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Animal Biology
Mario V Balzan Ph.D.
Institute of Applied Science, MCAST
[email protected]

Objectives
• To give students a global vision of the structure and organisation
of the main groups of animals as well as their diversity, from an
evolutionary point of view.
• This unit is part of a larger unit, which also focuses on cell biology.

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Learning Outcomes
• On successfully completing this subject, students will be able to:
• Demonstrate knowledge about basic concepts for the study of Animal
Biology.
• Demonstrate knowledge about the main levels of organization and
architectural patterns of non-arthropod invertebrates.
• Understand the systematics and phylogenetic relationships between the
main groups of animals as a result of evolutionary and adaptive
processes.
• Demonstrate knowledge about the morphological characteristics,
biological cycles and ecological importance of metazoan groups, as well
as their interactions with human beings, with special emphasis on those
with more veterinary interest, such as parasites or species of economic
interest.

Content
1. INTRODUCTION. Characteristics of living beings. The kingdoms of organisms and the
concept of animal. The concept of species. Classification of organisms: taxonomy and
systematics.
2. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION. Structural organizational levels. Animal organization plan.
Concept and type of symmetry.
3. REPRODUCTION. Type of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Parthenogenesis. Adaptive
meaning of the different reproductive patterns. DEVELOPMENT: Biological cycles. Larval
and metamorphosis development.
4. PROTOZOA. The concept of Protozoa. Shape and function. Representative types. Main
parasitic groups.
5. PORIFERA. Cellular elements and structural types. CNIDARIA. Basic organization
Biological cycles
6. PLATYHELMINTHES. Basic organization of Turbellaria, Trematoda and Cestoda.
Morphological particularities and biological cycles of parasitic platyhelminthes.

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Content
7. MOLLUSCS. General characteristics. Gastropoda, Bivalvia and Cephalopoda. Groups of
veterinary interest
8. ANNELIDS. General characteristics. Polychaeta, Oligochaeta and Hirudinea.
9. NEMATODES. General characteristics. Biological cycles of parasitic nematodes.
10. ARTHROPODS. General characteristics. Structure and importance of the cuticle. Basic
elements of a segment. Chelicerata. Mites
11. CRUSTACEANS. Basic organization. Reproduction and development. Groups of veterinary
interest.
12. INSECTS. Basic organization. The flight. Development and metamorphosis. Groups of
veterinary interest.
13. EQUINODERMATA. General characteristics

Content
14.CHORDATA. General characteristics and basic organization.
Basic organization of Chephalochordata. General
characteristics of the vertebrates. FISH. Agnatha, Condrichtia
and Osteichtia. Basic organization. Structural and functional
adaptations.
15.AMPHIBIANS. General characteristics. Anura and Caudata.
REPTILS. Adaptations to the terrestrial environment. The
amniota egg. Diversity.
16.BIRDS. Morphological and physiological adaptations on flight.
Endotherm. MAMMALS. General characteristics. Tegument and
derivatives. Patterns of feeding and dental formulas. Diversity

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Methodology
• Master Classes: Lectures and Flipped Classes
• Seminars: Directed Work Classes (glossary of terms) and Problem Classes (solving problems, with
student presentations)
• Practical Sessions
• Practical session 1. Observation and study of non-arthropod protists and invertebrates
• Practical session 2. Observation and study of Molluscs: anatomy and diversity.
• Practical session 3. Arthropods: anatomy and diversity. Crustaceans, Chelicerates and Insects.
• Practical session 4. Chords: Fish: anatomy and diversity.

• Assessment of Master Classes (76%), Laboratory (14%) and Seminars/Problems (10%)

Bibliography
• Hickman, C.P., Keen, L.S., Eisenhour, D.J., Larson, A. and
Anson, H.I., 2024. Integrated principles of zoology. 19th ed.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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Topic 1: Introduction

Introduction
• ‘Zoology’ – the scientific study of animal life. It builds on centuries
of human observations of the animal world.

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Fundamental Properties of Life

• Historical Continuity of Life
• Common descent in history and fossil record to a common ancestor that
must have arisen almost 4 million years ago.
• Replicating molecular systems, which could not have produced fossils,
must have preceded and given rise to cellular life, whose history appears
in the fossil record.
• All descendants of life’s common ancestor, past and present, lie within
our concept of life.
• The most fundamental attribute is reproduction of individuals with
heredity and variation – replication of molecules that store information is
unique to life and must trace to life’s origin.

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Fundamental Properties of Life

• Historical Continuity of
Life
• Evolution – there is a
temporal continuity of
ancestral and descendant
populations but also
extensive and ongoing
change, which we refer to
as evolution.
• Led to spectacular diversity
in molecules, cells, life
forms, functions and
behaviours.

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General Properties of Life

• Living systems possess unique features:
• Chemical uniqueness
• Complexity and hierarchical organization
• Reproduction
• Possession of a genetic program
• Metabolism (e.g., cellular respiration in mitochondria)
• Development (e.g., metamorphosis in monarch butterflies)
• Environmental interaction (e.g., chameleons capturing prey)
• Movement (e.g., ciliary movement in epithelial cells)

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Chemical Uniqueness
• Living systems assemble macromolecules that are highly
complex, which obey chemical laws and enable life, example:
• Proteins: Built from 20 amino acids with unique peptide bonds
• Nucleic acids: DNA encoding the genetic blueprint.

Example: The
protein
endothelin-1,
which regulates
blood pressure
(Figure 1.2)

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Complexity and Hierarchical Organization

• Living systems are organized into hierarchical levels:
• Cellular: Macromolecules forming organelles like mitochondria
• Organismal: Tissues forming organs and systems (e.g., epithelial cells in
oviducts)
• Populational: Social interactions in populations (e.g., bees)
• Each level builds on the level below it and has its own internal
structure which often is hierarchical. Properties arise from
interactions among components. E.g.: Blood pressure emerges at
the organismal level

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Complexity and Hierarchical Organization

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Reproduction
• Reproduction ensures
continuity and diversity:
• Heredity: Faithful trait
transmission (e.g., DNA
replication with high fidelity)
• Variation: Differences among
offspring (e.g., chromosomal
changes in cell division)
• Levels of reproduction:
• Genes replicate (Figure 1.5A)
• Cells replicate (Figure 1.5B)
• Organisms reproduce (e.g.,
king snake hatching, Figure
1.5C)
• Species emerge (e.g., sea
urchin speciation, Figure
1.5D)

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Cellular
Division
Mitosis
vs
Meiosis

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Possession of a Genetic Program

• DNA encodes the information of life;
• Figure showing how the nucleotide
base sequence inside the DNA
molecule encodes genetic
information. Genetic variation is
shown in DNA molecules that are
similar in base sequence but differ
from each other at four positions.
Such differences can specify
alternative traits, such as different eye
colours.

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Possession of a Genetic Program

● Encompasses the
components of the
genetic coding that
structures organisms
(nucleotides, genes,
chromosomes)

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Possession of a Genetic Program

● Encompasses the
components of the
genetic coding that
structures organisms
(nucleotides, genes,
chromosomes)

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Possession of a Genetic Program

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Possession of a Genetic Program

● GD is the raw
material on which
evolutionary
processes act;
● Genome sizes vary
enormously.

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Possession of a Genetic Program

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Genetic Diversity

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Metabolism
• Metabolism sustains living systems. Catabolic and anabolic
processes:
• Catabolic: Energy release by breaking down molecules
• Anabolic: Building macromolecules (e.g., synthesis of carbohydrates)
• Example: Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria,
transforming chemical energy into ATP.

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Development
• Development describes changes
from origin to adulthood:
• Example: Monarch butterfly
metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa,
adult, Figure 1.8)
• Growth and differentiation: Organisms
increase in size and develop
specialized structures
• Commonalities: Early developmental
stages tend to be more similar across
species.

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Environmental Interaction
• Organisms interact with their
environment (ecology studies
these interactions):
• Example: Chameleons
capturing prey with their
projectile tongues. Responses:
From simple movements to
complex behaviours, such as
predator avoidance.
Chameleons can fine-tune camouflage to the
predator's identity.
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13944-
chameleons-fine-tune-camouflage-to-predators-
vision/

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Environmental Interaction

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Movement
• Living systems and their parts show precise and controlled
movements arising from within the system.
• Examples:
• Molecular: Ciliary movement in epithelial cells (Figure 1.4)
• Organismal: Chameleons moving to capture prey
• Controlled by internal processes, enabling survival and adaptation

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Life Obeys Physics Laws

• First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy is neither created nor
destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
• All aspects of life require energy and its transformation.

• Second Law of Thermodynamics - Physical systems tend to

proceed toward a state of greater disorder, or entropy.
• Living cells and organisms maintain complex molecular organization only
as long as energy fuels the organization. The ultimate fate of materials in
the cells is degradation and dissipation of their chemical-bond energy as
heat.

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Organismal Diversity

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Organismal Diversity

Encompasses the full taxonomic hierarchy and its components, from individuals
upwards to populations, subspecies and species, genera, families, phyla and
beyond to kingdoms and domains.

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Organismal Diversity

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• What is a species?

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What is a species?

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What is a species?
● The biological species concept essentially says that two organisms that cannot
interbreed and produce fertile offspring are different species.
● However, in many groups of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and many plants
and animals, asexual reproduction—reproduction without sex—predominates.
● Hybridisation cannot be used as a criterion for species recognition

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What is a species?

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What is a species?

A zebroid is the offspring of any cross between a zebra and any

other equine.

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What is a species?

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What is a species?
● Definition for evolutionary species: 'a single lineage of populations
that maintains its distinctive identity from other such lineages'.
● Abrupt changes in diagnostic features mark the boundaries of
different species in evolutionary time.

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Organismal Diversity
• Construction of Phylogenetic Trees:
• Taxonomy is part of a larger division of biology known as
systematics. Determination of phylogeny is a goal of systematics.
• Done by the construction of phylogenetic trees, which in a sense
represent evolutionary hypotheses and attempts to define
monophyletic groups. To build these trees, we must have data,
which comes from the characteristics used in classification.

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Organismal Diversity

● Traditional Classification: Data used in traditional systematics stresses

both common ancestry (monophylesis) and the amount of divergence
among groups. The traditional, dating to Linneaus view, is that birds have
feathers, reptiles have scales, and mammals have hair. Using this as a
major character, a classification like that above has been constructed.
Fossils, evidence of past life, are not included in this classification. Since
all of these groups have the amniotic egg, or a modification of it, they
would be united in a larger taxon.

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Organismal Diversity
● Cladistics:
–Cladists group organisms based on
the presence of shared derived
characters, not the overall similarity of
potential group members.

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Organismal Diversity
• Homology refers to the similarity between anatomical
structures, genetic sequences, or other biological
traits in different species due to shared ancestry.
• Homologous structures arise from a common
ancestor and may serve similar or different functions
across species.
• For example, the forelimbs of vertebrates, such as the
wings of bats, the flippers of whales, and the arms of
humans, have similar underlying bone structures but
are adapted for different purposes like flying,
swimming, and manipulating objects. Homology
provides evidence of evolutionary relationships and
the concept of descent with modification.

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Organismal Diversity
• Homoplasy: the resemblance
between traits in different species that
is not due to common ancestry but
rather to convergent or parallel
evolution. This similarity often arises
because species face similar
environmental pressures, leading to
analogous adaptations.
• Example: the wings of bats
(mammals) and birds (avian reptiles)
are not homologous because their
last common ancestor did not have
wings. These structures evolved
independently to serve the same
function of flight.

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Organismal Diversity
● Phylogenetics: the
study of evolutionary
relationships among
groups of organisms
(e.g. species,
populations), which
are discovered
through molecular
sequencing data and
morphological data
matrices.

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Organismal Diversity

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Organismal Diversity

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Organismal Diversity

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Animals

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Animals

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Animals
• Metazoans, or Animals, are eukaryotic, heterotrophic,
multicellular organisms that are mobile at some stage of their life
cycle. Their cells, lacking a cell wall, are generally organised into
tissues with specific functions, are interdependent, and their
activities are coordinated.

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Speciation
Speciation: As populations diverge, they
form similar but related species.
Implies:
- Genetic differentiation
- Appearance of isolation mechanisms

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Allopatric Speciation

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/modes-of-speciation/allopatric-speciation/

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Allopatric Speciation

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Allopatric Speciation

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Peripatric Speciation
- Geographically Isolated
- Founding event. Cause: migration
- Species are differentiated by genetic
drift and selection
- https://evolution.berkeley.edu/modes-
of-speciation/peripatric-speciation/

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Parapatric Speciation
• No specific extrinsic barrier to gene
flow. The population is continuous but
does not mate randomly.
• Individuals are more likely to mate with
their geographic neighbours than with
individuals in a different part of the
population’s range.
• In this mode, divergence may happen
because of reduced gene flow within
the population and varying selection
pressures across the population’s
range.

Figure >
Although continuously distributed,
different flowering times have begun to
reduce gene flow between metal-tolerant
plants and metal-intolerant plants.

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Sympatric Speciation
• No geographic isolation
• Merely exploiting a new niche may
automatically reduce gene flow with
individuals exploiting the other niche.
This may occasionally happen when, for
example, herbivorous insects try out a
new host plant.

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Sympatric Speciation
• Species: Yellow-bee Orchid (Ophrys
lutea) and Ophrys sicula.
• Shared Range: Both species have
completely overlapped distributions.
• Pollination Mechanism: Each species
attracts different solitary bee species
using specific chemical signals. These
signals mimic the pheromones of
female bees.
• Speciation Factor: Pollinator specificity
reduces gene flow between the two
orchid species.
• Outcome: Ophrys sicula was once
considered a variant of Ophrys lutea
but is now recognised as a distinct
species.

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Sympatric Speciation
• Original Habitat: 200 years ago,
ancestors laid eggs only on native
hawthorns in America.
From left to right, apple maggot flies, apples, and hawthorns.
• Host Shift: With the introduction of
apples by immigrants, some flies began
laying eggs on domestic apples.
• Mating Preferences: Females lay eggs
on the fruit they grew up in. Males
search for mates on the same type of
fruit.
• Reduced Gene Flow: Hawthorn flies
mate mostly with other hawthorn flies,
and apple flies with apple flies.
• Genetic Divergence: Over time, genetic
differences have emerged between the
two groups, potentially marking the
early stages of sympatric speciation.
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/modes-of-speciation/sympatric-speciation/

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Adaptive radiation of
Darwin’s Finches
Differences in size, beak, shape and
feeding habits

From microcosm to macrocosm: adaptive

radiation of Darwin’s finches | Evolutionary
Journal of the Linnean Society | Oxford
Academic

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Adaptive radiation of
Darwin’s Finches
Differences in size, beak, shape and
feeding habits

From microcosm to macrocosm: adaptive

radiation of Darwin’s finches | Evolutionary
Journal of the Linnean Society | Oxford
Academic

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Animal
Diversity

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Animal Diversity
Zoogeography: the
study of the
distribution of
animals, their
patterns and the
factors responsible
for them.
Give an overview
of the fauna in
these terrestrial
biogeographic
regions

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