be meter and series resistor
broken before the current indicat- (b). A voltmeter with a full-scale deflection of 1 volt
ing meter can be inserted. A skilled
service engineer who is searching (c). A voltmeter having a full-scale deflection of 10 volts
for an obviously incorrect current (d). This voltmeter has a full-scale deflection of 1 volt, but draws
flow in a faulty item of equipment a higher current than that of (b)
FEBRUARY 1970 427
 - HT+ HT+ up in the general equation:
10OV I0OV F.erlea — j" Rm
rlOOkn lOOkn Where R»,rie, is the series re-
sistor in ohms, E is the f.s.d. volt-
age in volts, I is the meter f.s.d.
current in amps and Rm is the
resistance of the meter in ohms.
Valve OHMS PER VOLT
Voltmeter
cfliode RS.D= 200V A convenient method of easing
voltmeter series resistance calcula-
tions is to employ the concept of
"ohms per volt". In Fig. 1(b) a
total resistance of 1,00022 resulted
T Chassis in a f.s.d. voltage reading of 1 volt.
At the same time, an overall resis-
(a) Cb) tance in Fig. 1(c) of 10,000S2 result-
ed in an f.s.d. voltage reading of
-I80V 10 volts. Both these examples dem-
-I80V -I8OV -I8OV onstrate that a voltmeter incorpor-
+ + + + ating a 0-lmA basic meter can be
lOOkn < lOOkn ^ lOOkn < lOOkn^ described as being a 1,000 ohms
per volt instrument. If we wanted
Voltmeter to find the value of series resistance
resistance for a voltmeter giving an f.s.d.
reading at 5 volts and having a
lOOkag 90 200kni 120 164 0-lmA basic meter, we may com-
? V V IMn| V 4Mn
g v6 mence by saying that the 1,000
ohms per volt figure associated with
the 0-lmA meter tells us that the
X— X— total resistance required will be 5
SOOohms 1,000ohms 5,000 ohms times 1,000 or 5,00012, with the
20,000 ohms result that the series resistor should
per volt per volt per volt per volt be this value minus the resistance
of the meter.
(c) Fig. 1(d) illustrates a voltmeter
incorporating a 0-5mA basic meter
Fig. 2(a). A typical equipment circuit, in which a valve has an together with a series resistor
anode load resistor of 10OkU which allows an f.s.d. reading to
(b). Measuring anode voltage with a voltmeter having an f.s.d. be given at an applied voltage of
of 200 volts 1 volt. From the Ohm's Law equa-
a
tion we can calculate the total
'f' the only current condition,
current, theload
in the WOkil valve drawsiszero
resistor that anode
drawn resistance as being 20012, where-
by the voltmeter. The lower resistors in the four examples given upon the series resistor requires a
here represent the resistance presented by voltmeters having value of 200S2 minus the resistance
different ohms per volt figures. The voltages across the lower of the meter. The ohms per volt
resistors are those indicated by the voltmeters they represent figure when a 0-5mA basic meter
is employed is 200.
It will be apparent that the ohms
per volt figure is directly depen-
when similarly low voltages are 10012), and since a current of dent upon the current which the
applied across their terminals. 1mA flows when a voltage of 1 voltmeter draws at full-scale de-
Voltage indicating instruments volt is applied to a resistance of flection. We have already seen that
which are incapable of giving read- this value, it follows that the volt- when the basic meter in the volt-
ings higher than a fraction of a meter of Fig. 1(b) has an f.s.d. meter has an f.s.d. rating of 1mA
volt are obviously not of much use figure of 1 volt. Fig. 1(c) shows the the voltmeter is a 1,000 ohms per
in practice, and it is only for same basic meter with a series re- volt instrument, and that when the
occasional specialised applications sistor of 9,90012, whereupon the f.s.d. rating is 5mA the voltmeter
that a moving-coil meter is employ- total resistance between the volt- is a 200 ohms per volt' instrument.
ed on its own to show voltage in meter terminals is 10,00012. In con- If we fake some further examples
this manner. Voltages higher than sequence, the voltmeter of Fig. 1(c) we will find that if the basic meter
that appearing across the meter coil gives a full-scale deflection at 10 has an f.s.d. value of 100,1 A (equal
are measured by connecting an volts. to 0.1mA) the voltmeter has an
external fixed resistor in series with These examples are helpful in ohms per volt figure of 10,000, that
the moving-coil meter, as in Fig. introducing the fact that, if we a 0-200yA basic meter provides a
1(a), the combination then being want to find the value required in 5,000 ohms per volt instrument, and
described as a voltmeter. Fig. 1(b) the series resistor of a voltmeter, so on. As the current required to
shows the O-lmA meter with 10012 it is first of all necessary to calcu- produce f.s.d. in the basic meter
resistance we chose as an example late the total resistance which reduces, the ohms per volt figure
just now, this being connected in causes the meter f.s.d. current to increases. It is usual practice to
series with a 90012 resistor to form flow at the desired f.s.d. voltage, refer to voltmeter "sensitivity" in
a voltmeter. Since the total resis- and to then subtract from this total terms of its ohms per volt figure,
tance between the terminals of this the sensitivity increasing as the fig-
voltmeter is 1,00012 (90012 + resistance the resistance of the met- ure becomes greater.
er. The procedure may be summed A very useful result of thinking
428
THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
of voltmeter sensitivity in terms ter a 0-50 volt instrument which
of ohms per volt is that this con- is stated to have a sensitivity of
cept enables the resistance between 2,000 ohms per volt, we know at
the terminals of any voltmeter to once that the internal resistance
be rapidly assessed. If we encoun- between its two terminals is 50
times 2,000, or 100,000£2. Positive test
|——WM Like all pointer instruments, the
Range sockets
moving-coil voltmeter absorbs pow-
switch er from the circuit to which it is
connected. This point has always
to be borne in mind when using
Testmeter I ww— rvi the voltmeter, as it is otherwise
terminals Basic V—X possible to place incorrect inter-
ineter I pretations on the readings it pro-
vides.
A typical instance of what can Basic /
occur in practice is illustrated in
(a) Fig. 2. In Fig. 2(a) we have a Common
valve with an anode load resistor negative o-
of lOOkfi connecting to a 180 volt socket
h.t. line. Let us assume that, due
to a fault condition, the valve is Fig. 4. The switch in the cir-
Range s/^- passing zero anode current. Since cuit of Fig. 3(b) may be
there is no current flow in the omitted, if desired. The re-
resistor, the anode of the valve is quired voltage ranges are
180 volts positive of chassis. In Fig. then selected by plugging test
' 2(b) we check the anode voltage by leads into the 'appropriate
connecting a voltmeter with a full- sockets
scale deflection of 200 volts be-
tween the anode and chassis. Fig.
Testmeter 2(c) shows the actual readings This example demonstrates that
terminals which would be given by a number care must always be observed when
Basic meter ( of voltmeters having different ohms taking voltage readings at circuit
per volt figures. A 500 ohms per points where there is a high value
volt meter will present a resistance of series resistance. It also shows
of 100kS2, whereupon exactly half that the indications obtained under
the h.t. voltage appears across the these conditions become more ac-
voltmeter, and the reading it gives curate as the ohms per volt rating
(b) is 90 volts. A 1,000 ohms per volt of the meter increases.
meter gives a reading of 120 volts,
r
a 5,000 ohms per volt meter gives MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETERS
5 an indication of 164 volts, and a
ISOkn 20,000 ohms per volt meter gives A multi-testmeter, or testmeter,
a reading of 176 volts. All these incorporates a number of voltage
75kn voltmeters draw current through the ranges, these being based on the
r
lOOkS! anode load resistor, with the single moving-coil meter fitted in
3 result that none of them gives a the instrument. Also employed is
I5kn true indication of the actual anode a switching circuit, or other means
voltage. However, the readings pro- of selection, to enable specific volt-
7-5 kn vided by the voltmeters approach age ranges to be brought into use.
the true voltage more closely as The switching arrangements requir-
the ohms per volt figure increases. ed are very simple, and do not
2-4 kn
O-lmA / y
IOOa V

Range F.S.D. □
1 2-5V
2 IOV
3 25V SI
4 IOOV I®
5 250V 1
(c) a ISShM
Fig. 3(a). A simple switching A SB BH
circuit tor a multi-range volt-
meter
(b). A better switching circuit, LJO
which reduces heat dissipa-
tion in the series resistors tor
the higher voltage ranges
(c). A practical version of
the circuit of (b) with com-
ponent values
FEBRUARY 1970 429
 have the complications inherent in rent ranges despite variations in Fig. 5 (a). Measurements on this
switched current ranges. coil resistance due to changes in range are then obtained by con-
A possible switching circuit for coil temperature. To simplify the necting the appropriate test lead to
selecting one of a series of voltage overall testmeter switching circuits this terminal. The use of a separ-
ranges is shown in Fig. 3(a). The it is often helpful to retain the ate high voltage range terminal
switch in this diagram simply swamp resistor in series with the ensures that the highest voltage
selects different series resistors for meter when voltage ranges are sel- which the testmeter can measure
the ranges, each resistor being equal ected. Should this be done, the is not applied to the range switch,
to the total resistance required for lowest range series resistor (R1 in with the result that the insulation
the range minus the resistance of Fig. 3(b)) is given a value which requirements for this switch are
the basic meter.* A circuit of this takes into account the presence of eased.
type is quite practicable and its the swamp resistor. Apart from Where very high voltages are to
use would be justified in a volt- this, the swamp resistor has no be measured it is common practice
meter having only a few ranges at effect on the voltage ranges. Also, for the manufacturer of the test-
fairly low voltage. since variations in coil resistance meter to provide an external series
A better circuit, particularly due to temperature changes are neg- resistor, this being connected to the
where a large number of ranges ligibly low compared with the volt- meter as shown in Fig. 5(b). The
extending to high voltages are to meter series resistor values, these external series resistor is provided
be switched, is illustrated in Fig. variations also have no effect in with insulation appropriate to the
3(b). In this diagram, R1 is the the voltage ranges. voltage being measured.
series resistor for the lowest voltage In some testmeters with switched The series resistors employed in
range and has the requisite value voltage range selection, the highest testmeters are types offering a very
of total resistance minus meter voltage range is provided by means high level of long term stability in
resistance. The succeeding resistors of a separate terminal, or socket, value, and are operated well within
are then added in series, each hav- as shown in the example given in maximum power ratings. They are
ing a value which causes the total close-tolerance components of the
resistance to be increased to the order of + 1 % or better. Voltmeter
value required. Fig. 3(b) shows five series resistors are normally referr-
ranges but the scheme can, of Highest ed to as multiplier resistors, or just
course, be adapted for a smaller voltage as multipliers, this name arising
or greater number of ranges. range from the fact that they effectively
Fig. 3(c) gives a practical ex- "multiply" the f.s.d. voltage figures.
ample of the circuit of Fig. 3(b) The term "multiplier resistor" may
with resistor values indicated. The also be appied to the series resistor
basic meter has a full-scale deflec- in a single-range voltmeter, such
tion of 1mA and a resistance of CRanges as that in Fig. 1(a).
10011. Only R1 has a value which 1-5) ^3
allows for the resistance of the
meter. All the remaining resistors OHMMETERS
have round number values which
provide the incremental resistance
required. It will be noted that these A moving-coil meter may be
values correspond to the ohms per made to measure resistance by con-
volt concept. With a 0-lmA basic necting it into a suitable circuit
meter the ohms per volt figure is with a number of other compon-
1,000, whereupon R2, which pro- Basic ents. The resultant combination is
vides the "step" between the 2.5 meter then referred to as an ohmmeter.
volt and 10 volt ranges, has a value Common A simple ohmmeter circuit is
of 7.5 times 1,000. or 7.5kf2. negative shown in Fig. 6(a). In this diagram
The circuit of Fig. 3(b) has two the meteris connected in serieswith
important advantages when com- (a) a battery, (or a single cell), a fixed
pared with that of Fig. 3(a). First, resistor, Rl, and a variable resistor,
the wattage dissipation in the resis- R2. The function of R2 is to take
tors for the higher voltage ranges External series up changes in battery voltage and
is considerably lower. Second, the resistor internal resistance as the battery
voltage appearing across these re- ——ww ages, and it is adjusted to cause the
sistors is also considerably lower. To circuit points meter to indicate full-scale deflec-
This last point is of importance under test To testmeter tion when the test terminals are
because the design of some classes short-circuited together. R! pro-
of resistor becomes modified for vides current limiting and ensures
voltages across the resistor above that an excessive current cannot
some 500 volts. (b) flow through the meter if R2 should
The circuit of Fig. 3(b) lends be accidentally set to insert too low
itself readily to the use of sockets Fig. 5(a). In some testmeters a resistance into circuit. Also, the
instead of a range selector switch. the highest voltage range con- values of the two resistors are
The appropriate circuit is given nection is brought out to a such that full-scale deflection can-
in Fig. 4. separate test socket or ter- not be achieved by adjustment of
As we saw in last month's issue, minal. This eases insulation R2 when the battery voltage is too
it is normal practice to insert a requirements in the range low and/or its internal resistance is
swamp resistor in series with the selector switch too high for accurate circuit opera-
basic meter in a testmeter in order tion. Thus, the user of the ohm-
to maintain accuracy on the cur- (b). For measuring very high meter is automatically warned when
voltages an external series battery replacement is due.
resistor is available for some After R2 has been set up to pro-
♦At the higher voltage ranges the internal testmeters. Connections are vide full-scale deflection with the
resistance of the meter will tend to be- made to the testmeter in test terminals short-circuited, the
come negligibly low compared with the
series resistance, whereupon it may be accordance with the manu- ohmmeter is available for the meas-
ignored. facturer's instructions urement of resistance. If the test
430 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 terminals are connected to a resis-
tor, or to a component having
significant resistance, the pointer
of the meter will be deflected to an ■e1-
indication lower than full-scale de-
flection, the actual indication de-
pending upon the value of the *VW 2
resistor. The ohmmeter scale is cali- 1
brated in terms of resistance in Battery
order that the resistance being
measured may be read directly.
This calibration is not linear,
being "opened out" at the right-
hand low resistance end of the Test
scale and becoming progressively terminals • Test. t
more cramped at the left-hand terminals
high resistance end. Assuming neg-
ligible resistance in the battery and Ca) (b)
the meter, half-scale deflection .is
given when the resistance being r
measured is equal to the resistance 2
inserted by Rl and R2 in series. |—ww— j l|l|^ WW I
An alternative ohmmeter circuit is R2
shown in Fig. 6 (b). In this diagram ww * VW
ww
Rl provides current limiting as be-
fore, and prevents excessive current R
i
flow in the meter if the variable -ww-
resistor is accidentally set incorrect-
ly. The variable resistor is once
more designated as R2, but in the
present case it is connected across Test
the meter in series with R3. As in T Test
the circuit of Fig. 6(a), R2 is set up terminals terminals '
to provide full-scale deflection in
the meter when the test terminals Cc) (d)
are short-circuited, R3 being includ-
ed to ensure that R2 cannot be set F/g. Sfaj. ^ simple ohmmeter circuit incorporating a moving-
to a value much lower than that coil meter
needed when a new battery is fit- (b). An alternative circuit which offers somewhat greater accuracy
ted. Without R3, R2 would have a (c). A basic ohmmeter circuit which is particularly useful in
needlessly wide range of adjust- multi-range instruments
ment, with only a small proportion
of its slider rotation being useful (d). The "shunt ohmmeter" circuit. This is capable of indicating
for the purpose of setting up the small values of resistance with low battery current
ohmmeter. The ohmmeter offers
resistance indications in the same
manner as does that of Fig. A third circuit, and one which divided (or multiplied) by 100 (or
6(a), with low resistance gradu- can be particularly useful in test- by any other convenient number)
ations "opened out" at the right- meters having more than one re- by merely switching in different
hand end of the scale and high sistance range, is shown in Fig. values of Rl. For low resistance
resistance graduations becoming 6(c). Here, the battery is connected ranges having half-scale deflections
progressively more cramped at in series with Rl and the test ter- of some 5012 or less the internal
the left-hand end. If it is assumed minals, the basic meter of the resistance of the battery becomes
that the meter and battery have testmeter being coupled to Rl via significant and, has to be consider-
negligible resistance, half-scale de- variable resistor R2 and current ed as being in series with the
flection is given when the resistance limiter resistor R3. R2 is set up combined resistance offered by Rl,
being measured is equal to Rl. for f.s.d. when the test terminals R2, R3 and the meter. The value of
The circuit of Fig. 6(b) provides are short-circuited. Rl is in par- Rl is then chosen to cater for an
more accurate results than does that allel with the total resistance offer- average battery internal resistance,
of Fig. 6(a) because there is no ed by R2, R3 and the meter and, this being typically 0.512 for a
variable resistance in series with assuming negligible internal resis- single small 1.5 volt cell. It is
the resistance being measured. How- tance in the battery, the ohmmeter necessary to replace the battery as
ever, it is important that the bat- gives half-scale deflection when the soon as its internal resistance rises
tery should be replaced before its resistance being measured has a with age, or the accuracy of low
internal resistance rises to too high value equal to the combined re- resistance readings will be seriously
a level, and it is desirable to give sistance offered by these compon- impaired.
values to R2 and R3 which ensure ents. If Rl is changed (by a range In this description, reference has
that an f.s.d. reading cannot be selector switch) so that the com- been made to the combined resist-
obtained with the test terminals bined resistance it offers in parallel ance of Rl, R2, R3 and the meter.
short-circuited when battery inter- with R2, R3 and the meter is, say, The resistance inserted by R2 is
nal resistance becomes excessive. one-hundredth of the previous val- that corresponding to its setting
This is fairly easy to arrange since ue, all indications on the ohmmet- when the battery voltage is at the
increasing internal resistance in the er scale become divided by 100. average level it will provide during
battery is usually accompanied by Thus, it becomes possible to pro- its working life.
noticeably decreasing voltage, and vide the associated testmeter with Fig. 6(d) shows a "shunt ohm-
the two effects combine in restrict- a single resistance scale, the resis- meter" circuit. When the switch is
ing meter current. tance values marked on this being closed the battery is applied to the
FEBRUARY 1970 431
meter via variable resistor R1 and the resistance being measured is the meter which causes its f.s.d.
current limiter resistor R2. R1 is ad- equal to the resistance of the meter. current to be increased, say, 100
justed to give full-scale deflection Low resistance readings appear at times, and if the values of R1 and
with the test terminals open-circuited the left-hand end of the meter scale R2 are changed to allow the con-
When the test terminals are connec- and high resistance readings at the sequently increased current to flow,
ted to a resistor, the latter acts as a right-hand end, the low resistance all scale indications become divided
meter shunt, whereupon the meter graduations being "opened out" by 100.
indication falls below f.s.d. This type and the high resistance graduations
of ohmmeter is capable of reading cramped. The circuit has the ad- NEXT MONTH
very low values of resistance with- vantage that accuracy is not affect-
out drawing large currents from ed by variations in battery voltage In next month's issue we shall
the battery. If battery voltage is and internal resistance during its turn our attention to circuits which
high enough to allow the resistance useful life. The same resistance allow moving-coil meters to read
offered by R1 and R2 to be many scale may be employed for a num- alternating voltages and alternating
times greater than meter resistance, ber of different ranges. If, for in- currents.
half-scale deflection is given when stance, a shunt is connected across

M I
CURRENT .v ?

TRENDS

is

0 NEW RANGE
OF INSTRUMENT
CASES
Radiatron announce an entirely new range of instru- pre-assembled units can also be supplied. The alu-
ment cases; card frames and industrial cabinets. The minium sections can also be obtained in long lengths
product, known as Elmaset, is a complete system de- allowing construction by the user of special units.
signed to cater for all types of electrical and electronic The Elmaset range includes all components and
"packaging". The Elmaset system ranges from minia- accessories likely to be required with the frames and
ture card frames and instrument cases (3yin. to 4in.) to cases - such as printed circuit boards; modules;
robust industrial 19in. cabinets, and includes over 1,000 handles; forced draught units; guide rails and a wide
different standard types and sizes. variety of metric units, bolts and fasteners.
The range is believed to be the first fully metric The system has also been designed to allow the use
design of its type available within the U.K., but also of virtually all known types and sizes of printed circuit
includes the existing 19in. standard. Anodised extruded cards and edge connectors or combinations of different
aluminium sections are used throughout, and these are types.
pre-punched, drilled and tapped to allow simple and A 54 page, six colour catalogue is available explain-
rapid assembly, whilst ensuring maximum rigidity and ing the range in detail, and can be obtained from;
light weight. P.V.C. clad aluminium panels give the Radiatron Limited, 76 Crown Road, Twickenham,
range an attractive, modern styling. Middlesex. Telephone 01-892 1008.
Units are normally supplied in kit form, although ■
432 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 This month Smithy the Serviceman discusses some aspects
of constructional work which are frequently ignored by the
iniiL amateur. He also demonstrates that even the humble chassis
solder tag, if used incorrectly, can have a considerable
effect on the overall performance of an item of home-
constructed equipment
your

"Then why mention it?" shouldn't use them if he wants to.

"I'm trying," said Dick plain- As a matter of fact, octal valves
tively, "to relieve the crushing can offer one or two small but
lunch-hour tedium to which I'm quite distinct advantages, one of
IworK subjected whenever you indulge in these being that they're readily
one of these crossword puzzle available at very low prices.
sessions of yours." Another advantage, and one which
Resignedly, Smithy threw his will be appreciated by the real
newspaper onto his bench. beginner, is that the tags of octal
"I knew I'd never get enough valveholders are well spaced out
■ShOB peace to enable me to finish it," he and are easier to solder to than the
grumbled. "What do you want to tags of B7G and B9A valveholders.
do, then?" I appreciate that most home-con-
"Have a bit of a natter!" structors these days are mainly
"What about?" interested in transistors and similar
"Oh, any old thing. Like, for semiconductor devices, but that
instance, the constructional work I doesn't mean to say that valve
wID YOU," ASKED DICK, mentioned just now." circuits should be ignored, even if
1 "hear about the chap who "As it happens," said Smithy these incorporate the earlier octal
-L'runs the pet shop in the guardedly, "I have been doing a types. I hardly need to remind you
High Street?" spot of construction at home
With a grunt of satisfaction, recently. In a rash moment 1 Potentiometer bush and spindle
Smithy filled in another answer in promised a nephew of mine I'd Panel
his post-lunch crossword puzzle. knock up a little short-wave set
"No I didn't," he remarked for him, and this has kept me
abstractedly, "What about him?" rather pleasantly occupied for the
"He's now started," said Dick last few evenings. It's intriguing,
brightly, "selling birds on hire- incidentally, to find how much
purchase!" interest there is in short-wave
Smithy concentrated on the next listening these days. It's a hobby
clue and ran his pen along the which seems to be attracting a
squares of the puzzle to see whether continually increasing number of
the answer he had just thought of followers all the time."
would fit. Obviously, it didn't. "Are you doing the metal-bashing
"Blast" he snorted. for this set at home?"
"I said," repeated Dick, raising "I am," confirmed Smithy. "As
his voice, "that the chap at the pet a matter of fact, there isn't a great
shop in the High Street is now deal of bother involved in radio Shake-proof Hole for locating
selling birds on hire-purchase." metal-work these days, since you washer lug
"Is he?" replied the Serviceman can get ready-made chassis and (a)
absently. "Still, I suppose it's only panels of pretty well any size you
to be expected, with everybody so want direct from the home-construc-
short of money these days." tor suppliers. And, of course, valve- Locating lug
holder holes and things like that
HOME CONSTRUCTION are a piece of cake because all
you need to do is to use standard
Dick turned a furious scowl on chassis-cutters. In this respect it's
the Serviceman. The latter, still helpful to remember that a B7G
engrossed in his crossword puzzle, valveholder requires a i inch
appeared to be completely unaware chassis-cutter, a B9A valveholder kl
of the glare in his assistant's eye. requires a J inch chassis-cutter,
"Do you," asked Dick after a and an octal valveholder requires Panel
few moments, "do much construc- a 1 {- inch chassis-cutter."
tional work at home these days?" "Octal valveholders?" queried (b)
Smithy's concentration was shaken Dick, raising his eyebrows. "Octal
by this abrupt and unexpected valves are a bit old-fashioned, Fig. 1 (a). The correct method
change of subject. aren't they?" of fitting a potentiometer to a
"Constructional work?" he re- "They certainly are so far as panel includes the provision
peated, startled. "What on earth commercial equipment manufacture of a hole for its locating lug
has constuctional work got to do is concerned." replied Smithy. "But, (b). Side view, showing how
with the local pet shop?" on the other hand, there's no the lug passes through its
"Nothing really," admitted Dick. reason why the home-constructor hole in the panel
FEBRUARY 1970 433
 that circuits employing octal valves "I do," confirmed Smithy. "My
are capable of giving excellent view is that if the pot manufac- Dr II
performances." turer has gone to the trouble of chuck
"That's true enough," conceded providing the locating lug then it's
Dick. "I suppose that, in a way, the only sensible to use it in the manner
making up of sets using octal valves for which it was intended. In any
can have rather the same sort of event, the process of marking out
fascination as is given by getting and drilling the hole only takes a
vintage cars into working order." minute or so. After cutting out the
"Blimey," chuckled Smithy. "Octal main panel hole for the bush of
valves aren't quite as old as all the pot, the component can then Tubing
that\ Anyway, I don't want to keep be used to find the position needed
nattering on about valves, because for the locating lug hole. (Fig.2).
the normal processes involved in Most locating lugs will fit quite
chassis-bashing are equally applic- happily in a hole cut out with a
able to equipment using transistors i- inch drill, and it doesn't matter -Twist drill
as well." if the lug is a loose fit in this hole."
"Are there," asked Dick, "any "Why not?"
points you pay particular attention "Because the main function of Fig. 3. A simple precaution
to when you're preparing a the lug is simply that of preventing which ensures that a twist drill
chassis?" the whole pot being rotated bodily does not pass too far through
"There are one or two," admitted if, when the bush mounting nut is a chassis on completion of a
Smithy. "Perhaps it's because I a little loose, some ham-handed hole
have what could be described as geyser tries to turn the knob too
a professional background, but I far. Even if the panel hole for the
do tend to be a little more fastidious locating lug is a little too large, it
about some practical matters than will still only allow the body of the "I see."
many amateurs are." pot to be rotated by a couple of The Serviceman appeared satis-
"In what way?" degrees or so. Don't forget that if fied that the matter had now been
"Well," said Smithy in reply, the body of a pot is fcrced round adequately explained.
take, for instance, the little matter by a considerable amount terrible "Very well, then," he resumed.
of the locating lugs which are things can happen to the wiring "Let's get back to our conversation
provided on panel-mounted poten- and components that are soldered about chassis-bashing."
tiometers. These lugs are, of course, to its tags!" "So far as I'm concerned," said
intended to fit into an appropriately Dick with obvious relief, "the
positioned hole in the panel. (Fig. sooner we do that the happier I'll
1). However, quite a few amateurs CHASSIS TAGS be."
merely drill out the main bush- "Good," said Smithy, briskly.
mounting hole for the pot and then "Well now, apart from the locating
completely ignore the hole that's "Good point," grinned Dick. "I'll lug business, there's little else I
needed in the panel for its locating holes remember to drill pot locating lug really need to say about chassis
lug. Instead, they purposely cut off in future." work. I suppose I ought to mention
or bend out the locating lug to Smithy frowned as his mind the obvious point that you should
enable the control to be fitted momentarily returned to an earlier always endeavour to mark out and
square when the bush-mounting remark made by his assistant. drill every hole in a chassis before
nut is tightened." "Why," he asked, "were you you start mounting the parts on it.
"And you, I suppose, drill out talking just now about the chap If you have to drill a chassis hole
the locating lug holes instead." who runs the pet shop in the High after the components have been
Street? It so happens that I know fitted, it's a good plan to fit a length
him fairly well, and I haven't heard of metal or hard plastic tubing over
that he's changed his methods of the drill as soon as the hole has
Bush passed doing business." been started. (Fig. 3). The tubing
Panel through panel ( "He hasn't" replied Dick patiently. should be a little shorter than the
hole "When I said he was selling birds length of drill projecting from the
on hire-purchase, the words 'hire chuck in which it's fitted, and it
purchase' were intended to be a prevents the drill crashing through
pun." to its full length as sometimes
Smithy considered this infor- happpens when it finally breaks
mation gravely. through the metal on completion
"I take it," he said eventually, of the hole. Any well-stocked junk
"that there was a second, hidden, box should yield a suitable bit of
meaning in your statement. Could tubing for this little job. Another
one infer that the birds in question thing worth mentioning is that, if
might also have been sold on there are any air-spaced variable
'higher perches'? That is to say, on capacitors already mounted on the
perches having a greater height?" chassis you intend to drill, you
"One could." should always ensure that their
Pencil Smithy pondered. vanes are completely enmeshed.
"And so," he continued slowly, This obviates the risk of the moving
your allegation was really intended vanes getting bent if anything
Fig. 2. To find the position to be a joke."
required for a potentiometer should accidentally come into con-
"Normal people," replied Dick, tact with them."
locating lug hole, first drill a note of desperation entering his
the main bush-mounting hole, "A very good precaution," com-
voice, "would have treated it as mented Dick approvingly. "Is that
pass the bush through this such."
and mark off the position the lot so far as chassis-work is
"And it had no actual foundation concerned?"
required for the locating lug in truth?"
hole with a pencil "There's nothing else I can think
"None whatsoever." of," responded Smithy thoughtfully,
434 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
"which doesn't fall into the com- is to make the soldered connections
mon-sense category. For instance, a to the tag with its mounting screw Four Local Supplier
hole should always be centre-punch- and nut loosened. (Fig. 4(b)). This
ed before you apply the drill, or approach keeps the tag in position, LONDON
the latter will wander all over the and also ensures that there is
surface of the metal. And you can virtually no thermal coupling at all Established 1910
often clean up the swarf left on a to the chassis, whereupon the tag
hole which has just been drilled by solders without difficulty. You tight-
lightly countersinking with a larger en up the nut and bolt after you've H. L. SMITH
drill." completed the soldering operation."
Smithy paused for a moment. & CO. LTD.
"Let's next carry on to the COMMON IMPEDANCE
process of mounting the components Comprehensive stocks of
themselves," he resumed. "Now, so "Blow me," said Dick. "Now why components by
far as this procedure is concerned didn't 7 think of that?"
I always believe in paying particular "You pick up these little dodges all leading makers.
attention to what are probably the as you go along," commented
smallest parts to be fitted." Smithy. "Anyway, I want to turn 287-9 EDGWARE ROAD
"What are they?" LONDON W.2
"The chassis solder tags," replied Chassis
Smithy, "and the earthed tags of Tel: 01-723 5891
tagstrips. The reason I raise this
matter is that home-constructor
chassis are normally made of
aluminium because this is a nice THE
soft metal and is easy to handle."
"Another advantage of alumin- MODERN BOOK CO.
ium," interrupted Dick, "is that it
doesn't rust or corrode." Solder tag Shake-proof
"Exactly," agreed Smithy. "And washer Largest selection of English &
you've conveniently introduced the American radio and technical
next point I want to make. Do you C°) books in the country.
know why aluminium oSers such
a high resistance to corrosion?"
"Not really," replied Dick. "I've 19-21 PRAED STREET,
just accepted this property of LONDON, W.2
aluminium as being one of the facts
of life!" Tel: PADdington 418512926
"Then I'll tell you," said Smithy.
"Aluminium has a high corrosion
resistance because a very thin but Wire
highly tenacious film of oxide
always forms on its exposed ST. HELEN'S RADIO
surfaces, and this film provides (b)
protection. In consequence, you Hi-Fi Equipment
should always make certain that Fig. 4(a). It is desirable to fit Tape Recorders
chassis tags fastened to an alumin- a shake-proof washer under Radio Receivers
ium chassis are screwed down good the nut securing a solder tag
and tight since, otherwise, the to an aluminium chassis Television
aluminium surface under the tag (b). If only a low-power iron
can become sufficiently oxidised is available, it is sometimes SPECIALISTS IN RADIO
with time to result in a poor con- helpful to secure a tag to the & ELECTRONIC TEXTBOOKS
nection. Personally, I fit a shake- chassis loosely only whilst
proof washer under the nut securing wires are being soldered to it ST. HELEN'S GARDENS
a chassis tag to an aluminium
chassis. It's good engineering prac- LONDON W.10
tice to do this in any case, and the Tel: 01-969 3657
washer helps to maintain a high away now from the mechanical
pressure between the tag and chassis details of chassis tag mounting, HAMPSHIRE
as times goes by." (Fig. 4(a)). and carry on to the equipment
"Fair enough," commented Dick. circuits which are connected to these
"Incidentally, whilst on the subject tags. It is always advisable to ensure
of chassis tags, some of the smaller that the connections to a chassis BOURNEMOUTH
6BA ones can prove quite trouble- tag are so chosen that, if a very
small resistance should appear be- LARGEST HI-FI AND
some." tween the tag and chassis, this RADIO COMPONENT
"How come?" resistance doesn't provide a com- STORE IN THE SOUTH
"Once they're bolted to the mon impedance between two cir-
chassis," explained Dick, "the latter cuits which is capable of seriously
acts like a dirty great heat sink, with affecting the performance of the
the result that it's difficult to make gear in which the tag is fitted." FORRESTERS NATIONAL
reliable solder connections to them "Common impedance?" queried RADIO SUPPLIES LTD.
if you're using a small low-power Dick, puzzled. "I don't follow you." 70-72 Holdenhurst Road
soldering iron." "I'll give you an example," Bournemouth
"That can happen," agreed replied Smithy. "Let's assume that Telephone 25232
Smithy. "If you haven't got a larger we have, say, a transistor i. f. amp-
iron available, the solution here lifier in which the emitter bypass
FEBRUARY 1970
capacitor of one transistor con- the feedback could still cause the exhibited the same low value of
nects to the same chassis tag as the response of the i. f. amplifier to be resistance to chassis. The trouble
collector load bypass capacitor of seriously affected." starts when the two bypass cap-
the succeeding transistor. (Fig. 5 "Hell's teeth," said Dick, impress- acitors connect to the same tag. The
(a)). Now, this circuit will function ed by this new revelation of the golden rule which comes out of all
quite happily if the solder tag'has conduct of the lowly chassis tag. this is that, where a considerable
zero resistance to chassis. If, how- "This is something I've never even degree of amplification appears
ever, even a very low resistance thought about before! The 'common between two bypass capacitors, the
appears between the tag and chassis, impedance' idea is new to me, too." capacitors should always connect to
a common impedance appears in "Then," replied Smithy, "I've separate chassis tags. This rule
both the emitter circuit and the done you a favour by introducing applies, of course, only in equip-
ment where chassis connections are
made via solder tags bolted to the
I.F transformers chassis, and is not applicable with
such things as printed circuits where
there is no risk of unwanted resis-
v tance appearing at a later date
i r where previously there was none."
5 "I suppose," said Dick thought-
^ill fully, "that the best approach here
is to ensure that all the bypass cap-
TR rR acitors for each stage in the equip-
ment are returned to an individual
chassis tag for that stage."
"That's normally adequate en-
TR| emitter i TR collector load ough in practice," agreed Smithy.
bypass bypass capacitor "Though, should the single stage
capacitor" T provide a considerable amount of
Chassis connection via gain on its own, it would still be
worthwhile using separate chassis
E common solder tag tags for bypassing the input and
output circuits. By the way, I used a
(a) transistor amplifier to provide an
instance of what can happen when
there is a common impedance to
chassis between two stages. The
same points apply if the equipment
uses valves instead of transistors."
"Yes, I can see that," replied
Dick a little impatiently. "Wait a
r~ minute, though! Your mentioning
i valves has reminded me of some-
thing else. As you know, it's a
TR pretty common practice in valve
TR2 equipment to use a common chassis
tag at each valve stage, this provid-
ing the chassis connection for such
things as grid leaks and cathode
1 bias components as well as for one
T Common resistance side of the heater. (Fig. 6). Since the
heater current will be of the order
to chassis of 0.15 to 0.3 amp, you could get
quite appreciable a.c. voltages
Z between the solder tag and chassis
Cb) when a low value of resistance
appears between them."
Fig. 5(a). Skeleton circuit illustrating the circuit conditions which "True enough," confirmed Smithy.
exist when the emitter bypass capacitor of a transistor in an i.f. "The result could be that, even if
amplifier is returned to the same chassis tag as the collector load the heater seems to be receiving its
bypass capacitor of the following transistor fair share of volts, a small hum
(b). Circuit operation changes dramatically if the common solder signal can still be injected into the
tag develops appreciable resistance to chassis signal circuits of the stage. In
practice you wouldn't get much
trouble from this sort of thing in
succeeding collector circuit. (Fig. it to you. The example I've shown the stages of, say, the average
5 (b)). In the present example the you illustrates that, by using a com- domestic radio receiver, although
common impedance is the resistance mon chassis tag for these two bypass the effect should still be borne in
between the solder tag and chassis, capacitors, even very small values mind as a possible fault if the
and it allows feedback to take place of resistance between the tag and receiver develops a high hum level.
from the collector circuit back to chassis can affect performance. Note On the other hand, it would be
the preceding emitter circuit. If, that, if the two bypass capacitors definitely unwise to use a common
with the requisite phase conditions, had gone to separate chassis tags, chassis tag for heater and signal
the impedance is high enough, the at different parts of the chassis, the circuits at the first stage or stages
circuit will probably break into functioning of the circuit would of a high gain a.f. amplifier.
oscillation. If the impedance is low not have been seriously affected if Incidentally, one good thing about
the circuit will not oscillate, but either or both of these tags had faults caused by chassis tags devel-
436 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
oping resistance to chassis is that "What happened?" Your Local Supplier
they're very easy to locate." "Well," said Smithy, returning to
"How d'you do that?" his bench, "he was driving down a KENT
"You simply take up a screw- motorway in his 15-cwt van and he
driver whose blade is nice and kept stopping every few miles, EMSAG BASIC ANTENNA SYSTEMS
shiny and which hasn't rusted," getting out and banging on the CNl Nuvistor 2 metre converter.
replied Smithy, "and apply it to sides of the van. After that he'd get IF 28MHz. Absolutely complete with
the tag and the chassis so that the back in again and drive on for the separate mains power supply, £11.10.0
Converter only, £8.10.0 P&P 4/6.
flat end of the blade bridges the next few miles. Eventually, a police GDI A G5RV type multi-band dipole
two. (Fig. 7.). If you apply a little car stopped him and they asked him 102 ft. top. 100 ft. feeder. Complete
pressure the screwdriver blade digs what he was up to." and ready to go! 68/-.
through any oxide which may have "I should jolly well think so GV1 General purpose vertical, useful
range 1.8MHz to 28MHz. Adjustable 7
formed on the surfaces of the too," snorted Dick. "Did they run ft. to 23 ft. 92/-.
chassis and the tag, and it shorts him in?" TU2 Receiver antenna tuning unit,
out any resistance that may have "Of course they didn't." Amateur and SW broadcast bands 1.5
to 30 MHz. 90/-.
developed between the two. Should "Why not?" Send SAE for details. Open weekends.
the fault clear when the screwdriver "He had a perfectly rational G31AR Carriage extra
is applied then its cause is obvious." explanation," said Smithy. "What ELECTRONIC & MECHANICAL
SUB-ASSEMBLY CO. LTD.
HT+ Highfield House, West Kingsdown, Kent
Tel: West Kingsdown 2344
SURREY
Portable Transistor Amplifier
Output plus Dynamic
Microphone
A self-contained
fully portable
mini p.a. system.
Input Many uses —
ideal for Parties,
or as a Baby
Alarm, Intercom
Telephone or Record Player Amplifier,
6-3V etc. Attractive rexine covered cabinet,
size 12 x 9 x 4in., with powerful
7 x 4in. speaker and four transistor
one watt power amplifier plus dynamic
microphone. Uses PP9 battery. Brand
new in Makers' carton with full makers'
guarantee. World famous make. / Post
Chassis connection via Full List 1/- Only /"Free
RADIO COMPONENT SPECIALISTS
common solder tag 337 Whltehorse Road, West Croydon,
Surrey. Phone 01-684-1665
SUSSEX

Fig. 6. Illustrating, with a triode a.f. amplifier stage as example, E. JEFFRIES

the practice of returning all chassis connections for a valve stage
to a common chassis tag For your new television set,
tape recorder, transistor radio,
SOLDERING had happened was that he'd just
been to the wholesaler's and taken and hi-fi equipment.
"You've certainly," remarked delivery of a ton of budgies. The PHILIPS, ULTRA, INVICTA,
Dick, "given me a few things to snag was that when they all settled DANSETTE, MASTERADIO, PERDIO,
ponder on during this lunch-hour." down in the back of his 15-cwt van, MARCONI, PHILCO, FIDELITY
"Good show," said Smithy cheer- their weight bent its poor old
fully, as he glanced at the Work- springs nearly double, and so he 6A Albert Parade,
shop clock. "Dear me, we've used had to keep banging on the van Victoria Drive,
up nearly all our spare time, too. I sides every few miles to start them
must get ready to start the after- flying again." EASTBOURNE SUSSEX
noon's work." Screwdriver
The Serviceman rose leisurely and blade EIRE
made preparation for the forth-
coming labours. PEATS for PARTS
"It's funny," he remarked, as he Solder tag
picked up the newspaper from his ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
bench and folded it neatly, "that , \ RADIO & TELEVISION
you should have mentioned that
chap who keeps the pet shop in the For the convenience of IRISH
High Street. He was telling me enthusiasts we supply:
only the other day how he very The Radio Constructor,
nearly got into serious trouble with Data Books and
the police."
"With the police?" Panel-Signs Transfers
"With the police," repeated Chassis Also a postal service
Smithy firmly. Fig. 7. The presence of resist- Wm. B. PEAT & Co. Ltd.
The Serviceman walked over to ance between a solder tag
his overcoat hanging behind the and chassis can easily be 28 PARNELL STREET
Workshop door, and put the folded located with the aid of a DUBLIN 1
newspaper into one of its pockets. screwdriver
FEBRUARY 1970 437
 Ignoring his assistant's expression ^ "The advantage," replied Smithy,
Stella Nine Range Cases of complete incredulity, Smithy "is that as soon as the solder melts
Manuafactyred in Black, Grey, Lagoon or Blue Steivetite tidied his bench and, with a it takes the heat from the iron to
and finished in Plastic-coaled Steel, Morocco Finish with purposeful gesture, switched on his the tag and wire, and also releases
Aluminium end plates. Rubber feet are attached and there soldering iron. Turning round, he
is a removable back plate. There is also a removable front hot flux. The flux is then able to
panel in 18 s.w.g. Alloy. once more glanced at the clock. break down the oxides on the tag
Now all Aluminium surfaces are coated with a stripable "Why," he remarked, "it's not and wire whereupon the flow of
plastic for protection during manufacture and transit All quite as late as I'd thought. We've
edges are polished. heat to the metal underneath is
LIST Of PRICES AND SIZES still got a couple of minutes of hastened, and the joint is made
which are made to fit Standard Alloy Chassis lunch hour left. In that case, I more quickly and with less cooking-
Width Depth 4" Height 5
B" Height 7J" Height might as well conclude my remarks up of components. If you initially
61 h t 1312 d-66 £ 15s. d.0 £ 18s. d.0 about constructional practice with
a final little comment on the
apply the iron on its own, andi
S,
8. % 15 0 1 '80 00 1101 00 without solder, to the tag and the;
correct procedure to adopt when wire, it merely causes these to heat
'I 65 1110 8 6 16 6 1 11 3 you're soldering a wire or wires to up unnecessarily and form added
Sf. 3ll 1 16 6 1 18 9 a tag with the aid of ordinary
!?i
2} 5. 180 1 14 06 11110
f, 110 16 17 0 oxides on their surfaces."
rosin-cored solder."
121 k" 1 16 0 2 3 0 2 7 3
■i 3
I 15 0 1 11 6 I 14 0 Resin-cored Soldering PROOF OF VERACITY
, k, 21 183 06 22 156 39 22 18 6 solder iron
IS-
161 10i; 2 10 0 3 5 0 3 11II 96 Smithy picked up his soldering
Cases—Post 4s. 6d. per Order. iron and tested its temperature by
Discounts available on quantities. applying a piece of solder to its
tip.
CHASSIS in Aluminium. Standard Sizes, with "Right-ho," he remarked with
Gusset Plates satisfaction. "Let's get back to work,
s Sizes to fit Cases All 2J" Walls then."
- d-6 s. d. j d
6x4 5I 9 10"x7" 8 6 14"x 3" 7 3 Reluctantly, his assistant swung
12"x3" 6 9 14"x9" 14 fi round on his stool towards his
J'Xr" 7i 9S 12"x8"
8^x6
12 x5
" '' 107 96 16"x10"16 x6 10 9
" " 16 0 Wire bench. After some moments he
Chassis—Post 3s. Od. per Order. F/g. 8. The making of solder turned back again and presented
Discounts available on quantities. joints is hastened by applying an agonised face to the Serviceman.
the iron to the solder as "Tell me, Smithy," he pleaded.
E. R. IMICHOLLS shown here "Was what you said a few minutes
MANUFACTURER OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ago about the pet shop owner and
CASES his van-load of budgies really true?"
(DEPT. R.C.) 46 L0WFIELD ROAD With a visible effort Dick "True?" queried Smithy, in an
ST0CKP0RT-CHESHIRE wrenched his mind away from the outraged tone of voice. "Why
Tell 061 -480 2179 vision of a ton of budgerigars and shouldn't it be?"
concentrated once more on the "Are you," persisted Dick,
subject in hand. "certain it was true?"
"Soldering a wire to a tag," he "Let me tell you this, my lad,"
queried. "Well, surely, there's said Smithy weightily. "If your
nothing to that\ You just bung the doubts about the non-veracity of
iron on the tag and the wire, and that story are unfounded, then it's
then run the solder in." untrue that I'm not standing here
"That's not the best way," wearing my bus conductor's cap and
TuS reproved Smithy. "What you should smoking this hookah I've borrowed
do first is to rest the end of the for the moment from the Caliph of
solder on the tag and wire, and Bagdhad. Okay?"
irv© then apply the iron to the solder. It took Dick nearly five minutes
(Fig. 8). When the solder melts the to sort out this last statement on
iron enters at once into good the part of the Serviceman. Even
thermal contact with the tag and then, he'd had to work it out on a
wire, after which the joint becomes piece of paper. And even then he
completed in normal fashion." still wasn't completely sure he'd
"What's the advantage in making got it right!
SUPERB LARGE SCALE the joint that way?"
MULTIMETER
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D.C. AMPS: SO/tA, 600/iA, 60mA, was to have been held at the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Savoy
600mA.
RESISTANCE — JOk, lOOk, Imeg, lOmegs Place, London WC2, in September 1969, and was postponed, will now be
(half scale reading: held from Tuesday, 29th September to Friday, 2nd October, 1970.
60J2, 60013, 6000Q, 60QkA) The aim of the conference is to survey and to assess current achievements,
DECIBELS: -20 to +46 db. problems and prospects in the development of trunk telecommunications
SIZE: 6" x 4i" x 2i"
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IVORYET LTD. 31 Albert Road and repeater equipment, measurement techniques, components.
Hendon, London, N.W.4 Offers of contributions to the conference programme are invited. Full
(2,000-word) manuscripts will be required by the 1st June, 1970.
438 THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
 m

m By Recorder

WE ALL OF US, FROM TIME TO servicing, which consists of this that the real fault was that the
time, tackle the odd bit of sound basic knowledge, plus exper- picture disappeared after the re-
servicing work. The repairs ience, plus common-sense, plus a ceiver had been switched on for an
required of us are usually to a knowledge of the idiosyncracies of hour or two! Set-owners often
domestic receiver belonging to the his fellow-men. attach little importance to the time
immediate family, to relatives or to Experience is required by the factor involved with a fault, and
friends. If one has plenty of time engineer to enable him to gain will omit to state whether it occurs
to spare, these servicing jobs can confidence and to learn the short- only after a period of time, or
be very rewarding in terms of cuts which are part of his stock- intermittently. And also, of course,
achievement, even if they're not in-trade. He soon discovers what some lay descriptions of receiver
very rewarding in terms of cash! are the weak design points of a performance tend to be picturesque,
There is quite a lot of pleasure to particular model, or of a particular to say the least. I recall one middle-
be obtained from bringing a radio run of models from a single manu- aged man stating knowledgeably,
or TV set to full working order facturer, and he frequently looks as his radio produced an ear-splitt-
after having traced and repaired at these first before starting detail- ing hum and nothing else: "There
an elusive fault. The best moment ed fault-finding work on a set. With you are - that's the power coming
occurs when, after having soldered experience comes increased manual through!"
in the new part, one switches on dexterity. Some service repairs are
the set again and finds that it has fiddling in the extreme, and it is HOME SERVICING
once more returned to full working only through practice that the ser-
order. vice engineer is able to tackle these The professional service engineer
PROFESSIONAL SERVICING quickly and successfully. learns to cope with all these points,
Common-sense is one of the and a good engineer is the one who
Since we are inevitably committ- greatest assets of all. It is common- takes greatest advantage of every-
ed to an occasional servicing job, sense which guides the service en- thing they offer.
it is worth our while to take a gineer when he first looks inside a Those of us who undertake an
look at this subject from the point faulty receiver. Many faults are occasional servicing job at home
of view of the professional service ridiculously simple, typical exam- can, to some extent, profitably foll-
engineer. ples being given by wires which ow the example of the professional.
Really successful servicing, at have come adrift from their tags, We may have the same basic tech-
professional level, represents a skill valves which are improperly seated nical knowledge that he has, but
which is not possessed by everyone in their holders, and broken-down we do not, unfortunately, have
who dabbles or works in radio. insulation due to a wire being his experience. On the other hand,
Most of us have encountered or stressed against a sharp terminal or if the faulty equipment is in our
have heard about the clever design chassis part. A quick look for vis- own house we are in the best posi-
engineer who, when confronted ually obvious faults of this nature tion of all to evaluate the nature
with, say, a faulty transistor radio, can frequently be highly rewarding, of the fault. If the receiver belongs
arms himself with a meter and ser- allowing an otherwise obscure fault to friends or relatives we are still
vice manual then spends ages in to be located in a matter of minutes in a good position to obtain the
locating and fixing the very simpl- without the need, even, for a test- correct fault symptoms, because we
est of faults. If the same set had meter. obviously know the set-owner very
been taken to the little shop on A knowledge of peoples' foibles well. The remaining attribute of the
the corner the boy in the backroom, is also indispensable. This is espec- professional is common-sense, and
after having cleared the vacuum ially necessary when the engineer it is here that the professional
cleaner spares to one side to give is working from symptoms describ- approach is really helpful.
himself a bit of bench space, would ed by the set-owner. If insufficient The first thing to do, after taking
probably have cured the snag in a attention is paid to this point the the back off a receiver, is to look
jiffy. sort of situation that can arise for the obvious. A visual examina-
The professional service engineer occurs when, for instance, the en- tion taking a minute or two is de-
must, of course, have a good solid gineer tackles a television receiver finately worth-while. If the receiver
foundation of technical knowledge with a fairly loud hum, clears this is battery operated, always check
if he isn't to spend most of his successfully and sends the set back the battery voltage with the set
working life probing in the dark to the customer. It is only later switched on. The 'fault' may, quite
and indulging in guess-work. After that he discovers that the set-owner simply, be nothing other than a
that he acquires the true skill of hadn't even noticed the hum and run-down battery. Even if the own-
FEBRUARY 1970 439
 er of the set states that the battery by the manufacturer whilst the
was bought 'only a week or so ago' model is in production, either to Every now and again I have to
it is still best to check its voltage. improve performance, to reduce make sketches of mechanical bits
If the battery has run down in a cost, or to overcome the effects of and pieces which are later drawn
short period of time the receiver temporary component shortages at up properly by a competent
may be drawing excessive current (a the factory, draughtsman, and I find that I can
factor which can be readily check- save time and also make my rough
ed) or someone has left the set NEW MINIATURE RESISTORS diagrams convey the intended mess-
switched on for a few days with- age much more readily if I sketch
out noticing it. All these points fall Whilst on the subject of compon- them out on graph paper. The grat-
into the 'common-sense' category ents, the accompanying photograph icule pattern on the paper not only
so far as servicing is concerned. ensures that straight lines are
If the visual examination and, illustrates a new range of miniature straight and that right angles are
where applicable, battery voltage carbon resistors, obtainable from right angles but, in addition, en-
check reveal nothing then the real ITT Components Group Europe. ables rough scaling of dimensions
fault-finding has to commence, Designated types RC025 and to be achieved by the simple pro-
RC050, the resistors are available cess of counting the squares. The
whereupon the most useful tool is in i watt and i watt sizes respec-
the voltmeter. A very useful series tiyely. These ratings apply to oper- graph paper is particularly helpful
of tests is given by clipping one ation up to 70°C ambient. when drawing an angled view that
voltmeter lead to chassis and check- involves the odd bit of perspective.
ing anode and cathode voltages Resistance values are from 2.2a Ive even found that graph paper is
with a valve set, or emitter and to 1MS1 for the i watt series and ot assistance with circuit diagrams
2.2S2 to 4.7Mfi for the watt series. when these are complicated.
collector voltages with a transistor Both types are available with 5%,
set. This procedure will very often 10% and 20% tolerances. Advan- Unfortunately, graph paper only
show up a faulty stage in the min- tages claimed for the new resistors seems to be carried by large station-
imum of time. Remember that it is ers in big towns, whereupon, if it
nearly always quicker to check volt- include a very competitive price, is used for projects carried out at
ages than currents because the high overload capacity, excellent home, one can quite easily run out
h.f. characteristics and low temper- B durmg a week-end, with no
measurement of current very often ature coefficient.
necessitates the disconnection of a A new trilingual booklet (in Eng- possibility of immediate replenish-
circuit to enable the meter to be lish, French and German) gives ment. This happened to me recently
inserted. If the trouble is instabil- full data and displays four pages whereupon I popped out urgently
ity, the best procedure is to bridge of characteristic curves as well as to0 newsagent down the road,
any suspect bypass capacitor with that gentleman, ensconced between
another of about the same value. describing stringent test specifica- his copies of Woman's Own and his
tions, including performance eval- stock ot cigarettes, assumed an ex-
pression which was, to say the least,
uncomprehending when I asked him
it he had any graph paper in stock.
But his wife, who probably turns
out the occasional engineering draw-
ing for Elliott-Automation in her
spare time, sized up the situation
immediately and, within seconds,
nogged me a primary school exer-
cise book with ruled squares. To

This cluster of resistors is from

a new range introduced by ITT
Components Group Europe
Ratings, applicable to opera-
tion up to 70°C ambient, are
i watt and i watt
assist readers whose memories of
primary school exercise books are
as hazy as mine, these cost only a
tew pence each and their pages,
bound in with two easily removed
staples, are ruled out faintly at four
squares to the inch. Good enough
tor a rough graph and excellent
tor making mechanical sketches.
ho, if you're out in the sticks
Finally, if at all possible, try to and you urgently require graph pap-
obtain the service manual or at uated under an accelerated steam er tor a tuning or meter calibration,
least the circuit for the set. And pressure test. The booklet may be or simply for sketching, do not des-
don t be surprised if one or two obtained from ITT Components p ii r Y
/ . . pu can get one of these
of the components have slightly Group Europe, Trading Services children s exercise books at pretty
different values from those shown Edinburgh Way, Harlow Essex. well any shop remotely connected
m the circuit, even though the com- with stationery, and it will certainly
ponents have been obviously fitted EMERGENCY GRAPH PAPER carry you over until you obtain
by the set-maker. Small changes of further stocks of the real thing.
this nature are common in mass- Standard graph paper is very use- With each exercise book, what's
produced domestic equipment, and ful stuff, not only for its obvious more, you can get all the multipli-
are due to alterations introduced application—that of drawing graphs cation tables from 2 to 12 printed
—but for other purposes as well. on the back cover! ^
440
THE RADIO CONSTRUCTOR
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