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SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 4 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 5 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 11
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

UNIT – I (NATURE OF PHYSICAL WORLD AND 5. If the number is less than 1, the zero (s) on the right of the decimal point 44. Having all units in atomic standards is more useful. Explain.
but to left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. Ex. 0.00345 has All units in atomic standard are more useful because the units do not
MEASUREMENT) three significant figures. charge with time. This unit is very accurate one.
6. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of non-zero digit
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: 45. Why dimensional methods are applicable only up to three quantities?
are significant. Ex. 40.00 has four significant figures and 0.030400 has
1. If a quantity depends on more than three factors, having dimensions,
1. Briefly explain the types of physical quantities. five significant figures.
the formulacannot be derived.
Physical quantities are classified into two types. They are 7. The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of
2. This is because, equating the powers of M, L and T on either side of the
fundamentaland derivedquantities. units used1.53 cm, 0.0153 m, 0.0000153 km, all have three
dimensional equation, then we can obtain three equations from which
Fundamental or base quantitiesare quantities which cannot be significant figures.
we can compute threeunknown dimensions.
expressed in terms of any other physical quantities.

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These are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous 4. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
1. This method gives no information about the dimensionless constants FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER QUESTIONS
intensity and amount of substance.

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in the formula like 1, 2, ……..π,e, etc. 46. i) Explain the use of screw gauge and vernier caliper in measuring
Quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental
2. This method cannot decide whether the given quantity is a vector or a smaller distances.
quantitiesare called derived quantities. For example, area, volume, velocity,
scalar. ii) Write a note on triangulation method and radar method to measure
acceleration, force.
3. This method is not suitable to derive relations involving trigonometric, largerdistances.

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2. How will you measure the diameter of the Moon using parallax method? exponential and logarithmic functions. Measurement of small distances:
1. C is the centre of the Earth. A and B are two 4. It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three physical 1. Screw gauge: The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring
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diametrically opposite places on the surface of the quantities. accurately the dimensions of objects up to a maximum of about
Earth. From A and B, the parallaxes θ1 and θ2 5. It can only check on whether a physical relation is dimensionally 50 mm. The principle of the instrument is the magnification of linear
respectively of Moon M with respect to some distant correct but not the correctness of the relation. For example, using
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motion using the circular motion of a screw. The least count of the screw
star are determined with the help of an astronomical 1
dimensional analysis, s = ut + at2 is dimensionally correct whereas the gauge is 0.01 mm
3
telescope. Thus, the total parallax of the Moon 1 2. Vernier caliper: A vernier caliper is a versatile instrument for measuring
subtended on Earth ∠AMB= θ1 + θ2 = θ. correct relation is s = ut + at2
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2 the dimensions of an object namely diameter of a hole, or a depth of a
AB
2. If θ is measured in radians, then θ = ; AM≈MC 5. Define precision and accuracy. Explain with one example. hole.
AM
AB AB Precision: The closeness of two or more measurements to each other.
θ= ⟹ MC = .Knowing the values of AB and θ, Measurement of large distances:
MC θ Accuracy:
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we can calculate the distance MC of Moon from the 3. For measuring larger distances such as the height of a tree, distance of
The closeness of a measure value to the actual value of the object the Moonor a planet from the Earth, some special methods are
Earth.
being measured is called accuracy. adopted. Triangulation method, parallax method and radar method
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3. Write the rules for determining significant figures. Example: The true value of a certain length is near 5.678 cm. In one are used to determine very large distances.
1. All non-zero digits are significant. Ex.1342 has four significant figures experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured
2. All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. value is found to be 5.5 cm. Triangulation method for the height of an accessible object:
Ex. 2008 has four significant figures. In another experiment using a measuring instrument of greater 1. Let AB = h be the height of the tree or tower
3. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is found to be 5.38cm. We find that the to be measured.
are significant. Ex. 30700. has five significant figures. first measurementis more accurate as it is closer to the true value, but it has Let C be the point of observation at distance x
4. The number without a decimal point, the terminal or trailing zero(s) are lesser precision. On the contrary, the second measurement is less accurate, from B. Place a range finder at C and measure the
not significant. Ex. 30700 has three significant figures. but it is more precise. angle of elevation, ∠ACB = θ as shown in Figure.
All zeros are significant if they come from a measurement From right angled triangle ABC,
𝐀𝐁 𝐡
Ex. 30700 m has five significant figures tanθ = = (or) height h = x tan θ
𝐁𝐂 𝐱
Knowing the distance x, the height h can be determined.

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , www.Padasalai.Net XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL,
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ,
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 12 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 13 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 14
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

RADAR method: Least count error: (ii) Error in the difference of two quantities:
1. The word RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Least count is the smallest value that can be measured by the Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in the two quantities, A and B,
Ranging. Radar can be usedto measure accurately the measuring instrument, and the error due to this measurement is least respectively. Then,
distance of a nearby planet such as Mars. In this count error. Measured value of A = A ± ΔA; Measured value of B = B ± ΔB
method, radio waves are sent from transmitters which, Random errors: Consider the difference, Z = A – B
after reflection from the planet, are detected by the 1. Random errors may arise due to random and unpredictable The error ΔZ in Z is then given by
receiver. variationsin experimental conditions like pressure, temperature, Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) – (B ± ΔB); = (A − B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
2. By measuring, the time interval (t) between the instants the radio waves voltage supply etc. = Z ± ΔA ± ΔB(or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
are sent and received, the distance of the planet can be 2. Errors may also be due to personal errors by the observer who performs The maximum error in difference of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
vxt the experiment. Random errors are sometimes called “chance error” absolute errors in the individual quantities.
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determined as d= . where v is the speed of the radio wave.
2
3. It can be minimized by repeating the observations a large number of
As the time taken (t) is for the distancecovered during the forward and (iii) Error in the product of two quantities:
measurements are made and then the arithmetic mean is taken.
Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in the two quantities A, and B,
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backward path of the radio waves, it is divided by 2 to get the actual
distance of the object. This method can also be used to determine the Gross Error: respectively. Consider the product Z = AB
height, at which an aero-plane flies from the ground. The error caused due to the shear carelessness of an observer The error ΔZ in Z is given by Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) (B ± ΔB)
is called gross error. These errors can be minimized only when an = (AB) ± (A ΔB) ± (B ΔA) ± (ΔA . ΔB)
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47. Explain in detail the various types of errors. observer is careful and mentally alert. ∆Z ∆B ∆A ∆A ∆B
Random error, systematic error and gross error are the three possible errors Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S by AB, we get,1± = 1± ± ± .
Z B A A B
As ΔA /A, ΔB / B are both small quantities,
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Systematic errors: 48. What do you mean by propagation of errors? Explain the propagation of
Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are ∆A ∆B
errorsin addition and multiplication. their product term . can be neglected.
A B
consistently in thesame direction. 1. A number of measured quantities may be involved in the final ∆Z ∆A ∆B
The maximum fractional error in Z is =±( + )
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calculation of an experiment. Different types of instruments might have Z A B
Instrumental errors:
been used for taking readings. Then we may have to look at the errors
When an instrument is not calibrated properlyat the time of 49. Write short notes on the following.
in measuring various quantities, collectively.
manufacture, these errors can be corrected by choosing the instrument a. Unit b. Rounding – off c. Dimensionless quantities
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The error in the final result depends on
carefully. a. Unit:
i. The errors in the individual measurements ii. On the nature of
Imperfections in experimental technique or procedure: mathematical operations performed to get the final result. So we should 1. The digits that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit are
These errors arise due to the limitations in the experimental know the rules to combine the errors. The various possibilities of the known as significant figures or significant digits. The units in which the
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arrangement. To overcome these, necessary correction has to be

applied.
propagation or combination of errors in different mathematical
operations are discussed below: w.
fundamental quantities are measured are called fundamental or base
units and the units of measurement of all other physical quantities,
which can be obtained by a suitable multiplication or division of powers
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Personal errors: (i) Error in the sum of two quantities: of fundamental units, are called derived units.
These errors are due to individuals performing the experiment, Let ΔA and ΔB be the absolute errors in the two quantities A and B respectively.
may be due to incorrect initial setting up of the experiment or Then, measured value of A = A ± ΔA; Measured value of B = B ± ΔB b. Rounding – off:
carelessness of the individual making the observation due to improper Consider the sum, Z = A + B 1. The result given by a calculator has too many figures. In no case should
precautions The error ΔZ in Z is then given by the result have more significant figures than the figures involved in the
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB); = (A + B) ± (ΔA + ΔB) data used for calculation. The result of calculation with numbers
Errors due to external causes: = Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) (or) ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB containing more than one uncertain digit should be rounded off.
The change in the external conditions during an experiment can The maximum possible error in the sum of two quantities is equal to the sum
cause error in measurement. For example, changes in temperature, of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
humidity, or pressure during measurements may affect the result of
the measurement.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

c. Dimensionless quantities: UNIT – II (KINEMATICS) Displacement the shortest distance between these two positions of the object
1. Physical quantities which have no dimensions, but have variable values and its direction is from the initial to final position of the object, during the
are called dimensionless variables. Examples are specific gravity, TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: given interval of time. It is a vector quantity.
strain, refractive index etc…
1. Explain what is meant by Cartesian coordinate system? 8. Define velocity and speed.
2. Quantities which have constant values and also have no dimensions
At any given instant of time, the frame of reference with respect to Velocity: The rate of change of displacement of the particle.
are calleddimensionless constants. Examples are π, e, numbers etc.
which the position of the object is described in terms of position coordinates Velocity = Displacement / time taken. Unit: ms-1. Dimensional formula: LT-1
50. Write the rules for rounding off. (x, y, z) (i.e., distances of the given position of an object along the x, y, and z– Speed: The distance travelled in unit time. It is a scalar quantity.
1. If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit axes.) is called “Cartesian coordinate system”
should be left unchanged. 9. Define acceleration.
The acceleration of the particle at an instant is equal to rate of change of
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Ex. i) 7.32 is rounded off to 7.3 ii) 8.94 is rounded off to 8.9 2. Define a vector. Give examples
It is a quantity which is described by both magnitude and direction. velocity. It is a vector quantity. SI Unit: ms-2. Dimensional formula: M0L1T-2
2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit
Geometrically a vector is a directed line segment. Examples Force, velocity,
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should beincreased by 1 10. What is the difference between velocity and average velocity?
displacement, position vector, acceleration, linear momentum and angular
Ex. i) 17.26 is rounded off to 17.3 ii) 11.89 is rounded off to 11.9 Velocity is the rate at which the position changes. But the average velocity is
momentum
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the displacement or position change per time ratio.
the preceding digit should be raised by1
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3. Define a scalar. Give examples

Ex. i) 7.352, on being rounded off to first decimal becomes 7.4 It is a property which can be described only by magnitude. In physics a 11. Define a radian?
ii) 18.159 on being rounded off to first decimal, become 18.2 number of quantities can be described by scalars. Examples Distance, mass, The length of the arc divided by the radius of the arc. One radian is the
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4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding temperature, speed and energy anglesubtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is equal in length to
digit is notchanged if it is even the radius of the circle.
Ex. i) 3.45 is rounded off to 3.4 ii) 8.250 is rounded off to 8.2 4. Write a short note on the scalar product between two vectors.
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The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the 12. Define angular displacement and angular velocity.
5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding Angular displacement: The angle described by the particle about the axis of
digit is raised by 1 if it is odd product of themagnitudes of both the vectors and the cosine of the angle
rotation in a given time is called angular displacement. The unit of angular
Ex. i) 3.35 is rounded off to 3.4 ii) 8.350 is rounded off to 8.4 between them. ⃗A. ⃗B = ABcosθ. Here, A and Bare magnitudes of ⃗A and B
⃗.
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displacement is radian.
Properties:
Angular velocity (ω):
The product quantity 𝐴and 𝐵 ⃗ is always a scalar. The scalar product is
The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.
commutative. The unit of angular velocity is radian per second (rad s−1).
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5. Write a short note on vector product between two vectors. 13. What is non uniform circular motion?
The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as another If the speed of the object in circular motion is not constant, then we have non-
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vector havinga magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two uniform circular motion. For example, when the bob attached to a string
vectors and the sine of the angle between them.C ⃗ = ⃗AxB
⃗ = (AB sin θ)n moves in vertical circle.
6. How do you deduce that two vectors are perpendicular? 14. Write down the kinematic equations for angular motion.
If two vector ⃗A and ⃗B are perpendicular to each other their scalar product. 1.ω = ω0 + αt 2. θ = ω0 t+ αt 2
1
3. ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ 4. θ =
(ω+ ω0 )t
2 2
⃗ . ⃗B =0, because cos900 = 0.
A
15. Write down the expression for angle made by resultant acceleration and
7. Define displacement and distance. radiusvectorin the non-uniform circular motion.
Distance is the actual path length travelled by an object in the given interval 𝑎𝑡 𝑣2
tanθ = 𝑣2
, θ = Resultant acceleration angle, = Centripetal acceleration
of timeduring the motion. It is a positive scalar quantity. 𝑟
𝑟

at = Resultant acceleration

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ,
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 26 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 27 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 28
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER QUESTIONS 53. Discuss the properties of scalar and vector products. i.e. in the case of the product vectors ⃗AxB
⃗ and ⃗BxA ⃗ , the magnitudes are
52. Explain in detail the triangle law of addition. Properties of scalar products equal but directions are opposite to each other
1) Represent the vectors A ⃗ and ⃗B by 1) The product quantity 𝐀⃗.𝐁⃗⃗ is always a scalar. It is positive if the angle 3) The vector product of two vectors will have maximum magnitude when
the two adjacent sides of a betweenthe vectors is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if the angle sin θ = 1, i.e., θ = 900 i.e., when the vectors ⃗⃗⃗A and B⃗ , are orthogonal to
triangle taken in the same order. between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°<θ< 180°). each other. (A ⃗ xB⃗ )max = AB𝑛̂
Then the resultant is given by the 2) The scalar product is commutative, i.e. A⃗ .B
⃗ = B ⃗ . ⃗A 4) The vector product of two non–zero vectors will be minimum when sin
third side of the triangle taken in 3) The vectors obey distributive law i.e. ⃗A . (B ⃗)=A
⃗ +C ⃗ .B ⃗ .C
⃗ + A ⃗ θ = 0, i.e.,θ = 00 or 1800 [A ⃗ xB⃗ ]min = 0 i.e., the vector product of two
the opposite order. ⃗A
⃗ .⃗⃗⃗B non–zero vectors vanishes, if the vectors are either parallel or anti-
4) The angle between the vectors θ = cos–1[ ]
2) The head of the first vector 𝐀⃗ is AB parallel.

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5) The scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when Cos θ = 1,
connected to the tail of the 5) The self–cross product, i.e., product of a vector with itself is the null
⃗.B
i.e. θ = 00, i.e., when the vectors are parallel; (A ⃗ )max = AB
second vector ⃗𝐁 ⃗ . Let θ be the vector𝐀 ⃗ x𝐀⃗ = AA Sin θ 𝑛̂ = 0 ⃗ In physics the null vector 0⃗ is simply denoted
The scalar product of two vectors will be minimum, when Cos θ = –1,

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6)
angle between 𝐀 ⃗ and 𝐁 ⃗⃗ . Then 𝐑
⃗⃗ is the resultant vector connecting the as zero.
i.e. θ = 1800 (A ⃗ . ⃗B)min = – AB when the vectors are anti-parallel. 6) The self–vector products of unit vectors are thus zero.
tail of the first vector ⃗Ato the head of the second vector ⃗B.
7) ⃗ and ⃗𝐁
If two vectors 𝐀 ⃗ , are perpendicular to each other than their scalar 𝑖̂x𝑖̂= 𝑗̂x𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ x𝑘̂ = 0
⃗
3) The magnitude of ⃗R(resultant) is given geometrically by the length of
Product ⃗A. B
⃗ = 0, because Cos 900 =0. Then the vectors ⃗Aand B ⃗ . are
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⃗ (OQ) and the direction of the resultant vector is the angle between 7) In the case of orthogonal unit vectors,
R
said to be mutually orthogonal. 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ in accordance with the right-
⃗ and A
R ⃗ Thus we write 𝐑
⃗⃗ = 𝐀 ⃗ . ∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ + ⃗𝐁 𝐎𝐐=𝐎𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐏𝐐
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8) The scalar product of a vector with itself is termed as self–dot product hand screw rule:𝑖̂ x𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ,𝑗̂ x𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ x𝑖̂
Magnitude of resultant vector: ⃗ )2 = ⃗A . A
⃗ = AA Cos θ = A2. Here angle θ = 0°
and isgiven by (A = 𝑗̂.Also, since the cross product is
4) Consider the triangle ABN, which is
The magnitude or norm of the vector 𝐀 ⃗ | = A = √𝐀
⃗ is |𝐀 ⃗ .𝐀
⃗ not commutative,
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obtained by extending the side
OA to ON. ABN is a right angled 9) In case of a unit vector 𝑛̂ , 𝑛̂ . 𝑛̂= 1 x 1 x Cos 0 = 1. 𝑗̂ x𝑖̂ = –𝑘̂ , 𝑘̂ x𝑗̂ = –𝑖̂ and 𝑖̂ x𝑘̂ = –𝑗̂
triangle. For example, 𝑖̂.𝑖̂= 𝑗̂.𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ .𝑘̂ = 1 8) In terms of components, the vector
⃗ and ⃗B
AN
In the case of orthogonal unit vectors𝑖̂ ,𝑗̂and 𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂ .𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂.𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ .𝑖̂ = 1.1 product of two vectorsA
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Cos θ = ∴ AN = B Cos θ and 10)
B
BN Cos900 = 0 𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗⃗⃗𝑘
Sin θ = ∴ BN = B Sin θ ⃗Ax B
⃗ = |𝐴 𝐴𝑌 𝐴𝑍 |
B 11) In terms of components the scalar product of ⃗Aand B ⃗ can be written 𝑋
For ΔOBN, 𝐵𝑋 𝐵𝑌 𝐵𝑍
⃗ = (Ax𝑖̂ + Ay𝑗̂+ Az𝑘̂ ) . (Bx𝑖̂ + By𝑗̂+ Bz𝑘̂ )
⃗.B
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As A
we have OB2 = ON2 + BN2
= AxBx + AyBy + AzBzwith all other terms zero. = 𝑖⃗ (AyBz – AzBy) + 𝑗⃗ (AzBx – AxBz) + ⃗⃗⃗𝑘 (AxBy – AyBx)
⇒R2 = (A + B Cos θ)2 + (B Sin θ)2 Note that in the 𝑗thcomponent the order of multiplication is different
The magnitude of vector |A ⃗ |is given by |A ⃗ | = A = √A2x + A2y + A2z
⇒R2 = A2 + B2cos2θ + 2ABcosθ + B2sin2θ
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than 𝑖⃗ thand ⃗⃗⃗𝑘thcomponents.
⇒R2= A2+ B2(cos2θ + sin2θ) + 2ABcosθ Properties of vector (cross) product. ⃗ and ⃗Bform adjacent
9) If two vectors A
⇒R = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 1) The vector product of any two vectors is always another vector whose sides in a parallelogram, then the
which is the magnitude of the resultant of A and B direction is perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, magnitude of |𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐱 ⃗𝐁
⃗ |will give the
Direction of resultant vectors: ⃗ and ⃗B, even though the vectors
i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A area of the parallelogram as
5) ⃗ and ⃗B, then
If θ is the angle between A ⃗ and B
A ⃗ may or may not be mutually orthogonal. represented graphically in Figure.
⃗ +B
|A ⃗ | = √A2 + B 2 + 2AB Cosθ ⃗ xB ⃗
2) The vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e., A ⃗ ≠B
⃗ xA
⃗ , then in ΔOBN, tan α = BN =
If ⃗Rmakes an angle α with A
BN
ON OA+AN But, ⃗AxB ⃗ x ⃗A]. Here it is worthwhile to note that
⃗ = – [B
𝐁 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐁 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉
tan 𝛂 = ( ) ; 𝛂 = tan-1( ) ⃗ xB
|A ⃗ | = |B ⃗ | = AB Sin θ.
⃗ xA
𝐀+𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 𝐀+𝐁 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉

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10) It divide a parallelogram into two 𝑠 v 1 1 6. The time (t =T) taken by the particle to reach the ground
we get∫0 𝑑𝑠= ∫u d(v 2 ) ;s= (v2 – u2); v2 = u2 + 2as ------------(3)
2a 2a
equal triangles as shown in the Figure, (for which y =h), is givenby using equation (5),
the area of a triangle withA ⃗ and B
⃗ as 5) We can also derive the displacement s in terms of initial velocity u and h = y = ½ gT2 -----------(7)
1 finalvelocity v. From the equation (1) we can write, at = v – u
sidesis |A ⃗⃗⃗ xB
⃗ |number of quantities T=√
2h
------------(8)
2 Substitute this in equation (2), we gets = ut + ½ (v – u)t g
used in Physics are defined through (𝑢+𝑣)𝑡
s= -----------------(4) The equation (8) implies that greater the height(h), particle takes more
vector products. 2
The equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) are called kinematic equations of time(T) to reach the ground. For lesser height(h), it takes lesser time to
Particularly physical quantities
motion, and have a wide variety of practical applications. reach the ground.
Representingrotational effects like torque, angular momentum, are
Kinematic equations: The speed of the particle when it reaches the ground (y = h) can be
defined through vector products.
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(𝑢+𝑣)𝑡 found usingequation (6), we get vground = √2gh ------------- (9)
v = u + at ; s = ut + ½ at2 ; v2 = u2 + 2as ; s =
54. Derive the kinematic equations of motion for constant acceleration. 2 7. The above equation implies that the body falling from greater height (h)
Consider an object moving in a straight line with uniform or constant will have higher velocity when it reaches the ground.
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55. Derive the equations of motion for a particle (a) falling vertically(b)
acceleration ‘a’. Let u be the velocity of the object at time t = 0, and v be projected vertically The motion of a body falling towards the Earth from a small altitude h
velocity of the body at a latertime t. << R), purelyunder the force of gravity is called free fall. (Here R is radius
Case (1): A body falling from a height h
Velocity - time relation: of the Earth)
1. Consider an object of mass m falling from a
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1) The acceleration of the body at any instant is given by the first height h. Case (ii): A body thrown vertically upwards
𝑑𝑣 Assume there is no air resistance. For 1. Consider an object of mass mthrown vertically
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derivative ofthe velocity with respect to time, a = or dv = a .dt
𝑑𝑡
Integrating both sides with the condition that as time changes from 0 convenience, let us choose the downward upwards with an initial velocity u. Let us neglect
to t, the velocitychanges from u to v. For the constant acceleration, direction as positive y-axis as shown in the Figure. the air friction.
2. The object experiences acceleration ‘g’ due to
da

da

2. In this case we choose the vertical direction as

da
𝑣 𝑡
∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = ∫0 𝑎𝑑𝑡 gravity which is constant near the surface of the positive y axis as shown in the Figure then the
𝑣
= a ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ [𝑣]𝑢𝑣 = a [𝑡]0𝑡 --------(1) Earth. We can use kinematic equations to explain acceleration a = − g (neglect air friction) and g
v – u = at (or) v = u + at its motion. We haveThe acceleration a⃗= g𝑗̂ points towards the negative yaxis.
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By comparing the components, we get 3. The kinematic equations for this motion are,
Displacement – time relation:
Ax = 0, ay = g, az = 0 Let us take for simplicity, v = u −gt --------------------(10)
2) The velocity of the body is given by the first derivative of the
ay = a = g y = ut −½ gt2 -------------- (11)
w.

w.

w.
𝑑𝑠
displacement with respect to time. v = or ds = v dt and since v = u + 3. If the particle is thrown with initial velocity ‘u’ downward which is in The velocity and position of the object at any time
𝑑𝑡
at We get ds = (u + at) dt. Assume that initially at time t = 0, the particle negative y axis, then velocity and position at of the particle any time t is t are,
started from the origin. At a later time, t, the particle displacement is s. given by v2 = u2 − 2gy --------------(12)
ww

ww

ww
𝑠
Further assuming that acceleration is time independent, we have ∫0 𝑑𝑠 v = u + gt --------------------(1)
𝑡 𝑡 y = ut + ½ gt2 -------------- (2)
=∫0 𝑢𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 𝑎𝑡𝑑𝑡 or
4. The square of the speed of the particle when it is at a distance y from
s = ut + ½ at2 --------------(2)
the hill-top, isv2 = u2 + 2gy --------------(3)
Velocity – displacement relation: Suppose the particle starts from rest. Then u = 0
3) The acceleration is given by the first derivative of velocity with respect 5. Then the velocity v, the position of the particle and v2 at any time t are
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 given by (for a point y from the hill-top)
to time. a = = = v[since ds / dt = v where s is distance
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠
1 𝑑𝑣 2 1 v = gt ------------ (4)
traversed] This is rewritten as a = or ds = d(v2)
2 𝑑𝑠 2𝑎
y = ½ gt2 -----------(5)
4) Integrating the above equation, using the fact when the velocity
v2 = 2gy ------------(6)
changes from u2 to v2, displacement changes from 0 to s,

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

56. Derive the equation of motion, range and maximum height reached by Horizontal range (R) 58. Derive the expression for total acceleration in the non-uniformcircular
theparticle thrown at an oblique angle 𝜽with respect to the horizontal The maximum horizontal distance between the point of projection and motion.
direction. the point on the horizontal plane where the projectile hits the ground is called 1) Consider a particle moving along a circular path of
i) Consider an object thrown with initial horizontal range (R). This is found easily since the horizontal component of radius r with a variable speed v. As the speed of the
𝑢 at an angle θ with the
velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗ initial velocity remains thesame. We can write Range R = Horizontal particle changes so acceleration has a tangential
𝑢 = ux𝑖̂ + uy𝑗̂where
horizontal. then,⃗⃗⃗⃗ component of velocity x time of flight =u cos θx Tf component, at =
𝑑𝑣
r𝛼 ; at = r𝛼
𝑑𝑡
ux= u Cos θ is the horizontal 2u sinθ 2u2 sin θcos θ 𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
R = ucos θ x = R= 2) As the direction of motion changes continuously, so
component and uy= u sin θ g g 𝐠
the acceleration has a radial component
the vertical component of velocity.
57. Derive the expression for centripetal acceleration. 𝑣2
ii) ux remains constant throughout the (i.e.) Centripetal acceleration ac =
𝑟
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When a body is in uniform circular motion. Its speed remains constant,

motion.uy changes with time under 3) The resultant acceleration is obtained by vector sum of centripetal and
but its velocity changes continuously
the effect of acceleration due to tangential acceleration.
due to the change in its direction.
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gravity. First itdecreases, becomes zero at the maximum height, after 4) The magnitude of this resultant acceleration is given
Hence the motion is accelerated.
which it again increases till the prose reach be ground. v2 2
iii) Hence after the time t, the velocity along horizontal motion
A body undergoing uniform by aR = √a2t + ( )
r
circular motion is acted upon by an
vx = ux+ axt = ux = u cos θ
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acceleration which is directed along 59. Define the term motion and explain the different types of motion.
The horizontal distance travelled by projectile in time t is
the radius towards the centre of the An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect
sx = uxt + ½ axt2. Here, sx = x, ux = u cos θ, ax = 0
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sa

𝑥 circular path. The acceleration is to its surroundings with the passage of time.
iv) Thus, x = u cos θ. t or t= -------------- (1) called centripetal acceleration. a) Linear motion
𝑢 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Next, for the vertical motion vy = uy+ ayt Here uy= u sinθ, ay = − g i) The centripetal acceleration is derived from a simple geometrical An object is said to be in linear motion if it moves in a straight line.
da

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da

(Acceleration due to gravity acts opposite to the motion). relationship between position and velocity vectors. Examples
Thus, vy = u Sin θ – gt -------------------(2) ii) Let the directions of position and velocity vectors shift through the same 1) An athlete running on a straight track
The vertical distance travelled by the projectile in the same time t is angle 𝜃 in asmall interval of time ∆t, 2) Aparticle falling vertically downwards to the Earth.
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sy = uyt + ½ ayt2 Here, sy = y, uy = u sin θ, ax = − g iii) For uniform circular motion, r = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 | = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 | and v = |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗1 | = |𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |. If the b) Circular motion
Then, y = u Sin θ t – ½ gt ---------------- (3)
2
particle moves from position vector 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 to ⃗⃗⃗𝑟2 , the displacement is given Circular motion is defined as a motion described by an object traversing
v) Substitute the value of t from equation (1) in equation (3), we have by Δr= ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 and the a circular path.
𝑥2
w.

w.

w.

𝑥 1
y = u Sin θ – g change in velocity from 𝑣 𝑣2 is given by Δv
⃗⃗⃗1 to ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣2 − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣1 . Examples
𝑢 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑢2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1 𝑥2 iv) The magnitudes of the displacement Δr and of Δv satisfy the following 1) The whirling motion of a stone attached to a string
y = x tan θ– g ------------------(4) ∆𝑟 ∆𝑣 2) The motion of a satellite around the Earth
2 𝑢2 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
relation =− =θ
ww

ww

ww

Thus, the path followed by the projectile is an inverted parabola. 𝑟 𝑣 c) Rotational motion
v) Here the negative sign implies that Δv points radially inward, towards
Maximum height (hmax) If any object moves in a rotational motion about an axis, the motion is
∆𝑟 ∆𝑣 𝑣 ∆𝑣 𝑣2
the center of the circle. ∆𝑣 = 𝑣 ( ) then, 𝑎 = = ( ); =− called ‘rotation’.
The maximum vertical distance travelled by the projectile during its 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟
journey is calledmaximum height. This is determined as follows: vi) For uniform circular motion v = ωr, where ω is the angular velocity of the Examples
For the vertical part of the motion, v2y = u2y + 2ays particle about the center. Then the centripetal acceleration can be i) Rotation of a disc about an axis through its center
Here, uy= u sinθ, a = −g, s = hmax, and at the maximum height vy= 0 written asa = − ω2r ii) Spinning of the Earth about its own axis.
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉
d) Vibratory motion
Here, (0)2 = u2 sin2 = ghmax (or) hmax= If an object or particle executes a to–and– fro motion about a fixed
𝟐𝐠
point, it is said tobe in vibratory motion.
Examples i) Vibration of a string on a guitar
ii) Movement of a swing

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

UNIT – III (LAWS OF MOTION) 6. Explain various types of friction. Suggest a few methods to reduce friction. 9. State Newton’s Third law.
Static Friction (𝒇⃗⃗⃗𝒔 ): For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: 1. Static friction is the force which opposes the initiation of motion of an
10. What are inertial frames?
1. Explain the concept of inertia. Write two examples each for inertia of object on the surface.
motion, inertia of rest and inertia of direction. 1. If an object is free from all forces, then it moves with constant velocity
2. When the object is at rest on the surface, only two forces act on it.
This inability of objects to move on its own or change its state of motion or remains atrest when seen from inertial frames.
They are the downward gravitational force and upward normal force.
is called inertia. Inertia means resistance to change its state. 2. Thus, there exists some special set of frames in which if an object
3. The resultant of these two forces on the object is zero.
Examples: experiences no force It moves with constant velocity or remains at rest.
Kinetic Friction (𝒇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒌 ):
Inertia of Rest:
1. When an object slides, the surface exerts a frictional force called 11. Under what condition will a car skid on a leveled circular road?
i. Passengers experience a backward push in a sudden start of bus.

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kinetic friction (fk) If the static friction is not able to provide enough centripetal force to
ii. Tightening of seat belts in a car when it stops quickly. v2
2. If the external force acting on the object is greater than maximum turn, the vehicle will start to skid. μ < (skid)
Inertia of Motion: rg
static friction, the objects begin to slide.

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i. Passengers experience a forward push during a sudden brake in bus.
3. The kinetic friction does not depend on velocity. 12. Define impulse.
ii. Ripe fruits fall from the trees in the direction of wind.
Rolling Friction: If a very large force acts on an object for a very short duration, then the
Inertia of Direction:
The force of friction that comes into act when a wheel rolls over a force is called impulsive force or impulse.

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i. A stone moves tangential to Circle.
surface. Methods to reduce friction:
ii. When a car moves towards left, we turn to the right. 13. State Newton’s First law.
1. By using Lubricant’s friction 2. By using ball bearings.
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sa
Every object continues to be in the state of rest or of uniform motion
2. State Newton’s second law.
7. What is the meaning by ‘pseudo force’? unless there is external force acting on it.
The force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its
⃗
dp
Centrifugal force is called as a ‘pseudo force’. A pseudo force has no
momentum. ⃗F = 14. Define Inertia of rest, motion and direction.
da

da

da
dt origin. A pseudo force is an apparent force that acts on all masses whose
The inability of an object to change its state of rest is called inertia of rest.
motion is described using non inertial frame of reference such as a rotating
3. Define One Newton. The inability of an object to change its direction of motion on its own is called
reference frame.
One Newton is defined as the force which acts on 1 kg of mass to inertia of direction.
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givean acceleration 1 m s-2 in the direction of the force. 8. State the empirical laws of static and kinetic friction. The inability of an object to change its state of uniform speed on its own is
i) The magnitude of static frictional force fssatisfies the following called inertia of motion.
4. Show that impulse is the change of momentum.
t
empirical relation.0 ≤ fs≤ 𝛍sNswhere μs is the coefficient of static
w.

w.

w.
The integral ∫t f F dt = Jis called the impulse and it is equal to change 15. What is free body diagram? What are the steps to be followed for
i friction.
developingfree body diagram?
in momentum of the object. ii) The force of static friction can take any value from zero to μsN. Free body diagram is a simple tool to analyze the motion of the object
Proof: If the force is constant over the time interval, then iii) If the object is at rest and no external force is applied on the object,
ww

ww

ww
using Newton’slaws. The following systematic steps are followed for
t t the static frictionacting on the object is zero (fs= 0).
∫t f F dt = F ∫t f dt = F (tf – ti) developing the free body diagram:
i i
iv) If the object is at rest, and there is an external force applied parallel to 1. Identify the forces acting on the object.
F∆t = ∆p is called the impulse and it is equal to change in momentum of the
the surface, then the force of static friction acting on the object is 2. Represent the object as a point.
object.
exactly equal to the external force applied on the object (fs= Fext). But 3. Draw the vectors representing the forces acting on the object.
5. Using free body diagram, show that it is easy to pull an object than to push still the static friction fsis less than μsN.
it. v) When object begins to slide, the static friction (fs) acting on the object 16. What is the concurrent force?
attains maximum. A collection of forces is said to be concurrent, if the lines of forces act
vi) The static and kinetic frictions depend on the normal force acting on at a common point.
the object.
vii) The static friction does not depend upon the area of contact.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

39. The momentum of a system of particles is always conserved. True or false? Examples: Since Sin (180 – θ) = Sin θ and
True Consider the firing of a gun. Here the system is Gun+bullet. Initially the Sin (2θ) = 2sin θcos θ
gun and bullet are at rest, hence the total linear momentum of the T mg
40. Why is it dangerous to stand near the open door of moving bus? We get, = ;
Sinθ 2SinθCosθ)
It is dangerous to stand near the open door (or) steps while travelling in system is zero. Let p ⃗ 1be the momentum of the bullet and p ⃗ 2 the
From this, the tension on each string is
the bus. When thebus takes a sudden turn in a curved road, due to centrifugal momentum of the gun before firing. Since initially both are at rest, mg
⃗ 1 = 0, p
p ⃗ 2 = 0. Total momentum before firing the gun is zero, T=
force the person is pushed away from the bus. Even though centrifugal force 2Cosθ

is a pseudo force, its effects are real. ⃗1+p

p ⃗ 2 = 0 . According to the law of conservation of linear momentum,
total linear momentum has to be zero after the firing also. 45. Explain the motion of blocks connected by a string in i) Vertical motion
41. When a cricket player catches the ball, he/she pulls his /her hands When the gun is fired, a force is exerted by the gun on the bullet in ii) Horizontal motion.
graduallyin the direction of the ball’s motion. Why? forward direction. Now the momentum of the bullet changes from Case 1: Vertical motion:
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i) Consider two blocks of masses m1 and m2 (m1> m2)
1. If he stops his hands soon after catching the ball, the ball comes to ⃗ 1 to 𝑝1′. To conserve the total linear momentum of the system, the
p
rest very quickly. connected by a light and inextensible string that
momentum of the gun must also change from p ⃗ 2 to 𝑝2′ .
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2. It means that the momentum of the ball is brought to rest very quickly. passes over a pulley.
Due to the conservation of linear momentum,𝑝1′ + 𝑝2′ = 0. It implies that
3. So the average force acting on the body will be very large. ii) Let the tension in the string be Tand
𝑝1′ = −𝑝2′, the momentum of the gun is exactly equal, but in the opposite
4. Due to this large average force, the hands will get hurt. acceleration a. When the system is released, both
direction to the momentum of the bullet. This is the reason after firing,
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5. To avoid getting hurt, the player brings the ball to rest slowly the blocks start moving, m2 vertically upward and m1
the gun suddenly moves backward with the momentum (−p ⃗ 2). It is
downward with same acceleration. The gravitational
42. A man jumping on concrete floor is more dangerous than in sand floor, called ‘recoil momentum’. This is an example of conservation of total
force m1g on mass m1 is used in lifting the mass m2.
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why? linear momentum.
Applying Newton’s second law for mass m2,
1. Jumping on a concrete cemented floor is more dangerous than
44. What are concurrent forces? State Lami’s theorem. Tĵ - m2gĵ = m2aĵ
jumping on the sand.
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da
A collection of forces is said to be concurrent, if the lines of forces act iii) The left-hand side of the above equation is the total force that acts on
2. Sand brings the body to rest slowly than the concrete floor, so that the
at a common point. If they are in the same plane, they are concurrent as well m2 and the right-hand side is the
average force experienced by the body will be lesser.
as coplanar forces. If a system of three concurrent and coplanar forces is in product of mass and acceleration of
equilibrium, then Lami’s theoremstates that the magnitude of each force of
Pa

Pa

Pa
m2 in y direction.
FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER QUESTIONS: By comparing the components on
the system is proportional to sine of the angle between the other two forces.
⃗ 1|
|F ⃗ 2|
|F ⃗ 3|
|F both sides, we get
43. Prove the law of conservation of linear momentum. Use it to find the The constant of proportionality is same for all three forces. = =
recoilvelocity of a gun when a bullet is fired from it. Sinα Sinβ Sinγ T – m2g = m2a ------------- (1)
w.

w.

i) The force on each particle (Newton’s second law) can be written as

⃗⃗F12 = dp⃗1 and ⃗⃗F21 = dp⃗2
dt dt
Example:
A baby is playing in a swing which is hanging with the help of two identical
chains is at rest. Identify the forces acting on the baby. Apply Lami’s theorem
w.
Similarly, applying Newton’s second
law for mass m1
Tĵ – m1gĵ = – m1aĵ
ww

ww

ww
ii) Here ⃗p1is the momentum of particle 1which changes due to the and find out the tension acting on the chain. As mass m1 moves downward (–ĵ), its acceleration is along(–ĵ)
force⃗⃗F12 exertedby particle 2. Further p
⃗ 2 is the momentum of Solution iv) By comparing the components on both sides, we get
particle 2. These changes due to ⃗⃗F21 exertedby particle 1. The baby and the chains are modeled as a particle hung by two strings as T – m1g = – m1a ; m1g – T = m1a ------------- (2)
⃗1
dp ⃗2
dp ⃗1
dp ⃗2
dp d shown in the figure. There are threeforces acting on the baby.
=– ; + ⃗1+p
= 0 ; (p ⃗ 2) = 0 Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
dt dt dt dt dt i) Downward gravitational force along
iii) It implies that p ⃗1+p ⃗ 2 = constant vector (always). m1g – m2g = m1a + m2a; (m1 – m2)g = (m1 + m2)a ------- (3)
negative y direction (mg) From equation (3), the acceleration of both the masses is
iv) p
⃗1+p ⃗ 2 is the total linear momentum of the two particles ii) Tension (T) along the two strings This three 𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐
⃗ tot = ⃗p1 + p
(p ⃗ 2 ). It is also called as total linear momentum of the forces are coplanar as well as concurrent as a=( ) g ------(4)
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
system. Here, the two particles constitute thesystem. shown in the following figure If both the masses are equal (m1=m2), from equation (4) a = 0
v) If there are no external forces acting on the system, then the total By using Lami’s theorem v) This shows that if the masses are equal, there is no acceleration and
linear momentum ofthe system (p ⃗ tot ) is always a constant vector. T T mg the system as a whole will be at rest. To find the tension acting on the
= =
Sin(180−θ) Sin(180−θ) Sin(2θ)

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

string, substitute the acceleration from the equation (4) into the Tension in the string can be obtained by substituting equation (4) in 47. State Newton’s three laws and discuss their significance.
equation (1). 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
equation (2) T =
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
g Newton’s First Law:
𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏− 𝒎𝟐
T – m2g = m2( )g ; T = m2g + m2( )g --- (5) Comparing motion in both cases, it is clear that the tension in the string i) Every object continues to be in the state of rest or of uniform motion
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
By taking m2g common in the RHS of equation (5) for horizontal motion is half of the tension for vertical motion for same set of (constant velocity) unless there is external force acting on it.
𝑚1− 𝑚2 masses and strings. ii) This inability of objects to move on its own or change its state of motion
T = m2g (1 + ); is calledinertia. Inertia means resistance to change its state.
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1+ 𝑚2+𝑚1−𝑚2 46. Briefly explain the origin of friction. Show that in an inclined plane, angle of
T = m2g ( )
𝑚1 +𝑚2 friction is equal to angle of repose. Newton’s Second Law:
𝟐𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
T=( )g i) If a very gentle force in the horizontal direction is given to an object at i) The force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐
et

et

et

rest on thetable, it does not move. ⃗ = dp⃗

momentumF
Case 2: Horizontal motion: ii) It is because of the opposing force exerted by the surface on the dt
i) In this case, mass m2 is kept on a horizontal table and mass m1 is ii) In simple words, whenever the momentum of the body changes, there
object which resists its motion.
i.N

i.N

i.N

hanging through asmall pulley. Assume that there is no friction on the must be a forceacting on it. The momentum of the object is defined as
iii) This force is called the frictional force which always opposes the
surface. ⃗ = mv
p ⃗ . In most cases, the mass of the
relative motion between an object and the surface where it is placed.
ii) As both the blocks are connected to the un-stretchable string, if m1 object remains constant during the motion. In such cases, the above
iv) Consider an inclined plane on which an object is placed. Let the angle
la

la

la

moves with an acceleration a downward then m2 also moves with the ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d(mv) ⃗
dv
which this planemakes with the horizontal be θ . For small angles of θ , ⃗=
equation gets modified into a simpler form F =m = ma⃗.
same acceleration a horizontally. dt dt
the object may not slide down. 𝐅= m𝐚⃗
sa

sa

sa

The forces acting on mass m2 are

v) As 𝛉 is increased, for a particular value of 𝛉 , the object begins to
(i) Downward gravitational force (m2g)
slide down. This valueis called angle of repose. Hence, the angle of Newton’s Third law:
(ii) Upward normal force (N) exerted by the surface
repose is the angle of inclined plane with the horizontal such that an i) Newton’s third law assures that the forces occur as equal and opposite
da

da

da

(iii) Horizontal tension (T) exerted by the string

object placed on itbegins to slide. pairs. An isolated force or a single force cannot exist in nature.
The forces acting on mass m1 are
vi) Consider the various forces in action here. The gravitational force mg ii) Newton’s third law states that for every action there is an equal and
(i) Downward gravitational force (m1g)
is resolvedinto components parallel (mg sin 𝛉) and perpendicular (mg opposite reaction.
Pa

Pa

Pa

(ii) Tension (T) acting upwards

cos 𝛉) to the inclinedplane. iii) Here, action and reaction pair of forces do not act on the same body
The free body diagrams for both the masses
vii) The component of force parallel to the inclined plane (mg sin 𝛉) tries but on two different bodies.
Applying Newton’s second law for m1
to move theobject down. The component of force perpendicular to the iv) Any one of the forces can be called as an action force and the other
Tĵ – m1gĵ = m1aĵ
w.

w.

w.

inclined plane (mg cos θ) is balanced by the Normal force (N). the reaction force. Newton’s third law is valid in both inertial and non-
By comparing the components on both
N = mg cos 𝛉 --------------(1) inertial frames.
sides of the above equation,
When the object just begins to move, the static friction attains its v) These action-reaction forces are not cause and effect forces. It means
ww

ww

ww

T – m1g = –m1a ------------- (1)

maximum value, that whenthe object 1 exerts force on the object 2, the object 2 exerts
Applying Newton’s second law for m2
fs = fsmax = 𝜇𝑠 N. This friction also satisfies the relation equal and opposite force on the body 1 at the same instant.
T𝑖̂ – m2a𝑖̂ , By comparing the
fsmax = 𝝁𝒔 mg sin𝛉 ------------- (2)
components on both sides of above equation,
Equating the right hand side of equations (1) and (2), we get
T = m2a --------------(2)
There is no acceleration along y direction for m2. (fsmax) / N = sin 𝛉 / cos 𝛉
Nĵ – m2g𝑗̂ = 0, By comparing the components on both sides of the above From the definition of angle of friction, we also know that tan 𝛉 = 𝛍𝐬
equation in which 𝛉 is the angle of friction.
N – m2g = 0; N = m2g -------------- (3)
By substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we can find the tension T
𝒎𝟏
m2a – m1g = – m1a; m2a + m1a = m1g ; a = g -----------(4)
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

48. Explain the similarities and differences of centripetal and centrifugal forces. 50. Briefly explain ‘Rolling Friction’. When the object just begins to move, the static friction attains its
i) One of the important applications is suitcases with rolling on coasters. maximum value,
Centripetal force Centrifugal force
Rolling wheels makes it easier than carrying luggage. fs = fsmax = 𝛍𝒔 N. This friction also satisfies the relation
It is a real force which is exerted on It is a pseudo force or fictitious force which ii) When an object moves on a surface, essentially it is sliding on it. But
the body by the external agencies cannot arise from gravitational force, fsmax = 𝜇𝑠 mg sinθ ------------- (2)
like gravitational force, tension in the tension wheels move on the surface through rolling motion. Equating the right hand side of equations (1) and (2), we get
string, normal force etc. force, normal force etc. iii) In rolling motion when a wheel moves on a surface, the point of contact (fsmax) / N = sin θ / cos θ
with surfaceis always at rest. From the definition of angle of friction, we also know that tan 𝛉 = 𝛍𝐬
Acts in both inertial and non-inertial Acts only in rotating frames (non-inertial
Frames frame) iv) Since the point of contact is at rest, there is no relative motion between in which 𝛉 is the angle of friction. Thus the angle of repose is the same
the wheel andsurface. Hence the frictional force is very less. At the as angle of friction.
It acts towards the axis of rotation It acts outwards from the axis of rotation
same time if an object moveswithout a wheel, there is a relative motion

et

et

et
or center of the circle in circular or radiallyoutwards from the center of the
motion circular motion between the object and the surface. 52. Explain the need for banking of tracks.
v) As a result frictional force is larger. This makes it difficult to move the i) In a leveled circular road, skidding mainly depends on the coefficient of
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2

i.N

i.N

i.N
|𝐹𝑐𝑝 | = m𝜔2 r = |𝐹𝑐𝑓 | = m𝜔2 r = object. static friction 𝜇𝑠 The coefficient of static friction depends on the nature
𝑟 𝑟
Real force and has real effects. Pseudo force but has real effects vi) Ideally in pure rolling, motion of the point of contact with the surface of the surface which has a maximum limiting value.
Origin of centripetal force is Origin of centrifugal force is inertia. It does should beat rest, but in practice it is not so. ii) To avoid this problem, usually the outer edge of the road is slightly

la

la

la
interactionbetween two objects notarise from interaction. vii) Due to the elastic nature of the surface at the point of contact there will raised compared to inner edge
be somedeformation on the object at this point on the wheel or surface. iii) This is called banking of roads or tracks. This introduces an inclination,
In an inertial frame the object’s inertial
and the angle is called banking angle.
sa

sa

sa
motionappears as centrifugal force in the viii) Due to this deformation, there will be minimal friction between wheel
In inertial frames centripetal force rotating frame. In inertial frames there is no and surface. It is called ‘rolling friction’. In fact, ‘rolling friction’ is much iv) Let the surface of the road make angle θ with horizontal surface. Then
has to be included when free body centrifugal force.In rotating frames, both smaller than kinetic friction. the normalforce makes the same angle θ with the vertical.
diagrams are drawn. centripetal andcentrifugal force have to be
da

da

da
v) When the car takes a turn, there are two forces acting on the car:
included when freebody diagrams are 51. Describe the method of measuring angle of repose. a) Gravitational force mg (downwards)
drawn. i) Consider an inclined plane on which an object is placed. Let the angle
b) Normal force N (perpendicular to surface)
which this planemakes with the horizontal be θ . For small angles
Pa

Pa

Pa
vi) We can resolve the normal force into two components. Ncos θ and
49. Briefly explain ‘centrifugal force’ with suitable examples. ofθ,the object may not slide down.
N sin θ
i) Consider the case of a whirling motion of a stone tied to a string. ii) As θ is increased, for a
vii) The component Ncos θbalances the downward gravitational force ‘mg’
Assume that the stonehas angular velocity 𝜔 in the inertial frame (at particular value of θ , the object
and component Nsin θ will provide the necessary centripetal
w.

w.

w.
rest). begins to slide down. This value
acceleration. By usingNewton second law
ii) If the motion of the stone is observed from a frame which is also rotating is called angle of repose. 𝑚𝑣 2
along with thestone with same angular velocity 𝜔 then, the stone Hence, the angle of repose is N cos θ = mg ; N sin θ =
ww

ww

ww
𝑟
appears to be at rest. the angle of inclined plane with 𝑣2
By dividing the equations we get, tan θ =
iii) This implies that in addition to the inward centripetal force −mω2r there the horizontal such that an 𝑟𝑔

must be an equal and opposite force that acts on the stone outward object placed on itbegins to v = √𝐫𝐠 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉
with value +mω2r. slide. Need Banking of tracks:
iv) So the total force acting on the stone in a rotating frame is equal to iii) Consider the various forces in action here. The gravitational force mg 1) The banking angle θ and radius of curvature of the road or
zero (−mω2r+mω2r= 0). is resolved into components parallel (mg sin 𝛉 ) and perpendicular (mg trackdetermines the Safe speed of the car at the turning. If the speed
v) This outward force +mω2ris called the centrifugal force. cos 𝛉 ) to the inclinedplane. of car exceeds this safe speed, then it starts to skid outward but
iv) The component of force parallel to the inclined plane (mg sin 𝛉) tries frictional force comes into effect and provides an additional
to move the object down. The component of force perpendicular to the centripetalforce to prevent the outward skidding.
inclined plane (mg cos 𝛉) is balanced by the Normal force (N).
N = mg cos 𝛉 --------------(1)

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2) At the same time, if the speed of the car is little lesser than safe speed, UNIT – IV (WORK, ENERGY AND POWER) 4. Explain the characteristics of elastic and inelastic collision.
it starts to skid inward and frictional force comes into effect, which
Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision
reduces centripetal force to prevent inward skidding. TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
Total momentum is conserved Total momentum is conserved
3) However if the speed of the vehicle is sufficiently greater than the
correct speed, then frictional force cannot stop the car from skidding. 1. Explain how the definition of work in physics is different from Total kinetic energy is conserved Total kinetic energy is not conserved
generalperception. Forces involved are non-conservative
Forces involved are conservative forces
53. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of Moon towards the Earth? 1. Generally, any activity can be called as work Forces
𝑣2 2. But in physics, work is said to be done by the force when the force Mechanical energy is dissipated into heat,
i) The centripetal acceleration is given by a = . This expression Mechanical energy is not dissipated
𝑟
applied on a body displaces it. light, sound etc.
explicitly dependson Moon’s speed which is not trivial. We can work
with the formula ω2Rm = am
et

et

et
2. Write the various types of potential energy. Explain the formulae. 5. Define the following
ii) am is centripetal acceleration of the Moon due to Earth’s gravity. a) Coefficient of restitution b) Power c) Law of conservation of energy
1. The energy possessed by the body due to gravitational force gives rise
ω is angular velocity. Rm is the distance between Earth and the Moon, d) Loss of kinetic energy in inelastic collision.
i.N

i.N

i.N
togravitational potential energy U = mgh
which is 60 times the radius ofthe Earth. 2. The energy due to spring force and other similar forces give rise to a) Coefficient of restitution:
Rm = 60R = 60×6.4×106= 384×106m It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation (relative velocity)
elasticpotential energy. U = ½ Kx2
2𝜋 after collision to the velocity of approach (relative velocity) before collision,
As we know the angular velocity ω= and 3. The energy due to electrostatic force on charges gives rise to
la

la

la
𝑇 Velocity of separation (after collision) (𝑣 −𝑣1 )
T =27.3 days =27.3 x 24 × 60 × 60 second = 2.358 × 106 sec electrostaticpotential energy. U = – E. dr i.e.,e = ; (𝑢2
Velocity of approach (before collision) 1 −𝑢2 )
By substituting these values in the formula for acceleration
sa

sa

sa
3. Write the differences between conservative and Non-conservative forces. b) Power:
(4π2 )(384 x 106 )
am = am = 0.00272ms-1 Give two examples each. The rate of work done or energy delivered.
(2.358 x 106)2 )
Workdone (W)
The centripetal acceleration of Moon towards the Earth is am = 0.00272ms-1 Power (P) =
da

da

da
Conservative forces Non-conservative forces Time taken (t)

54. How will you confirm Newton’s third law by the way of two bodies in c) Law of conservation of energy:
Work done is independent of the path Work done depends upon the path
contacton a horizontal surface? Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It may be
Pa

Pa

Pa
i) Consider two blocks of masses Work done in a round trip is not transformedfrom one form to another but the total energy of an isolated
Work done in a round trip is zero
m1 and m2 (m1> m2) kept in zero system remains constant.
contact with each otheron a Total energy remains constant Energy is dissipated as heat energy
smooth, horizontal frictionless d) Loss of kinetic energy in inelastic collision:
w.

w.

w.
Work done is not completely In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss in kinetic energy during collision
surface as shown Work done is completely recoverable
recoverable is transformed to another form of energy like sound, thermal, heat, light etc.
ii) By the application of a horizontal force F, both the blocks are set into
Let KEibe the total kinetic energy before collision and KEf be the total kinetic
motion with acceleration ‘a’ simultaneously in the direction of the force
ww

ww

ww
Force is the negative gradient of
No such relation exists. energy aftercollision. Total kinetic energy before collision,
F. potential energy
1 1
iii) To find the acceleration 𝐚⃗, Newton’s second law has to be applied to KEi = m1u12 + m2u22 -----------(1)
2 2
Examples : Elastic spring force, electrostatic 1
the system(combined mass Examples : Frictional forces, Total kinetic energy after collision, KEf = (m1+ m2)v2 ------------ (2)
force, magnetic force, magnetic force, 2
m =m1 + m2) Viscous force
gravitational force etc.. Then the loss of kinetic energy is Loss of KE, ∆Q = KEf – KEi
𝐅= m𝐚⃗, If we choose the 1 1 1
= (m1+ m2)v2– m1u12 + m2u22 -------- (3)
motion of the two masses 2 2 2
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏+𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐
along the positive Substituting equation v = in equation (3), and on simplifying
(𝐦𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 )
x direction, F𝑖̂ = ma𝑖̂ (expand v by using the algebra (a+b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab, we get
By comparing components on both sides of the above equation 𝟏 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
Loss of KE, ∆Q = ( )(u1 – u2)2
F=ma where m =m1 + m2 𝟐 𝐦𝟏 +𝐦𝟐

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27. State and explain work energy principle. Mention any three examples for it. 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊
FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER QUESTIONS ∫ 𝑑𝑡 dt = ∫(𝐹 . 𝑣)dt ; ∫ ( 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐹 . 𝑣)dt = 0
1) It states that work done by the force acting on a body is equal to the
26. Explain with graphs the difference between work done by a constant force iii) This relation is true for any arbitrary value of dt. This implies that the
change produced inthe kinetic energy of the body.
andby avariable force. term within thebracket must be equal to zero, i.e.,
i) When a constant force F acts on a body, 2) Consider a body of mass m at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊
3) The work (W) done by the constant force (F) for a displacement (s) in = 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑣 = 0 (or) = 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑣
the smallwork done (dW) by the force in 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
producing a small displacement dr is the samedirection is, W = Fs ------------- (1)
The constant force is given by the equation, F = ma ---------- (2) 29. Arrive at an expression for elastic collision in one dimension and discuss
given by the relation, dW= (F cosθ) dr various cases.
ii) The total work done in producing a The third equation of motion can be written as, v2 = u2 + 2as
𝐯 𝟐 −𝐮𝟐
displacement frominitial position ri to a= ------------------- (3)
𝟐𝐬
r
et

et

et

final position rf is, W = ∫r f dW ; v2 −u2

i Substituting for a in equation (2), F = m ( ) ------------- (4)
r 2s
W= ∫r f (F cosθ)dr = ( F cos θ) ; 𝐯𝟐 𝐮𝟐
Substituting equation (4) in (1), W = m( 𝐬) − m ( 𝐬)
i.N

i.N

i.N

i
r 𝟐𝐬 𝟐𝐬
∫r f dr = (F cosθ) (rf – ri) W = ½ mv2 – ½ mu2 --------------------- (5) Consider two elastic bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving in a straight
i
iii) The graphical representation of the work done by a constant force. The expression for kinetic energy: line (along positivex direction) on a frictionless horizontal surface.
The area under the graph shows the work done by the constant force. i) The term ½ (mv2) in the above equation is the kinetic energy of the body i) In order to have collision, we assume that the mass m1 moves faster
la

la

la

Work done by a variable force: of mass (m) moving with velocity (v). KE = ½ mv2------------------ (6) than mass m2 i.e.,μ1>μ2 For elastic collision, the total linear momentum
i) When the component of a variable force F acts on a body, the small ii) Kinetic energy of the body is always positive. and kinetic energies of thetwo bodies before and after collision must
sa

sa

sa

work done (dW) bythe force in producing a small displacement dr is From equations (5) and (6) remain the same.
given by the relation dW = (Fcos θ)dr ∆KE = ½ mv2 − ½ mu2 -----------------(7) thus, W = ∆KE From the law of conservation of linear momentum,
[F cos θ is the component of the variable force F] where, F and θ are Total momentum before collision (pi) = Total momentum after collision (pf)
da

iii) The expression on the right-hand side (RHS) of equation (7) is the
da

da

variables. change inkinetic energy (ΔKE) of the body. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 -------------- (1) (or)
ii) The total work done for a displacement from initial position ri to final iv) This implies that the work done by the force on the body changes the m1(u1− v1) = m2(v2− u2) ------------------- (2)
r r
position rf is givenby the relation, W = ∫r f dW; = ∫r f (F cosθ)dr kinetic energyof the body. This is called work-kinetic energy theorem. For elastic collision,
Pa

Pa

Pa

i i
iii) A graphical representation of the work done by a variable force. The significance of kinetic energy in the work – kinetic energy theorem: Total kinetic energy before collision KEi= Total kinetic energy after collision KEf
area under the graph is the work done by the variable force. 1. If the work done by the force on the body is positive then its kinetic ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22 = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22------------------ (3)
energy increases. After simplifying and rearranging the terms,
w.

w.

w.

2. If the work done by the force on the body is negative then its kinetic m1(u12− v12) = m2(v22−u22)
energy decreases. Using the formula, a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b), we can rewrite the above
3. If there is no work done by the force on the body then there is no equation as
ww

ww

ww

change in its kinetic energy m1(u1 + v1) (u1– v1) = m2(v2 + u2) (v2– u2)---------- (4)
Dividing equation (4) by (2) gives,
28. Arrive at an expression for power and velocity. Give some examples for the 𝑚1 (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2+ 𝑢2 )(𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
same. =
𝑚1 (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
i) The work done by a force 𝐹 for a displacement d𝑟 is W = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 --- (1) u1 + v1 = v2 + u2, Re-arranging u1 – u2 = v2 – v1 --------------- (5)
Left hand side of the equation (1) can be written as Equation (5) can be rewritten as (u1 – u2 = – (v1 – v2)
𝑑𝑊 ii) This means that for any elastic head on collision, the relative speed of
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ dt (multiplied and divided by dt) -------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
the two elastic bodies after the collision has the same magnitude as
ii) Since, velocity 𝑣 = ; d𝑟 = 𝑣 dt. Right hand side of the equation (1) can before collision but in opposite direction. Further note that this result is
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
bewritten as ∫ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹. 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ (𝐹 . )dt = ∫(𝐹 . 𝑣)dt [𝑣 = ] ---- (3) independent of mass.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Rewriting the above equation for v1 and v2 ,
Substituting equation (2) and equation (3) in equation (1), we get

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

v1 = v2 + u2 – u1 ------------- (6) or v2 = u1 + v1 – u2 ----------------(7) The equation (14) implies that the first body which is lighter returns UNIT – V (MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES)
To find the final velocities v1and v2: back rebounds) in the opposite direction with the same initial velocity
Substituting equation (7) in equation (2) gives the velocity of m1 as as it has a negative sign. TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
m1(u1 – v1) = m2 (u1 + v1 – u2 – u2) The equation (15) implies that the second body which is heavier in
1. Define center of mass.
m1(u1 – v1) = m2 (u1 + v1 – 2u2) mass continuesto remain at rest even after collision. For example, if a
A point where the entire mass of the body appears to be concentrated.
m1u1 – m1v1 = m2u1 + m2v1 – 2m2u2 ball is thrown at a fixed wall, the ball will bounce back from the wall with
m1u1 – m2u1 + 2m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v1 the same velocity with which it was thrown but in opposite direction. 2. Find out the center of mass for the given geometrical structures.
(m1 – m2) u1 + 2m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v1 (or) a) Equilateral triangle
Case 4: The second body is very much lighter than the first body
𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝟐𝒎𝟐
v1 = ( )u1 + ( ) u2 ----------(8) 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐 Lies in center
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 (𝒎𝟐 ≪ 𝒎𝟏 , ≪ 𝟏)then the ratio ≈ 0. And also if the target is at

et

et

et
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟏
Similarly, by substituting (6) in equation (2) or substituting equation (8)
rest (u2=0) b) Cylinder
in equation (7), we get the final velocity of m2 as
Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (8) by m1, we get

i.N

i.N

i.N
𝟐𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 Lies on its central axis
v2 = ( ) u1 + ( )u2 ----------- (9) 1−
𝑚2 𝑚
2 2
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝑚1 𝑚1
v1 = ( 𝑚 )u1 + ( 𝑚 )(0) ;
1+ 2 1+ 2 c) Square
𝑚1 𝑚1
Case 1: When bodies has the same mass i.e., m1 = m2,
0−1 0 Lies at their diagonals meet
2𝑚2 v1 = ( )u1 +( )(0) ; v1 = u1 -------------------(16)

la

la

la
Equation (8) –→ v1 = (0)u1 + ( ) u2 ; v1 = u2 ------------- (10) 0+1 1+0
2𝑚2
2𝑚1
Similarly, Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (14) by m1,
Equation (9) –→ v2 = ( ) u1 + (0) u2; v2 = u1 ------------- (11) we get
sa

sa

sa
2𝑚1 3. Define torque and mention its unit.
𝒎𝟐
The equations (10) and (11) show that in one dimensional elastic 𝟐 𝒎𝟏
−𝟏 𝟐
Torque is defined as the moment of the external applied force about a
collision, when two bodies of equal mass collide after the collision v1 = ( 𝒎 ) u1 +( 𝒎 ) (0) ; v2 = ( )u1 ; v2 = 2u1 ------(17) ⃗ . Its unit is Nm.
point or axisof rotation. The expression for torque is, τ⃗ = rxF
𝟏+ 𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟐 𝟏+𝟎
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟏
da

da

da
their velocities are exchanged. The equation (16) implies that the first body which is heavier continues
4. What are the conditions in which force cannot produce torque?
Case 2: When bodies have the same mass i.e., m1 = m2, and second to move with the same initial velocity. ⃗ are parallel or anti-parallel. If parallel,
The torque is zero when r and F
body (usuallycalled target) is at rest (u2 = 0), The equation (17) suggests that the second body which is lighter will
then θ=0 and sin 0 =0. If anti-parallel, then𝛉=180 and sin 180=0. Hence,
Pa

Pa

Pa
By substituting m1 = m2 and u2 = 0 in equations (8) and equations (9) move with twice the initial velocity of the first body.
τ = 0. The torque is zero if the force acts at the reference point. i.e. as r=0,
we get, It means that the lighter body is thrown away from the point of
τ = 0.
From equation (8) –→ v1 = 0 ---------------(12) collision.
w.

w.

w.
From equation (9) –→ v2 = u1 --------------- (13) 5. What is the relation between torque and angular momentum?
30. What is inelastic collision? In which way it is different from elastic collision.
Equations (12) and (13) show that when the first body comes to rest Mention few examples in day to day life for inelastic collision. An external torque on a rigid body fixed to an axis produces rate
the second body moves with the initial velocity of the first body. dL
ofchange of angular momentum in the body about that axis. Τ =
ww

ww

ww
1. In a collision, the total initial kinetic energy of the bodies(before dt
Case 3: The first body is very much lighter than the second body collision) is not equal to the total final kinetic energy of the bodies(after
𝒎𝟏 𝑚1 collision) then, it is called as inelasticcollision. i.e., 6. What is equilibrium?
(𝒎𝟏 ≪ 𝒎𝟐 , ≪ 𝟏)then the ratio ≈ 0. And also if the target is at
𝒎𝟐 𝑚2
2. Momentum is conserved. Kinetic energy is not conservedin elastic i) A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when both its linear
rest (u2=0) momentumand angular momentum remain constant.
collision. Mechanical energy is dissipated into heat, light, sound etc.
Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (8) by m2, we get ii) When all the forces act upon the object are balanced, then the object is
𝑚1
When a light body collides against any massive body at rest it sticks to
−1 2 0−1 said to be an equilibrium.
𝑚 it.
v1 = ( 𝑚21 ) u1 + (𝑚1 ) (0); v1 = ( )u1; v1 = – u1 -------------(14)
+1 +1 0+1
𝑚2 𝑚2 3. Total kinetic energy before collision ≠ Total kinetic energy after
Similarly, Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (9) by m 2, 7. Give any two examples of torque in day-to-day life.
collision i) Opening and closing of a door about the hinges
we get Total kinetic energy Total kinetic energy Loss in energy during
𝑚
2 1
𝑚1 𝑚1 [ ]−[ ]=[ ] ii) Turning of a nut using a wrench
𝑚2
1−
𝑚2
1−
𝑚2 after collision before collision collision
v2 = ( 𝑚1 ) u1 + ( 𝑚1 ) (0) ; v2 = (o)u1 + ( 𝑚1 ) (0) ; v2 = 0 ----- (15) iii) Opening a bottle cap (or) water top
+1 +1 +1
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

8. How do you distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium? 15. What are the rotational equivalents for the physical quantities, 39. Give an example to show that the following statement is false. ‘any twoforces
(i) mass and (ii) force? acting on a body can be combined into single force that would havesame
Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium
i) For mass : Moment of inertia , I = mr2 ii) For Force : Torque 𝜏 = I 𝛼 effect’.
Linear momentum and angular Linear momentum and angular Lifting a table from the floor by two persons pushing the car by two persons.
momentum are zero. momentum are zero. 16. What is the condition for pure rolling?
The body tries to come back to The body cannot come back to (i) The combination of translational motion and rotational motion about FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER QUESTIONS
equilibriumif slightly disturbed and equilibriumif slightly disturbed and the center of mass. (or)
released. released. 40. Explain the types of equilibrium with suitable examples
(ii) The momentary rotational motion about the point of contact.
The center of mass of the body shifts The center of mass of the body shifts Translational equilibrium:
slightly higherif disturbed from slightly lowerif disturbed from 17. What is the difference between sliding and slipping? 1) Linear momentum is constant 2) Net force is zero
equilibrium. equilibrium. Sliding is the case when vCM > R𝛚(or vTRANS > vROT). The translation is Rotational equilibrium:
et

et

et
Potential energy of the body is Potential energy of the body is not morethan the rotation. 1) Angular momentum is constant 2) Net torque is zero
minimumand it increases if disturbed. minimum and it decreases if disturbed Slippingis the case when vCM < R𝛚(or vTRANS < vROT). The rotation is more Static equilibrium:
i.N

i.N

i.N
than the translation. 1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
9. Define couple. 2) Net force and net torque are zero
Pair of forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in 18. What is rigid body? Dynamic equilibrium:
directionand separated by a perpendicular distanceso that their lines of A rigid body is the one which maintains its definite and fixed shape even
la

la

la
1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are constant
action do not coincide that causes a turning effect is called a couple when anexternal force acts on it. 2) Net force and net torque are zero
sa

sa

sa
19. Define Point Mass Stable equilibrium:
10. State principle of moments.
When an object is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise moments A point mass is a hypothetical point particle which has nonzero mass 1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
about a turning point must be equal to the sum of the clockwise moments. and no size or shape. 2) The body tries to come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
da

da

da
released
11. Define center of gravity. 20. State the rule which is used to find the direction of torque. 3) The center of mass of the body shifts slightly higher if disturbed from
The point at which the entire weight of the body acts irrespective of the The direction of torque is found using right hand rule. This rule says that equilibrium
if fingersof right hand are kept along the position vector with palm facing the
Pa

Pa

Pa
position and orientation of the body. 4) Potential energy of the body is minimum and it increases if disturbed
direction of the force and when the fingers are curled the thumb points to the Unstable equilibrium:
12. Mention any two physical significance of moment of inertia. direction of the torque. 1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
i) For rotational motion, moment of inertia is a measure of rotational
2) The body cannot come back to equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
w.

w.

w.
inertia. 21. When will a body have a precession?
The torque about the axis will rotate the object about it and the torque released
ii) The moment of inertia of a body is not an invariable quantity. It depends
perpendicularto the axis will turn the axis of rotation. When both exist 3) The center of mass of the body shifts slightly lower if disturbed from
not onlyon the mass of the body, but also on the way the mass is
ww

ww

ww
simultaneously on a rigidbody, the body will have a precession. equilibrium
distributed around the axis of rotation.
4) Potential energy of the body is not minimum and it decreases if
13. What is radius of gyration? 22. State Parallel axis theorem disturbed
The radius of gyration of an object is the perpendicular distance from The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of Neutral equilibrium:
the axis ofrotation to an equivalent point mass, which would have the same its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its center of mass and the 1) Linear momentum and angular momentum are zero
mass as well as the same moment of inertia of the object. product of the mass of the body and the square of the perpendicular distance 2) The body remains at the same equilibrium if slightly disturbed and
between the two axes. I = IC + Md2 released
14. State conservation of angular momentum.
3) The center of mass of the body does not shift higher or lower if
When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum
disturbed from equilibrium
of a rotatingrigid body remains constant. This is known as law of conservation
4) Potential energy remains same even if disturbed
of angular momentum.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

41. Explain the method to find the center of gravity of a irregularly shaped v) The forces acting on the system are, (i) gravitational force (mg), As the mass is uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (𝜆) of the
lamina. (ii) normal force (N), (iii) frictional force (f) and (iv) centrifugal force 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑴
rod is, 𝜆 = ;𝝀 =
1) The center of gravity of a uniform 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝒍
( ) 𝑀
lamina of even an irregular 𝐫 The (dm) mass of the infinitesimally small length as, dm = λdx = dx.
𝑙
shape by pivoting it at various vi) As the system is in equilibrium in the rotational frame of reference, the
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire rod can be found by integrating
points by trial and error. net external force and net external torque must
dI, I = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫(𝑑𝑚)𝑥 2 ;
2) The lamina remains horizontal be zero. Let us consider all torques about the 𝑴
when pivoted at the point where point A in Figure ∫ ( 𝒍 𝒅𝒙) 𝒙𝟐 ;
vii) For rotational equilibrium, 𝝉⃗ net = 0. The torque 𝑀
the net gravitational force acts, I=
𝑙
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
which is the center of gravity due to the gravitational force about point A is 4) As the mass is distributed on either side of the origin, the limits for
et

et

et

3) When a body is supported at the (mgAB) which causes a clockwise turn that is 𝒍 𝒍
taken as negative. The torque due to the integration aretaken from – to
center of gravity, the sum of the torques acting on all the point masses 𝟐 𝟐
𝑙
i.N

i.N

i.N

of the rigid body becomes zero. Moreover, the weight is compensated mv2 𝑙
centripetal force is( BC)which causes an 𝑀 𝑀 𝑥3 2
by the normal reaction force exerted by the pivot. r I=
𝑙
∫−𝑙2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙
[ ] −𝑙
3
anticlockwise turn that is taken as positive. 2
2
4) The body is in static equilibrium and hence it remains horizontal.
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝑀 𝑙3 𝑙3 𝑀 𝑙3 𝑙3
− mgAB + BC = 0; mg AB = BC [ − (− )] = [ + ]
la

la

la

5) There is also another way to determine the center of gravity of an 𝐫 𝐫

I=
𝑙 24 24 𝑙 24 24
irregular lamina. From ∆ABC, 𝑀 𝑙3
I= [2 ( )] ;
If we suspend the lamina from different points like P, Q, R, the vertical 𝑙 24
sa

sa

sa

AB = ACsinθ and BC = ACcosθ;

𝟏
lines PP', QQ', RR' all pass through the center of gravity. mv2 v2 I= ml2
mg ACsinθ = ACcosθ; tan θ = 𝟏𝟐
6) Here, reaction force acting at the point of suspension and the r rg
𝒗𝟐 44. Derive the expression for moment of inertia of a uniform ring about an
da

da

da

gravitational force acting at the center of gravity cancel each other and θ = tan-1( )
𝒓𝒈 axispassing through the center and perpendicular to the plane.
the torques caused by them also cancel each other.
viii) While negotiating a circular level road of radius r at velocity v, a cyclist 1) Consider a uniform ring of mass M and radius R. To find the moment
42. Explain why a cyclist bends while negotiating a curve road? Arrive at has to bend by an angle θ from vertical given by the above expression of inertiaof the ring about an axis passing through its centerand
Pa

Pa

Pa

theexpression for angle of bending for a given velocity. to stay in equilibrium (i.e. to avoid a fall). perpendicular to the plane, let us take an infinitesimally small mass
i) Let us consider a cyclist negotiating a circular level road (not banked) (dm) of length (dx) of the ring.
of radius r with a speed v. 43. Derive the expression for moment of inertia of a rod about its center and
perpendicular to the rod. 2) This (dm) is located at a distance R, which is the radius of the ring from
w.

w.

w.

ii) The cycle and the cyclist are considered as one the axis as shown in Figure. The moment of inertia (dI) of this small
1) Let us consider a uniform rod of mass (M) and length (l) as shown in
system with mass m. The center gravity of the mass (dm) is, dI = (dm)R2
Figure. Letus find an expression for
system is C and it goes in a circle of radius r The length of the ring is its circumference (2πR). As the mass is
moment of inertia of this rod about an
ww

ww

ww

with center at O. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀

axis that passes through the center of uniformly distributed, the mass per unit length (𝜆) is, 𝜆 = ;𝜆 =
iii) Let us choose the line OC as X-axis and the 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2𝜋𝑅
mass and perpendicular tothe rod. The (dm) mass of the infinitesimally small length as,
vertical line through O as Z-axis as shown in
2) First an origin is to be fixed for the 𝑴
Figure dm = λ, dx = dx.
coordinate system so that it coincides 𝟐𝝅𝑹
iv) The system as a frame is rotating about Z-axis. Now, the moment of inertia (I) of the entire ring is,
with thecenter of mass, which is also
The system is at rest in this rotating frame. To I = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫(𝑑𝑚)𝑅2 ;
the geometric center of the rod. The
solve problems in rotating frame of reference, 𝑀
rod is now along the x axis. ∫ (2𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑥) 𝑅2
we have to apply a centrifugal force (pseudo force) on the system
3) We take an infinitesimally small mass (dm) at a distance (x) from the 𝑀𝑅
which will be
mv2
.This force will act through the center of gravity.
I= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
r
origin. The moment of inertia (dI) of this mass (dm) about the axis is, 2𝜋
dI = (dm)x2 To cover the entire length of the ring, the limits of
integration are taken from 0 to 2πR

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

I =
𝑀𝑅
∫
2𝜋𝑅
𝑑𝑥 ;=
𝑀𝑅
[𝑥]2𝜋𝑅 ; 5) One striking Example: The ice dancer spins slowly when the hands are vi) Here, Σm is the entire mass M of the object (Σm =M)
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝑀𝑅 stretched out and spins faster when the hands are brought close to the I = IC +Md2
= [2𝜋𝑅 − 0] body. Stretching of hands away from body increases moment of Hence, the parallel axis theorem is proved.
2𝜋
I = MR2 inertia, thus the angular velocity decreases resulting in slower spin.
6) When the hands arebrought close to the body, the moment of inertia 48. State and prove perpendicular axis theorem.
45. Derive the expression for moment of inertia of a uniform disc about an i) The theorem states that the moment of inertia of a plane laminar body
decreases, and thus the angular velocity increases resulting
axispassing through the center and perpendicular to the plane. about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of
i) Consider a disc of mass M and radius R. This disc is made up of in faster spin.
moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes lying in the plane of
many infinitesimally small rings as shown in Figure. Consider one the body such that all the three axes are mutually perpendicular and
47. State and prove parallel axis theorem.
such ring of mass (dm) and thickness i) Parallel axis theorem states that the moment of inertia of a body about have a common point.

et

et

et
(dr) and radius (r). The moment of any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel ii) Let the X and Y-axes lie in the plane and Z-axis perpendicular to the
inertia (dI) of this small ring is, axis through its center of mass and the product of the mass of the body plane of thelaminar object. If the moments of inertia of the body about
dI = (dm)r2

i.N

i.N

i.N
and the square of the perpendicular distance between the two axes. X and Y-axes are IXand IYrespectively and IZis the moment of inertia
ii) As the mass is uniformly distributed, ii) If IC is the moment of inertia of the body of mass M about an axis about Z-axis, then the perpendicularaxis theorem could be expressed
𝑀
the mass per unit area (σ) is, σ = passing through the center of mass, then the moment of inertia I about as, IZ = IX + IY
𝜋𝑅 2
a parallel axis at a distance d from it is given by the relation, iii) To prove this theorem, let us consider a plane laminar object of

la

la

la
The mass of the infinitesimally small
𝑀 I = IC + Md2 negligible thicknesson which lies the origin (O). The X and Y-axes lie on
ring is, dm = σ 2 𝜋rdr = 2 𝜋rdr
𝜋𝑅 2 iii) let us consider a rigid body as shown in the plane and Z-axis is perpendicular to it as shown in Figure. The
sa

sa

sa
where, the term (2πr dr) is the area of this elemental ring (2πr is
Figure. Its moment of inertia about an lamina is considered to be made up of a
the length and dr isthe thickness)
axis AB passing through the center of large number of particles of mass m. Let
2𝑀 2𝑀
dm = rdr ; dI = r3dr mass is IC. DE is another axis parallel to us choose one such particle at a point P
da

da

da
𝑅2 𝑅2
The moment of inertia (I) of the entire disc is, I = ∫ 𝒅𝑰 AB at a perpendicular distance d from AB. which has coordinates (x, y) at a
𝑅 2𝑀 3 2𝑀 𝑅 The moment of inertia of the body about distance r from O.
I = ∫0 r dr; = 2 ∫0 r 3 dr
𝑅2 𝑅 DE is I. We attempt to get an expression iv) The moment of inertia of the particle
Pa

Pa

Pa
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑟 4 2𝑀 𝑅 4
I= [ ] ; = [ − 0] I = ½ MR2 for I in terms of IC. For this, let us consider about Z-axis is, mr2 the summation of
𝑅2 4 0 𝑅2 4
a point mass m on the body at position x the above expression gives the moment
46. Discuss conservation of angular momentum with example. from its center of mass. of inertia of the entire lamina about Z-axis as, IZ = Σ mr2
w.

w.

w.
1) When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular iv) The moment of inertia of the point mass Here, r2= x2+ y2; Then, IZ = Σm (x2+ y2)
momentumof a rotatingrigid body remains constant. This is known as about the axis DE is, IZ = Σ mx2+Σmy2
law of conservation of angularmomentum. 𝜏 =
𝑑𝐿
if 𝜏 =0 then, m(x + d)2.The moment of inertia I of the In the above expression, the term Σmx2 is the
ww

ww

ww
𝑑𝑡
whole body about DE is the summation of moment of inertia of the body about the Y-axis and
L = Constant
theabove expression. similarly, the term Σ my2 is the moment of inertia
2) As the angular momentum is L = Iω, the conservation of angular
I =Σm(x + d)2This equation could further be written as, about X-axis. Thus, IX = Σ my2 and IY = Σ mx2
momentum couldfurther be written for initial and final situations as,
I =Σm(x2+ d2+ 2xd) Substituting in the equation for Iz gives, IZ = IX + IY
Iiωi = Ifωf (or) Iω = constant
I =Σ(mx2+md2+ 2dmx) Thus, the perpendicular axis theorem is proved.
3) The above equations say that if I increase ω will decrease and vice-
I =Σmx2+Σmd2+ 2dΣmx
versa to keep theangular momentum constant.
v) Here, Σmx2 is the moment of inertia of the body about thecenter of
4) There are several situations where the principle of conservation of
mass. Hence, IC = Σmx2
angular momentum is applicable.
The term, Σmx = 0 because, x can take positive and negative values
with respect to the axis AB. The summation (Σmx) will be zero
Thus, I = IC+Σmd2; IC+(Σm)d2

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

49. Discuss rolling on inclined plane and arrive at the expression for the K2
(1+ 2 )
UNIT – VI (GRAVITATION)
acceleration. 𝑣 2gh R
t= ; t = (√ K2
)( )
1) Let us assume a round object of mass m and radius R is rolling down 𝑎 (1+ 2 ) g sin θ
R TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
an inclinedPlane without slipping as shown in Figure. There are two
forces acting on the object along the inclined plane. 𝐊𝟐 1. State Kepler’s three laws.
𝟐𝒉(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
One is the component of gravitational force (mg sinθ) and the other is t=√
2) 𝐑 1. Law of orbits: Each planet moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit
𝒈𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
the static frictional force (f). The other component of gravitation force withthe Sun at one of the foci.
(mg cosθ) is cancelled by the normal force (N) exerted by the plane. As 7) The equation suggests that for a given incline, the object with the least 2. Law of area:
the motion is happening along the incline, we shall write the equation value of radius of gyration K will reach the bottom of the incline first. The radial vector (line joining the Sun to a planet) sweeps equal areas
for motion from the free body diagram (FBD) of the object. in equal intervals of time.
et

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50. Derive an expression for the position vector of the center of mass of particle
3) For translational motion, mg sinθ is the supporting force and f is the system. 3. Law of period:
opposing force, mg sinθ – f = ma -----(1) i) To find the center of mass for a collection of n point masses, say, m1, The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the Sun
i.N

i.N

i.N
For rotational motion, let us take the torque with respect to the center m2, m3 . . . mn. we have to first choose an origin and an appropriate in its Elliptical orbit is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-
of the object. coordinate system as shown in Figure. major axis of the ellipse.
Then mg sinθ cannot cause torque as it passes through it but the ii) Let, x1, x2, x3 . . . xn be the X-coordinates of the positions of these point
2. State Newton’s Universal law of gravitation.
la

la

la
frictional force fcan set torque of Rf. Rf = Iα masses in the X -direction from the origin. The equation for the x
4) By using the relation, a = r α, and moment of inertia Σmi 𝑥𝑖
Newton’s law of gravitation states that a particle of mass M1 attracts
coordinate of the center of mass is, xCM = any other particle of mass M2 in the universe with an attractive force. The
I =mK2, we get, Σ𝑚𝑖
sa

sa

sa
a 𝐊𝟐 where, Σmi is the total mass M of all the particles, (Σmi= M). strength of this force of attraction was found to be directly proportional to the
Rf = mk2 ; f = ma ( 𝟐 ) 𝛴𝑚 𝑥 product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the
R 𝐑 Hence, xCM = 𝑖 𝑖
Now equation (1) becomes 𝑀 distance between them.
da

da

da
iii) Similarly, we can also find y and z
K2
mg sinθ – ma ( 2 ) = ma coordinates of the center of mass for 3. Will the angular momentum of a planet be conserved? Justify your answer.
R
𝐊𝟐 thesedistributed point masses as GMS ME
mg sinθ = ma + ma ( 𝟐 ) Yes, Because ⃗τ = r x ⃗F ; r x ( r̂) = 0
Pa

Pa

Pa
𝐑 indicated in Figure. r2
K2 ⃗
𝑑𝐿
a(1 + ) = g sinθ yCM =
𝜮𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊
; zCM =
𝜮𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 Since r = r r̂, (r̂xr̂) = 0 So, ⃗τ = =0
R2 𝑑𝑡
𝑴 𝑴
After rewriting it for acceleration, iv) Hence, the position of center of mass of It implies that angular momentum is a constant vector. The angular
w.

w.

w.
𝐠 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
we get, a = 𝐊𝟐
these point masses in a Cartesian momentum of the Earth about the Sun is constant throughout the motion.
(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
𝐑 coordinatesystem is (xCM, yCM, zCM). In
5) We can also find the expression for final velocity of the rolling object general, the position of center of mass 4. Define the gravitational field. Give its unit.
ww

ww

ww
by using thirdequation of motion for the inclined plane. v2= u2+ 2as. If can be written in a vector form as, The gravitational force experienced by unit mass placed at that point.
the body starts rolling from rest, u = 0. When h is the vertical height of Σ𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 ⃗ 21
F Gm1
𝑟CM = ⃗1=
Unit E in equation we get, ⃗E = – r . its unit is N kg-1 (or) m s-2
𝐡 𝑀 m2 r2
the incline, the length of the incline s is, S = ; ̂ is the position vector of the center of
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 v) ⃗ CM = xCM𝒊̂+ yCM𝒋̂+zCM𝒌
where, 𝒓
g sin θ ℎ 2gh 5. What is meant by superposition of gravitational field?
v2 =2 K2
( ) = K2
mass and 𝑟i = xi𝑖̂+ yi𝑗̂+zi𝑘̂ is the position vector of the distributed point
(1+ 2 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1+ 2 ) Consider ‘n’ particles of masses, m1 ,m2 …mn distributed in space at
R R mass; where,𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ are the unit vectors along X, Y and Z-axes
positionsr̂1 , r̂2, r̂3 ….etc, with respect to point P. The total gravitational field at
𝟐𝒈𝒉 respectively.
By taking square root, v = √ 𝑲𝟐
a point P due to all the masses is given by the vector sum of the gravitational
(𝟏+ 𝟐 )
𝑹 field due to the individual masses. This principle is known as superposition of
6) The time taken for rolling down the incline could also be written from gravitational fields.
first equation of motion as, v = u + at. For the object which starts ⃗ total = ⃗E1 + E
E ⃗ n ; = –𝐺𝑚21 𝑟1 –𝐺𝑚22 𝑟2 – …. 𝐺𝑚2𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ; = – ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐺𝑚2 𝑖 𝑟𝑖
⃗ 2 + …..E
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑖
rolling from rest, u = 0. Then,
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

6. Define gravitational potential energy. 12. What are geostationary and polar satellites? FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
Gravitational potential energy associated with this conservative force Geostationary satellites:
field. Thegravitationalpotentialenergyisdefinedas the work done to bring The satellites revolving the Earth at the height of 36000km above the 35. Discuss the important features of the law of gravitation.
the mass m2 from infinity to a distance ‘r’ in the gravitational field of mass Important features of gravitational force:
equator, are appear to be stationary when seen from Earth is called
1) As the distance between two massesincreases, the strength of the
m 1. Its unit is joule. geo-stationary satellites.
force tends to decrease because of inverse dependence on r2.
Polar satellites:
7. Is potential energy the property of a single object? Justify. Physically it implies that Ex. The planet
The satellites which revolve from north to south of the Earth at the height
Potential energy is a property of a system rational than of a single object Uranus experiences less gravitational
of 500 to 800km from the Earth surface are called Polarsatellites.
due to its physical position. Because gravitational potential energy depends force from the Sun than the Earth since
on relative position. So, a reference level at which to set the potential energy 13. Define weight Uranus is at larger distance from the
et

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et

equal to zero. The weight of an object is defined as the downward force whose Sun compared to the Earth.
magnitude W is equal to that of upward force that must be applied to the 2) The gravitational forces between two
i.N

i.N

i.N

8. Define gravitational potential. object to hold it at rest or at constant velocity relative to the earth. The
The gravitational potential at a distance r due to a mass is defined as particles always constitute an action-
magnitude of weight of an object is denoted as, W=N=mg. reaction pair. It implies that the
the amount of work required to bring unit mass from infinity to the distancer.
14. Why is there no lunar eclipse and solar eclipse every month? gravitational force exerted by the Sun on the Earth is always towards
la

la

la

9. What is the difference between gravitational potential and gravitational the Sun. The reaction-force is exerted by the Earth on the Sun. The
Moon’s orbit is tilted 50 with respectto Earth’s orbit, only during certain
potential energy? direction of this reaction force is towards Earth.
periods of the year; the Sun, Earth and Moon alignin straight line leading to
sa

sa

sa

Gravitational potential: 3) The torque experienced by the Earth due to the gravitational force of
either lunar eclipse or solar eclipse depending on the alignment.
The amount of work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity GMS ME
the Sun is given by τ⃗ = r x ⃗F ; r x ( r̂) = 0
GM 15. How will you prove that Earth itself is spinning? r2
to that point without acceleration. V = – ⃗
da

da

da

R 𝑑𝐿
Gravitational potential Energy: The Earth’s spinning motion can be proved by observing star’s position Since r = r r̂, (r̂xr̂) = 0 So, τ⃗ = =0
𝑑𝑡
over a night. Due to Earth’s spinning motion, the stars in sky appear to move
The energy stored in the body at that point. If the position of the body It implies that angular momentum is a constant vector. The angular
in circular motion about the pole star.
changes due to force acting on it, then change in its potential energy is equal momentum of the Earth about the Sun is constant throughout the
Pa

Pa

Pa

GMm 16. What is meant by state of weightlessness?

to the amount of work done on the body by the forces acting on it. U = – motion.
R When downward acceleration of the object is equal to the acceleration 4) Earth orbits around the Sun due to Sun’s gravitational force, we
10. What is meant by escape speed in the case of the Earth? due to the gravity of the Earth, the object appears to be weightless assumed Earth and Sun to be point masses. This assumption is a good
w.

w.

w.

The minimum speed required by an object to escape from Earth’s approximation because the distance between the two bodies is very
17. Why do we have seasons on Earth?
gravitationalfield.ie. Ve = √𝟐𝐠𝐑 𝐄 ; Ve = 11.2 kms-1 The seasons in the Earth arise due to the rotation of Earth around the much larger than their diameters.
5) To calculate force of attraction between a hollow sphere of mass M
ww

ww

ww

Sun with 23.5° tilt. Due to this 23.5° tilt, when the northern part of Earth is
11. Why is the energy of a satellite (or any other planet) negative? with uniform density and point mass m kept outside the hollow sphere,
The negative sign in the total energy implies that the satellite is bound farther to the Sun, the southern part is nearer to the Sun. So when it is
summer in the northern hemisphere, the southern hemisphere experience we can replace the hollow sphere of mass M as equivalent to a point
to the Earth and it cannot escape from the Earth. mass M located at the center of the hollow sphere.
winter.
As h approaches, ∞ the total energy tends to zero. Its physical meaning 6) If we place another object of mass ‘m’ inside this hollow sphere, the
is that the satellite is completely free from the influence of Earth’s gravity and 18. Water falls from the top of a hill to the ground. Why? force experienced by this mass ‘m’ will be zero.
is not bound to Earth at large distances. This is because the top of the hill is a point of higher gravitational
potential than the surface of the Earth. i.e. Vhill > Vground.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

36. Explain how Newton arrived at his law of gravitation from Kepler’s third law. 37. Explain how Newton verified his law of gravitation. 5) This work done W gives the gravitational potential energy difference
Newton’s inverse square Law: 1) Newton verified his law of universal gravitation by comparing the of the system of masses m1and m2when the separation between them
Newton considered the orbits of the acceleration of a terrestrial object to the acceleration of the moon. are r and r’ respectively.
planets as circular. For circular orbit of radius r, 2) He knew that the distance from the center of earth to the center of
the centripetal acceleration towards the center is two spheres of known mass at either end of a light rod suspended by 39. Prove that at points near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational
a then fiber from the center of the rod. potentialenergy of the object is U = mgh.
𝒗𝟐
a= − ---------------------- 1 3) He had earlier found the small force that was needed to twist the 1) Consider the Earth and mass system, with r, the distance between the
𝒓
Here v is the velocity and r, the distance of fiber. mass m and the Earth’s centre. Then the gravitational potential
the planet from the center of the orbit. The 𝑮𝑴 𝒎
4) By bringing a third sphere close to one of the suspended spheres. energy,U = – 𝒆 ----------------- 1
𝒓
velocity in terms of known quantities r and T, is 5) He was able to measure the force of gravity between the spheres and

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et
2) Here r = Re+h, where Re is the radius of the Earth. h is the height
𝟐𝛑𝐫
V= --------------------- 2 hence gravitation. 𝑴 𝒎
𝐓 above the Earth’s surface, U = – G (𝑹 𝒆 ------------- 2
Here T is the time period of revolution of the planet. Substituting this 𝒆 +𝒉)

i.N

i.N

i.N
38. Derive the expression for gravitational potential energy. If h << Re, equation (2) can be modified as
value of v in equation (1) we get,
1) Two masses m1 and m2 are 𝑀𝑒𝑚 𝑴 𝒎 𝒉 −𝟏
(
𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐
)
U=–G ℎ ; U = – G 𝒆 (𝟏 + ) ---------- 3
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐫 initially separated by a distance 𝑅𝑒 (1+ ) 𝑹𝒆 𝑹𝒆
a= 𝐓 = – 𝟐 ------- 3 𝑅𝑒
𝐫 𝐓

la

la

la
rI. Assuming m1 to be fixed in its 3) By using Binomial expansion and neglecting the higher order terms, we
Substituting the value of ‘a’ from (3) in Newton’s second law, F = ma,
position, work must be done on 𝑴𝒆 𝒎 𝒉
where ‘m’ is the mass of the planet. getU = – G (𝟏 − ) ---------- 4
m2 to move the distance from rI 𝑹𝒆 𝑹𝒆
sa

sa

sa
𝟒𝛑𝐦𝐫
F= --------------------- 4 to r as shown in Figure (a) We know that, for a mass m on the Earth’s surface,
𝐓𝟐
𝑴𝒆 𝒎
r3 2) To move the mass m2 through G = mgRe ---------------- 5
From Kepler’s third law, = k (Constant) ----------- 5 𝑹𝒆
T2
da

da

da
𝐫 𝐤
an infinitesimaldisplacement Substituting equation (5) in (4) we get, U = – mgRe + mgh
= 𝟐 ------------------ 6 d𝑟from r to 𝑟 + d𝑟 (shown in the
𝐓𝟐 𝐫 It is clear that the first term in the above expression is independent of
By substituting equation 6 in the force expression, we can arrive at the law of Figure (b), work has to be done the height h. For example, if the object is taken from h and it can be
Pa

Pa

Pa
𝟒𝛑𝟐𝐦𝐤 externally.
gravitation. F= 𝟐 ----------7 omitted. U = mgh
𝐫
This infinitesimal work is given by dW = 𝑭⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕 . d𝒓
⃗ --------------- 1
Here negative sign implies that the force is attractive and it acts 40. Explain in detail the idea of weightlessness using lift as an example.
towards the center. In equation (7), mass of the planet ‘m’ comes explicitly. 3) The work is done against the gravitational force, therefore,
𝐆𝐦 𝐦 i) When the lift falls (when the lift wire cuts) with downward
w.

w.

w.
But Newton strongly felt that according to his third law, if Earth is attracted by |𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 | = |𝐅𝐆 | = 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 ----------- 2
𝐫 acceleration a = g, the person inside the elevator is in the state of
the Sun, then the Sun must also be attracted by the Earth with the same Substituting equation (2) in (1), we get weightlessness or free fall.
magnitude of force. So he felt that the Sun’s mass (M) should also occur 𝐆𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
𝒓̂ . d𝒓 ⃗ = dr 𝒓̂
⃗ ; d𝒓
ww

ww
dW =

ww
𝐫𝟐
ii) As they fall freely, they are not in contact with any surface
explicitly in the expression for force. From this insight, he equated the constant Gm1 m2 (by neglecting air friction). The normal force acting on the object is zero.
4π2 k to GM which turned out to be the law of gravitation. 𝑟̂ . d𝑟 ; 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ = 1 (Since both are unit vectors)
r2 The downward acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to the
𝐆𝐌𝐦 Gm m
F= 𝟐 dW = 12 2 dr gravity of the Earth. i.e (a = g). From equation N = m (g − a) we get,
𝐫 r
Again the negative sign in the above equation implies that the 4) Thus the total work done for displacing the particle from a = g ∴N = m (g – g) = 0. This is called the state of weightlessness.
gravitational force is attractive. 𝑟 𝑟 Gm1 m2
rI to r is W = ∫𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝑟 ′ dr
r2
𝐆𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
W=–( ) 𝒓𝒓′
𝐫𝟐
Gm1 m2 Gm1 m2
W=– +
r r′
W = U (r) – U (r’)
Gm1 m2
Where U (r) =
r

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41. Derive an expression for escape speed. 42. Explain the variation of g with latitude. 44. Explain the variation of g with depth from the Earth’s surface.
1) Consider an object of mass M on the surface of the Earth. When it is Variation of g with latitude: Variation of g with depth:
thrown up with an initial speedvi , the initial total energy of the object Whenever we analyze the motion of Consider a particle of mass m which is
𝐆𝐌𝐌𝐄 objects in rotating frames, we must take into
isEi = ½ MVi2– ---------------- 1 in a deep mine on the earth. Ex. Coal mines
𝐑𝐄
account the centrifugal force. Even though we – in Neyveli). Assume the depth of the mine
Where ME, is the mass of the Earth and RE - the radius of the Earth.
treat the Earth as an inertial frame, it is not as d.To Calculate g at a depth d, consider the
GMME
The term – is the potential energy of the mass M. exactly correct because the Earth spins about following points. The part of the Earth which
RE
2) When the object reaches a height far away from Earth and hence its own axis. So when an object is on the is above the radius (Re – d) do not contribute
treated as approaching infinity, the gravitational potential energy surface of the Earth, it experiences a to the acceleration. The result is proved
becomes zero [ U (∞) = 0] and the kinetic energy becomes zero as well. centrifugal force that depends on the latitude 𝐺𝑀 ′
et

et

et
earlier and is given as g ′ = (𝑅𝑒−𝑑)2
Here M is
Therefore, the final total energy of the object becomes zero. This is for of the object on Earth. If the Earth were not
minimum energy and for minimum speed to escape. Otherwise Kinetic spinning, the force on the object would have the mass of the Earth of radius (Re – d).
i.N

i.N

i.N
energy can be non-zero. been mg. However, the object experiences an Assuming the density of earth ρ to be
Ef = 0, According to the law of energy conservation, Ei = Ef -------- 2 additional centrifugal force due to spinning of the Earth. constant,
This centrifugal force is given by mω2 R′ M′ M′ M M
Substituting (1) in (2) we get, ρ= ; = and M ′ = V′
V′ V′ V V
la

la

la
½ MVi2–
GMME
=0 𝐑′ = R cos 𝝀 ------------ 1
′ M 4
RE Where λ is the latitude. The component of centrifugal acceleration experienced M = (4 3
) ( 𝜋(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)3 ) ;
𝐆𝐌𝐌𝐄 πRe 3
by the object in the direction opposite to g is ac = 𝛚𝟐 𝐑′ cos 𝝀
sa

sa

sa
½ MVi2= ----------------- 3 3
𝐑𝐄 𝑀
= 𝛚𝟐 𝐑 cos2𝝀since R′ = R cos 𝜆 Therefore, M′ = (Re – d)3
3) The escape speed, the minimum speed required by an object to escape 𝑅𝑒3
Earth’s gravitational field, hence replace, ViwithVe. i.e, 𝐠 ′ = g – 𝛚𝟐 𝐑 cos2𝝀 ----------- 2 𝐠 ′ =G
𝑴
(Re – d)3 . (𝑹
𝟏
;
𝑹𝟑
da

da

da
𝟐
𝒆 −𝒅)
½ MVe2=
GMME From the expression (2), we can infer that at equator,𝜆=0; g ′ = g – ω2 R. 𝒆
𝑑
RE 𝑅𝑒 (1− )
𝐆𝐌𝐌𝐄 𝟐 𝟐𝐆𝐌𝐄
The acceleration due to gravity is minimum. At poles λ = 90; g ′ = g, it is g ′ = GM
𝑅𝑒

Ve2= . ; Ve2= ------------- 4 𝑅𝑒3

𝐑𝐄 𝑴 𝐑𝐄 maximum. At the equator, g ′ is minimum. 𝑑
Pa

Pa

Pa
(1− ) 𝒅
GME 𝑅𝑒
Using g = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 5 g ′ = GM thus 𝐠 ′ = g (𝟏 − ). Here also 𝐠 ′<g .
𝑅𝑒2 43. Explain the variation of g with altitude. 𝑅𝑒2 𝑹𝒆

Ve2=2gRE ; Ve = √𝟐𝐠𝐑𝐄 -------------- 6 Variation of g with altitude: As depth increases,g ′ decreases.

w.

w.

w.
From equation (6) the escape speed depends on two factors: Consider an object of mass m at a 45. Derive the time period of satellite orbiting the Earth.
acceleration due to gravity and radius of the Earth. It is completely height h from the surface of the Earth. Time period of the satellite:
independent of the mass of the object. Acceleration experienced by the object due The distance covered by the satellite during one rotation in its orbit is
ww

ww

ww
𝐆𝐌
Ve = √𝟐𝐠𝐑 𝐄 ; Ve = 11.2 kms-1 to Earth is 𝐠 ′ = (𝐑 𝟐
equal to 2𝜋 (RE +h) and time taken for it is the time period, T. Then
𝐞 +𝐡)
−2 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝟐𝝅 (𝐑𝐄 +𝐡)
GM GM h =
g′ = h 2
; g′ = (1 + ) 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝑻
R2 R2
e Re
e (1+ Re
) 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝟐𝝅 (𝐑𝐄 +𝐡)
From equation, √(𝑹 = ---------------- 1
If h <<Re .We can use Binomial expansion. 𝑬 +𝒉) 𝑻
𝟑
Taking the terms upto first order T=
𝟐𝝅
(𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉) -------------------- 2
𝟐
GM h √𝑮𝑴𝑬
g′ = 2 (1 − 2 ) ; 𝟒𝝅𝟐
Re Re
𝐡
Squaring both sides of the equation (2), we get T2 = (RE + h)3
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝐠 ′ =g (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
𝐑𝐞 4𝜋2
= Constant say c, T2 = c (RE + h)3 ---------------- 3
We find that 𝐠 ′ < g. This means that as altitude h increases the acceleration 𝐺𝑀𝐸
due to gravity g decreases. Equation (3) implies that a satellite orbiting the Earth has the same
relation between time and distance as that of Kepler’s law of planetary

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motion. For a satellite orbiting near the surface of the Earth, h is negligible 3) Geo-stationary satellites for the purpose of telecommunication. Another 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
R= miles , R = 500 𝟏 R = 4000 miles.
𝜽
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 type of satellite which is placed at a distanceof 500 to 800 km from 𝟖
compared to the radius of the Earth RE . Then, T2 = RE 3 ; T 2 = 𝑮𝑴𝑬 1 mile is equal to 1.609 km. So, he measured the radius of the Earth
𝑮𝑴𝑬 the surface of the Earth orbits the Earth from north to south direction.
𝑹𝟐
𝑬
4) This type of satellite that orbits Earth from North Pole to South Pole is to be equal to R = 6436 km, which is amazingly close to the correct value of
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝑹𝑬
T2 = RE Since 𝟐 = g ; T = 2𝝅√ called a polar satellite. The time period of a polar satellite is nearly 100 6378 km.
𝒈 𝑹𝑬 𝒈
minutes and the satellite completes many revolutions in a day.
50. Describe the measurement of Earth’s shadow (umbra) radius duringtotal
46. Derive an expression for energy of satellite. 5) A Polar satellite covers a small strip of area from pole to pole during
Energy of an Orbiting Satellite lunar eclipse
one revolution. In the next revolution it covers a different strip of area
The total energy of a satellite orbiting the Earth at a distance h from the 1) It is possible to measure the radius of shadow of the Earth at the
since the Earth would have moved by a small angle. In this way polar
surface of Earth is calculated as follows; The total energy of the satellite is point where the Moon crosses.
satellites cover the entire surface area of the Earth.
et

et

et

the sum of its kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy. The 2) When the Moon is inside the umbra shadow, it appears red in color. As
𝐆𝐌 𝐌𝐄 48. Explain how geocentric theory is replaced by heliocentric theory using the soon as the Moon exits from the umbra shadow, it appears in crescent
potential energy of the satellite is, U = (𝐑 𝐒
i.N

i.N

i.N

𝐄 +𝐡) ideaof retrograde motion of planets. shape.

Here MS - mass of the satellite, ME- mass of the Earth, 1) To explain this retrograde motion, Ptolemy introduced the concept of 3) By finding the apparent radii of the Earth’s umbra shadow and the
RE - radius of the Earth. “epicycle” in his geocentric model. According to this theory, while the Moon, the ratio of these radii can be calculated.
The Kinetic energy of the satellite is KE = ½ MSV2 ------------1 planet orbited the Earth, it also underwent another circular motion 4) The apparent radius of Earth’s umbra shadow = Rs= 13.2 cm
la

la

la

GME
Here v is the orbital speed of the satellite and is equal to v = (R termed as “epicycle”. The apparent radius of the Moon = R m= 5.15 cm
E +h) 𝑅𝑆
2) A combination of epicycle and circular motion around the Earth gave The ratio ≈2.56 .
sa

sa

sa

Substituting the value of v in (1), the kinetic energy of the satellite becomes, 𝑅𝑚
𝟏 𝐆𝐌𝐒 𝐌𝐄 rise to retrograde motion of the planets with respect to Earth.
KE = The radius of the Earth’s umbra shadow is Rs= 2.56 x Rm.
𝟐 𝟐(𝐑 𝐄 +𝐡) 3) But Ptolemy’s model became more and more complex as every planet
𝟏 𝐆𝐌𝐒 𝐌𝐄 𝐆𝐌𝐒 𝐌𝐄
– was found to undergo retrograde motion. In the 15thcentury, the Polish
da

da

da

Therefore the total energy of the satellite is E =

𝟐 (𝐑 𝐄 +𝐡) (𝐑 𝐄 +𝐡)
𝐆𝐌𝐒 𝐌𝐄 astronomer Copernicus proposed.
E=– 4) The heliocentric model to explain this problem in a simpler manner.
𝟐(𝐑 𝐄 +𝐡)
The negative sign in the total energy implies that the satellite is bound According to this model, the Sun is at the center of the solar system
Pa

Pa

Pa

to the Earth and it cannot escape from the Earth. and all planets orbited the Sun.
5) The retrograde motion of planets with respect to Earth is because of
47. Explain in detail the geostationary and polar satellites. the relative motion of the planet with respect to Earth.
w.

w.

w.

Geo-stationary and polar satellite

1) The satellites orbiting the Earth have different time periods 49. Explain in detail the Eratosthenes method of finding the radius of Earth.
corresponding to different orbital radii. Can we calculate the orbital During noon time of summer solstice,
ww

ww

ww

radius of a satellite if its time period is 24 hours is calculated below. the Sun’s rays cast no shadow in the city Syne
Kepler’s third law is used to find the radius of the orbit. which was located 500 miles away from
4𝜋2 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑇 2
T2 = (RE + h)3 ; (RE + h)3 = Alexandria. At the same day and same time,
𝐺𝑀𝐸 4𝜋2
𝟏 he found that in Alexandria the Sun’s rays
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝑻𝟐 𝟑
(RE + h) = ( ) made 7.2 degree with local vertical. This
𝟒𝝅𝟐
2) Substituting for the time period (24 hrs = 86400 seconds), mass, and difference of 7.2 degree was due to the
radius of the Earth, h turns out to be 36,000 km. Such satellites are curvature of the Earth.
called “geo-stationary satellites”, since they appear to be stationary The angle 7.2 degree is equivalent to
𝟏 𝟏
when seen from Earth. radian. So, 𝛉 = rad.
𝟖 𝟖
If S is the length of the arc between the cities of Syne and Alexandria, and if
R is radius of Earth, then S = R θ = 500 miles, so radius of the Earth

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UNIT – VII (PROPERTIES OF MATTER) 8. Write down the expression for the elastic potential energy of a stretched wire. 14. Distinguish between streamlined flow and turbulent flow.
Consider a wire whose un-stretch length is L and area of cross section Streamlined flow:
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: is A. Let a force produce an extension land further assume that the elastic limit When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing through
of the wire has not been exceeded and there is no loss in energy. Then, the a point moves along the same path with the same velocity as its predecessor
1. Define stress and strain. work done by the force F is equal to the energy gained by the wire. then the flow of liquid is said to be a streamlined flow.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
The force per unit area is called as stress. Stress, σ = = The work done in stretching the wire by dl, dW = F d𝑙 The velocity of the particle at any point is constant. It is also referred to as
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
The SI unit of stress is N m-2 or Pascal (Pa) and its dimension is [ML-1T-2]. The total work done in stretching the wire from 0 to 𝑙is steady or laminar flow.
The fractional change in the size of the object, in other words, strain 𝑙 The actual path taken by the particle of the moving fluid is called a
W = ∫0 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 ------------------1
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 ∆𝒍 𝐹 𝐿 𝑌 𝐴𝑙
streamline, which is a curve, the tangent to which at any point gives the
measures the degree of deformation. Strain, e = = From Young’s modulus of elasticity, Y = x ⇒ F = --------- 2
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒍 direction of the flow of the fluid at that point.

et

et

et
𝐴 𝑙 𝐿
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get
2. State Hooke’s law of elasticity. Turbulent flow:
𝑙 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 2
Hooke’s law is for a small deformation, when the stress and strain are W = ∫0 𝑑𝑙 = = ½ .F 𝑙

i.N

i.N

i.N
𝐿 𝐿.2 When the speed of the moving fluid exceeds the critical speed, vcthe
2
proportional to each other. 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 ′ ′𝑙 𝑌𝐴 𝑙 2 1 𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝑌𝐴 𝑙 ′ 1 motion becomes turbulent.
W=∫ 𝑑𝑙 = | = = ( )𝑙 = F 𝑙
𝐿 𝐿 2 0 𝐿 2 2 𝐿 2 The velocity changes both in magnitude and direction from particle to
3. Define Poisson’s ratio. 1
W = F 𝑙l = Elastic potential energy. particle.

la

la

la
The ratio of relative contraction (lateral strain) to relative expansion 2
The path taken by the particles in turbulent flow becomes erratic and
(longitudinal strain). It is denoted by the symbol μ. whirlpool-like circles called eddy current or eddies.
9. State Pascal’s law in fluids.
sa

sa

sa
Poisson s ratio, μ = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain
If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a particular point, the change is
15. What is Reynold’s number? Give its significance.
4. Explain elasticity using intermolecular forces. transmitted to the entire liquid without being diminished in magnitude.
Reynold’s number(Rc) is a dimensionless number, which is used to find
da

da

da
In a solid, inter-atomic forces bind two or more atoms together and the 𝛒𝐯𝐃
10. State Archimedes principle. out the nature of flow of the liquid. RC =
atoms occupy the positions of stable equilibrium. When a deforming force is 𝛈
It states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it
applied on a body, its atoms are pulled apart or pushed closer. When the
experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it Where, ρ- density of the liquid, v –The velocity of flow of liquid.
Pa

Pa

Pa
deforming force is removed, inter-atomic forces of attraction or repulsion D- Diameter of the pipe, η - The coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
and its up-thrust acts through the centre of gravity of the liquiddisplaced.
restore the atoms to their equilibrium positions. If a body regains its original
shape and size after the removal of deforming force, it is said to be elastic 11. What do you mean by up-thrust or buoyancy? 16. Define terminal velocity.
and the property is called elasticity. The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely
w.

w.

w.
The upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an
immersed object in a fluid is called up-thrust or buoyant force and the through a viscous medium is called the terminal velocity.
5. Which one of these is more elastic, steel or rubber? Why?
phenomenon is called buoyancy.
Steel is more elastic than rubber because the steel has higher 17. Write down the expression for the Stoke’s force and explain the
ww

ww

ww
young’s modulus than rubber. That’s why, if equal stress is applied on 12. State the law of floatation. symbolsinvolved in it.
both steel and rubber, the steel produces less strain. The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight Viscous force F acting on a spherical body of radius r depends directly on
of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body equals the weight of i) radius (r) of the sphere
6. A spring balance shows wrong readings after using for a long time. Why? the body. ii) velocity (v) of the sphere and
When the spring balances have been used for a long time, they iii) coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid F = 6 πηrv
13. Define coefficient of viscosity of a liquid.
develop elastic fatigue in them and therefore the reading shown by
such balances will be wrong.
The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the force of viscosity acting 18. State Bernoulli’s theorem.
between two layers per unit area and unit velocity gradient of the liquid. Its According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
unit is Nsm-2 and dimension is [ML-1T-1]. energy, and potential energy per unit mass of an incompressible,
7. What is the effect of temperature on elasticity?
If the temperature of the substance increases, its elasticity decreases. non-viscous fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.

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19. What are the energies possessed by a liquid? Write down their equations. 24. Distinguish between cohesive and adhesive forces. 29. State the principle and usage of Venturimeter.
A liquid in a steady flow can possess three kinds of energy. They are The force between the like molecules which holds the liquid together Bernoulli’s theorem is the principle of Venturimeter.
(1) Kinetic energy, (2) Potential energy, and (3) Pressure energy, respectively. is called ‘cohesive force’. Venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow or flow speed of the
KE = ½ mv2 ------------ 1 When the liquid is in contact with a solid, the molecules of the these incompressible fluid flowing through apipe.
PE = mgh ---------------2 F x d = w = PV = pressure energy --------------3 solid and liquid will experience an attractive force which is called ‘adhesive
force’. 30. What are the applications of surface tension?
20. Two streamlines cannot cross each other. Why? 1) Oil pouring on the water reduces surface tension. So that the floating
No two streamlines can cross each other. If they doso, the particles 25. What are the factors affecting the surface tension of a liquid? mosquitos’ eggs drown and killed.
of the liquid at the point of intersection will have two different (1) The presence of any contamination or impuritiesconsiderably affects 2) Finely adjusted surface tension of the liquid makes droplets of desired
directions for their flow, which will destroy the steady nature of the the force of surface tension depending upon the degree of size, which helps in desktop printing, automobile painting and
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liquid flow. contamination. decorativeitems.
(2) The presence of dissolved substancescan also affect the value of 3) Specks of dirt are removed from the cloth when it is washed in
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21. Define surface tension of a liquid. Mention its S.I unit and dimension. detergents added hot water, which has low surfacetension.
surface tension. For example, a highly soluble substance like sodium
The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the energy per unit area of the chloride (NaCl) when dissolved in water (H20) increases the surface 4) A fabric can be made waterproof, by adding suitable waterproof
surface of a liquid. (or) The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force tension of water. But the sparingly soluble substance like phenol or material (wax) to the fabric. This increases the angle of contact due
tosurface tension.
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of tension acting perpendicularly on both sides of an imaginary line of unit soap solution when mixed in water decreases the surface tension of
length drawn on the free surface of the liquid. water. 31. What physical quantity actually do we check by pressing the tyre
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Its unit is N m-1 and dimension is [MT-2] (3) Electrificationaffects the surface tension. When a liquid is electrified, after pumping?
surface tension decreases. Since external force acts on the liquid After pumping the tyre, we actually check the compressibility of air
22. How is surface tension related to surface energy? surface due to electrification, area of the liquid surface increases by pressing the tyre. For smooth riding, reartyre should have less
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Consider a rectangular frame of wire ABCD in a soap solution. Let AB which acts against the contraction phenomenon of the surface tension. compressibility than the front.
be the movable wire. Suppose the frame is dipped in soap solution, soap film Hence, it decreases.
is formed which pulls the wire AB inwards due to surface tension. Let F be the (4) Temperatureplays a very crucial role in altering the surface tension of 32. Give some examples for surface tension.
Clinging of painting brush hairs, when taken out of water.
Pa

Pa

Pa
force due to surface tension, then F = (2T)𝑙 a liquid. Obviously, the surface tension decreases linearly with the rise
Here, 2 is introduced because it has two free surfaces. Suppose AB is of temperature. Needle float on thewater, Camphorboat.
moved by a small distance 𝚫𝒙 to new a position A’B’. Since the area 33. How do water bug sand water striders walkon the surface ofwater?
increases, some work has to be done against the inward force due to surface 26. What happens to the pressure inside a soap bubble when air is blown into
w.

w.

tension.
Work Done = Force x distance = (2T) 𝑙(Δ𝑥)
it?
Pressure is greater inside the small build. w.
When the water bugs or water striders are on the surface of the water, its
Weight is balanced by the surface tension of the water. Hence, they can easily
walk onit.
ww

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ww
Increases in area of the film Δ𝐴 = (2 𝑙) (Δ𝑥) = 2𝑙Δ𝑥 27. What do you mean by capillarity or capillary action?
Work Done
Therefore, Surface energy = The rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube is called capillarity or capillary 34. Whataretheapplicationsofviscosity?
Increase in Surface area
2𝑇𝑙Δ𝑥 action. 1) Viscosity of liquids helps in choosing the lubricants for various
= =T machinery parts. Low viscous lubricants are used in light machinery
2𝑙Δ𝑥
Hence, the surface energy per unit area of a surface is 28. A drop of oil placed on the surface of water spreads out. But a drop of water parts and high viscous lubricants are used in heavy machineryparts.
numerically equal to the surface tension. place on oil contracts to a spherical shape. Why? 2) As high viscous liquids damp the motion; they are used in hydraulic
A drop of oil placed on the surface of water spreads because the force of brakes as brakeoil.
23. Define angle of contact for a given pair of solid and liquid. adhesion between water and oil molecules dominates the cohesive force of 3) Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of oil molecules. offluids.
contact and the solid surface is known as the angle of contact. On the other hand, cohesive force of water molecules dominates the 4) Viscosity is used in Millikan’s oil-drop methodtofind the charge of an
adhesive force between water and oil molecules. So drop of water on oil electron.
contracts to a sphericalshape.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

43. We can cut vegetables easily with a sharp knife as compared to a blunt knife. 6) This graph is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in The rigidity modulus or shear modulus:
Why? Figure (b). The rigidity modulus is defined as Rigidity modulus or Shear modulus,
Since the stress produced on the vegetables by the sharp knife is higher Therefore, ΔL = (slope)F Shearing stress
𝜂𝑅 =
than the blunt knife, vegetables can be cut easily with the sharp knife. Angle of shear or shearing strain
Multiplying and dividing by volume,
V = A L,
44. Why the passengers are advised to remove the ink from their pens while Trangential force 𝐹𝑡
𝐴𝐿 The shearing stress is𝜎𝑠 = =
goingup in an aero-plane? F (slope) = Δ𝐿 Area over which it is applied ∆𝐴
𝐴𝐿
𝑥
When an aero-plane ascends, the atmospheric pressure is decreased. 𝐹 𝐿 Δ𝐿 The angle of shear or shearing strain 𝜀𝑠 = = 𝜃
Rearranging, we get, = [ ] ℎ
𝐴 𝐴(𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) 𝐿 𝐹𝑡 𝐹𝑡
Hence, the ink from the pen will leak out. So that, the passengers are advised 𝜎𝑠
𝐹 Δ𝐿 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
to remove the ink from their pens while going up in theaero-plane. Therefore, , 𝛼 [ ] Therefore, Rigidity modulus is 𝜂= = 𝑥 =
𝜀𝑠 𝜃
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𝐴 𝐿
ℎ
Comparing with stress equation and strain equation, we get 𝜎𝛼𝜀 Further, the equationimplies, that a material can be easily twisted if it
45. We use straw to suck soft drinks, why?
When we suck the soft drinks through the straw, the pressure inside the i.e., the stress is proportional to the strain in the elastic limit. has small value of rigidity modulus. For example, consider a wire, when it is
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straw becomes less than the atmospheric pressure. Due to the difference in twisted through an angle θ, a restoring torque is developed, that is
47. Explain the different types of modulus of elasticity.
pressure, the soft drink rises in the straw and we are able to enjoy it 𝜏∝θ
There are three types of elastic modulus.
conveniently. This means that for a larger torque, wire will twist by a larger amount
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(a) Young’s modulus, (b) Rigidity modulus (or Shear modulus) (angle of shear θ is large). Since, rigidity modulus is inversely proportional to
FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER (c) Bulk modulus angle of shear, the modulus of rigidity is small.
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46. State Hooke’s law and verify it with the help of an experiment. Young’s modulus:
When a wire is stretched or compressed, then the ratio between tensile 48. Derive an expression for the elastic energy stored per unit volume of a wire.
1) Hooke’s law is for a small deformation,
stress (or compressive stress) and tensile strain (or compressive strain) is When a body is stretched, work is done against the restoring force
da

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when the stress and strain are proportional

defined as Young’s modulus. (internal force). This work done is stored in the body in the form of elastic
to each other.
Tensile stress or compressive stress 𝜎𝑡 𝜎𝑐 energy. Consider a wire whose un-stretch length is L and area of cross section
2) It can be verified in a simple way by = Y= or Y =
Tensile starin or compressive strain 𝜀𝑡 𝜀𝑐 is A. Let a force produce an extension l and further assume that the elastic
Pa

Pa

Pa

stretching a thin straight wire (stretches The unit for Young modulus has the same unit of stress because, strain has limit of the wire has not been exceeded and there is no loss in energy. Then,
like spring) of length L and uniform cross- no unit. So, S.I. unit of Young modulus is N m-2or pascal. the work done by the force F is equal to the energy gained by the wire.
sectional area A suspended from a fixed- Bulk modulus: The work done in stretching the wire by dl, dW = F d𝒍
point O.
w.

w.

w.

Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of volume stress to the volume strain. The total work done in stretching the wire from 0 to 𝑙is
3) A pan and a pointer are attached at the free Normal (Perpendicular)stress or pressure 𝑙
Bulk modulus, K =
Volume strain
W = ∫0 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 ------------------1
end of the wire as shown in Figure (a).
𝐹𝑛 𝐹 𝐿 𝑌 𝐴𝑙
ww

ww

ww

4) The extension produced on the wire is The normal stress or pressure is 𝜎𝑛 =

∆𝐴
= ∆𝑝 From Young’s modulus of elasticity, Y =
𝐴
x𝑙 ⇒F= 𝐿
--------- 2
measured using a vernier scale ∆𝑉
The volume strain is 𝜀𝑣 = Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get
𝑉
arrangement. The experiment shows that for a given load, the 𝑙 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 2
Therefore, Bulk modulus is K = –
𝜎𝑛
=–
∆𝑝
∆𝑉
W= ∫0 𝐿 𝑑𝑙 =
𝐿.2
= ½ .F𝑙
corresponding stretching force is F and the elongation produced on the 𝜀𝑣
2
𝑉
wire is ΔL. 𝑌 𝐴𝑙 ′ 𝑌𝐴 𝑙 ′ 𝑙 𝑌𝐴 𝑙 2 1 𝑌𝐴𝑙 1
The negative sign in the equation means that when pressure is applied W=∫ 𝑑𝑙 ′ = | = = ( ) 𝑙 = F𝑙
on the body, its volume decreases. Further, the equation implies that a
𝐿 𝐿 2 0 𝐿 2 2 𝐿 2
5) It is directly proportional to the original length L and inversely 𝟏
proportional to the area of cross section A. A graph is plotted using F on material can be easily compressed if it has a small value of bulk modulus. W = Fl = Elastic potential energy.
𝟐
the X- axis and ΔL on the Y- axis. Energy per unit volume is called energy density,
1
Elastic potential energy 𝐹𝑙 1 𝐹 𝑙 1
u= =2 = (Stress x Strain)
Volume 𝐴𝐿 2 𝐴 𝐿 2

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49. Derive an equation for the total pressure at a depth ‘h’ below the 50. State and prove Pascal’s law in fluids. Here, it should be noted that the terminal speed of the sphere is directly
liquidsurface. Hydraulic lift which is used to lift a heavy load with a small force. It is a proportional to the square of its radius. If σ is greater than ρ, then the term
Consider a water sample of cross-sectional area in the form of a cylinder. force multiplier. It consists of two cylinders A and B connected to each other (ρ - σ) becomes negative leading to a negative terminal velocity.
Let h1and h2be the depths from by a horizontal pipe, filled with a liquid (Figure). They are fitted with frictionless
the air-water interface to level 1 pistons of cross sectional areas A1and A2(A2> A1). Suppose a downward force 53. Derive Poiseuille’s formula for the volume of a liquid flowing per second
and level 2 of the cylinder, F is applied on the smaller piston, the pressure of the liquid under this piston through a pipe under streamlined flow.
respectively as shown in Figure. F1 Consider a liquid flowing steadily through a horizontal capillary tube. Let
increases to P(where, P = ). But according to Pascal’s law, this increased
Let F1 be the force acting A1 𝑉
pressure P is transmitted undiminished in all directions. So a pressure is v = ( )be the volume of the liquid flowing out per second through a capillary
downwards on level 1 and F2be 𝑡

the force acting upwards on level exerted on piston B. Upward force on piston B is tube. It depends on (1) coefficient of viscosity (η) of the liquid, (2) radius ofthe

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𝐅𝟏 𝐀𝟐 𝑃 𝑷 𝒄
2, such that, F1= P1A and F2= F2 = PxA2 =
𝐀𝟏
x A2⇒F2 =
𝐀𝟏
x F1 tube (r), and (3) the pressure gradient( ) . Then, v 𝜶𝜼𝒂 𝒓𝒃 ( ) ;
𝑙 𝒍
P2A.Let us assume the mass of the sample to be mand under equilibrium Therefore by changing the force on the smaller piston A, the force on the 𝑃 𝑐
v = 𝑘𝜂𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 ( ) where, kis a dimensionless constant. Therefore,

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condition, the total upward force (F2) is balanced by the total downward force 𝐀𝟐 𝑙
piston B has been increased by the factor and this factor is called the 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝒅𝑷 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞
(F1+ mg), in other words, the gravitational force will act downward which is 𝐀𝟏 [v] = = [L3T-1], [ ]= = [ML-2T-2],
mechanical advantage of the lift. 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝒅𝒙 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
being exactly balanced by the difference between the force. F2– F1
[𝜂] = [ML-1T-1] and [r] = [L]

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F2– F1= mg = FG Substituting in equation, So, equating the powers of M, L, and T on
Where m is the mass of the water available in the sample element. Let 51. State and prove Archimedes principle.
It states that when a body is partially or wholly both sides, we get a + c = 0, −a + b −2c =3, and −a −2c = −1
ρ be the density of the water then, the mass of water available in the sample
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immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward thrust We have three unknowns a, b, and c. We have three equations, on solving, we
element is m=ρV = ρA (h2–h1) V=A (h2–h1)
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it and its get a = −1, b = 4, and c = 1
Hence, gravitational force, FG= ρ A (h2– h1) g
up-thrust acts through the centre of gravity of the 𝑷 𝟏
Therefore, equation becomes, v= k𝜼−𝟏 𝒓𝟒 ( )
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On substituting the value of W in equation 𝒍
liquiddisplaced.
F2=F1+m g ⇒P2A = P1A+ ρA(h2– h1)g 𝜋 𝝅𝒓𝟒 𝑷
Up-thrust or buoyant force = weight of liquid Experimentally, the value of k is shown to be , we have v =
Cancelling out A on both sides, P2 = P1 + ρ(h2– h1)g displaced.
8 𝟖𝜼𝒍
Pa

Pa

Pa
If we choose the level 1 at the
54. Obtain an expression for the excess of pressure inside a i) liquid drop
surface of the liquid (i.e., air-water 52. Derive the expression for the terminal velocity of a sphere moving in a high ii) liquid bubble iii) air bubble.
interface) and the level 2 at a depth ‘h’ viscous fluid using stokes force. i) Excess of pressure inside air bubble in a liquid.
below the surface (as shown in Figure (b),
w.

w.

w.
Expression for terminal velocity: Consider an air bubble of radius R inside a
then the value of h1 becomes zero (h1= 0) Consider a sphere of radius r which falls freely through a highly viscous liquid having surface tension T as shown in Figure
and in turn P1 assumes the value of liquid of coefficient of viscosity η. Let the density of the material of the sphere (a). Let P1and P2be the pressures outside and
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ww
atmospheric pressure (say Pa). In addition, be ρ and the density of the fluid be σ. inside the air bubble, respectively. Now, the excess
the pressure (P2) at a depth becomes P. 𝟒
Gravitational force acting on the sphere, FG = mg = 𝛑𝐫 𝟑 𝛒𝐠 pressure inside the air bubble is
Substituting these values in equation, we 𝟑
(Downward force) ΔP = P1− P2. To find the excess pressure inside the
get P = Pa + ρgh
4 air bubble, let us consider the forces acting on the
Which means, the pressure at a depth h is greater than the pressure on Up thrust, U = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 (upward force)
3 air bubble.
the surface of the liquid, where Pa is the atmospheric pressure which is equal Viscous force F = 6πηrvt
to 1.013x105Pa. If the atmospheric pressure is neglected or ignored, then At terminal velocity vt, downward force = upward force
P = ρgh 4 4
FG – U = F ⇒ 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔– = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 = 6πηrvt
3 3
𝟐 𝒓𝟐 (𝝆−𝝈)
Vt = x g⇒ Vt ∞𝒓𝟐
𝟗 𝜼

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ii) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble. Where θ is the angle of contact, r is the radius of the tube. Let ρ be the density 57. State and prove Bernoulli’s theorem for a flow of incompressible,
Consider a soap bubble of radius R and the surface tension of the soap of water and h be the height to which the liquid rises inside the tube. non-viscous, and streamlined flow of fluid.
bubble be Tas shown in Figure. A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in Volume of liquid of Bernoulli’s theorem:
the volume of Volume of the liquid
contact with air, one inside the bubble and other outside the bubble. radius r and height According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
Then,(liquid column in)=( column of radius r )+ ( )
Therefore, the force on the soap bubble due to surface r − Volume of the energy, and potential energy per unit mass of an incompressible, non-viscous
the tube, V height h
tension is 2×2πRT. The various forces acting on the soap hemisphere of radius r fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.
2 1 𝐏 𝟏
bubble are, V = πr 2 h + (πr 2 x r − πr 3 ) ⇒ πr 2 h + πr 3 + 𝐯 𝟐 + 𝐠𝐡 = Constant, this is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
3 3 𝛒 𝟐
i) Force due to surface tension FT = 4πRT towards right The upward force supports the weight of the liquid column above the free Proof:
ii) Force due to outside pressure FP1= P1πR2towards right surface, therefore, Let us consider a flow of liquid through a pipe
iii) Force due to inside pressure FP2= P2πR2towards left
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𝟏
𝟏 𝐫(𝐡+ 𝐫)𝛒𝐠 AB as shown in Figure. Let Vbe the volume of the
As the bubble is in equilibrium, FP2=FT + FP1 2πrT cosθ = 𝛑𝐫 𝟐 (𝐡 + 𝐫) 𝛒𝐠 ⇒ T = 𝟑
𝟑 𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 liquid when it enters Ain a time t which is equal to
If the capillary is a very fine tube of radius (i.e., radius is very small) then
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i.N
P2πR2 = 4πRT + P1πR2⇒(P2 – P1 ) πR2 = 4πRT the volume of the liquid leaving B in the same time.
r
𝟒𝐓 can be neglected when it is compared to the height h. Therefore, Let aA, vAand PAbe the area of cross section of the
Excess pressure is ∆P = P2 – P1 = 3
𝐑 rρgh tube, velocity of the liquid and pressure exerted by
iii) Excess pressure inside the liquid drop T=
2cosθ the liquid at A respectively.
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la
Consider a liquid drop of radius R and the surface tension of the liquid Let the force exerted by the liquid at Ais FA= PAaA
is T as shown in Figure. The various forces acting on the liquid drop are, 56. Obtain an equation of continuity for a flow of fluid on the basis of
Distance travelled by the liquid in time t is d = vA t
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i) Force due to surface tension FT = 2πRT towards right conservationof mass.
Therefore, the work done is W = FAd = PAaAvA t
ii) Force due to outside pressure FP1= P1πR2towards right Consider a pipe AB of varying
But aAvAt = aAd =V, volume of the liquid entering at A.
iii) Force due to inside pressure FP2= P2πR2towards left cross sectional area a1and a2such
Thus, the work done is the pressure energy (at A), W = FAd = PAV
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da
thata1>a2. A non-viscous and
As the liquid drop is in equilibrium, FP2=FT + FP1 Pressure energy PA V
incompressible liquid flows steadily Pressure energy per unit volume at A = = = PA
Volume V
P2πR2 = 2πRT + P1πR2⇒(P2 – P1 ) πR2 = 2πRT through the pipe, with velocities Pressure energy PA V PA PA
Pressure energy per unit mass at A = = = m =
𝟐𝐓 Mass m ρ
Pa

Pa

Pa
Excess pressure is ∆𝐏 = P2 – P1 = v1and v2in area a1and a2, respectively as shown in Figure. V
𝐑 Since m is the mass of the liquid entering at A in a given time, therefore,
Let m1be the mass of fluid flowing through section A in time Δt,
𝑚 𝑃𝐴
55. What is capillarity? Obtain an expression for the surface tension of a liquid m1= (a1v1Δt) ρ pressure energy of the liquid at A is E PA = PAV = PAV x ( ) = m
𝑚 𝜌
Let m2be the mass of fluid flowing through section B in time Δt,
w.

w.

w.
by capillary rise method. Potential energy of the liquid at A, PEA = mg hA,
Consider a capillary tube which is held vertically m2= (a2v2Δt) ρ Due to the flow of liquid, the kinetic energy of the liquid at A, KEA = ½ mVA2
in a beaker containing water; the water rises in the For an incompressible liquid, mass is conserved m1= m2 Therefore, the total energy due to the flow of liquid at A,
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ww

ww
capillary tube to a height hdue to surface tension. a1v1 Δt ρ = a2v2Δt ρ 𝐏𝐀
EA= EPA+ KEA+ PEA ; EA= m + ½ mVA2 + mghA
The surface tension force FT, acts along the a1v1= a2v2⇒a v = constant 𝛒

tangent at the point of contact downwards and its which is called the equation of continuity and it is a statement of conservation Similarly, let aB, vB, and PBbe the area of cross section of the tube,
reaction force upwards. Surface tension T, is of mass in the flow of fluids. velocity of the liquid, and pressure exerted by the liquid at B. Calculating the
𝐏𝐁
resolved into two components i) Horizontal In general, a v = constant, which means that the volume flux or flow rate total energy at EB, we get EB= m + ½ mVB2 + mghB
𝛒
component Tsinθ and ii) Vertical componentTcosθ remains constant throughout the pipe. In other words, the smaller the cross From the law of conservation of energy, EA= EB
acting upwards, all along the whole circumference section, greater will be the velocity of the fluid. PA PB
EA= m + ½ mVA2 + mghA = EB= m + ½ mVB2 + mghB
of the meniscus. ρ ρ
𝐏𝐀 𝐏𝐁
Total upward force = (Tcosθ) (2πr) = 2πrTcosθ 𝛒
+ ½ VA2 + ghA = + ½ VB2 + ghB = constant
𝛒
𝐏 𝟏 𝐯𝟐
Thus, the above equation can be written as + + h = constant
𝛒𝐠 𝟐 𝐠

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58. Describe the construction and working of venturimeter and obtain an UNIT – VIII (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) 6. What is a thermal expansion?
equationfor the volume of liquid flowing per second through a wider entry of Thermal expansion isthe tendency of matter to change in shape, area,
the tube. TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: and volume due to a change in temperature.
Venturimeter: All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when heated. When
This device is used to measure the rate of flow (or say flow speed) of 1. ‘An object contains more heat’- is it a right statement? If not why?
a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate withhigher amplitude about their fixed
the incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe. It works on the principle of Heat is not a quantity. Heat is energy in transit which flows from higher points. The relative change in the size of solids is small.
Bernoulli’s theorem. temperature object to lower temperature object. Once the heating process is
Let P1be the pressure of the fluid at the wider region of the tube A. Let stopped we cannot use the word heat. When we use the word ‘heat’, it is the 7. Give the expressions for linear, area and volume thermal expansions.
us assume that the fluid of density ‘ρ’ flows from the pipe with speed ‘v1’ and energy in transit but not energy stored in the body. An Object has more heat is Linear Expansion:
into the narrow region, its speed increases to ‘v2’. According to the Bernoulli’s wrong, instead object is hot will be appropriate. ∆𝑳
𝜶L = ; Where, αL = coefficient of linear expansion.
et

et

et

𝑳∆𝑻
equation, this increase in speed is accompanied by a decrease in the fluid
2. Obtain an ideal gas law from Boyle’s and Charles’ law. ΔL = Change in length; L = Original length; ΔT = Change in temperature.
pressure P2at the narrow region of the tube B. Therefore, the pressure 1
i.N

i.N

i.N

difference between the tubes A and B is noted by measuring the height 1) Acceleration to Boyle’s law P 𝛼 Area Expansion:
𝑉
difference (ΔP = P1−P2) between the surfaces of the manometer liquid. 2) Acceleration to Charle’s law V 𝛼 T. By combining these two equations ∆𝑨
Wehave PV = CT. Here C is a positive constant. 𝜶A = 𝑨∆𝑻 ; Where, αA = coefficient of area expansion.
From the equation of continuity, we can say that
3) So we can write the constant C as k times the number of particles N.
la

la

la

𝐴 ΔA = Change in area; A = Original area; ΔT = Change in temperature

Av1= a v2which means that V2 = v1 Here k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23JK−1) and it is found to
𝑎
be a universal constant. So the ideal gas law can be stated as follows Volume Expansion:
sa

sa

sa

𝐕𝟏𝟐 𝐕𝟐𝟐 𝟏 𝐀 𝟐
Using Bernoulli’s equation, P1 + 𝛒 = P2 + 𝛒 = P2 + 𝛒 ( 𝐯𝟏 ) PV = NkT ∆𝑉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝐚 𝛼V = 𝑉∆𝑇Where, αV = coefficient of volume expansion;
From the above equation, the pressure difference, 3. Define one mole. ΔV = Change in volume; V = Original volume; ΔT = Change in temperature. Unit
da

One mole of any substance isthe amount of that substance

da

da

V12 A2 −a2 of coefficient of linear, area and volumetric expansion of solids is˚C-1 or K-1
ΔP = P1−P2 = ρ ( ) whichcontains Avogadro number (NA) of particles (such as atoms or
2 a2
molecules). 8. Define latent heat capacity. Give its unit.
Thus, the speed of flow of fluid at the wide end of the tube A
Pa

Pa

Pa

4. Define specific heat capacity and give its unit. Latent heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
𝟐(∆𝐏)𝐚𝟐 𝟐(∆𝐏)𝐚𝟐
𝐯𝟏𝟐 = ⇒ V1 = √ Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy required to change the state of a unit mass of the material.
𝛒(𝐀𝟐 −𝐚𝟐 ) 𝛒(𝐀𝟐 −𝐚𝟐 ) 𝑸
energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1 Kelvin or Q=mxL;L=
The volume of the liquid flowing out per second is 𝒎
w.

w.

w.

1°C Where L = Latent heat capacity of the substance; Q = Amount of heat m

2(∆P)a2 1 ∆Q = mass of the substance. The SI unit for Latent heat capacity is J kg-1.
AV1 =√ ∆Q = ms ∆T ; Therefore, s =
ρ(A2 −a2 ) m ∆T
ww

ww

ww

Where, s – Specific heat capacity of a substance and its value depends only on 9. State Stefan-Boltzmann law.
𝟐(∆𝐏) the nature of the substance not amount of substance.
= aA√ Stefan Boltzmann law states that, the total amount of heat radiated per
𝛒(𝐀𝟐 −𝐚𝟐 )
∆Q - Amount of heat energy ; ∆T - Change in temperature ; second per unit area of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
m – Mass of the substance; The SI unit for specific heat capacity is Jkg-1K-1 of its absolute temperature.
E 𝜶 T4 or E = 𝛔T4 ; Where, σ is known as Stefan’s constant.
5. Define molar specific heat capacity.
Its value is 5.67×10−8 Wm−2 k−4
Molar specific heat capacity is defined as heat energy required to increase
𝟏 ∆𝐐
the temperature of one mole of substance by 1K or 1°C. C =
𝛍 ∆𝐓
Here C is known as molar specific heat capacity of a substance an d μ is
number of moles in the substance.
The SI unit for molar specific heat capacity is J mol-1 K-1

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10. What is Wien’s law? 16. What is mean by state variable? Give example. 21. Are internal energy and heat energy the same? Explain.
Wien’s law states that, the wavelength of maximum intensity of In thermodynamics, the state of a thermodynamic system is No, but they are related. If heat energy is added to substance, its
emission of a black body radiation is inversely proportional to the absolute represented by a set of variables called thermodynamic variables. internal energy will increase. Internal energy is a means are of the amount of
1 𝑏 Examples: Pressure, temperature, volume and internal energy etc. kinetic and potential energy possessed by particles in a substation.
temperature of the black body. 𝜆𝑚 𝛼 or 𝜆𝑚 = . Where, b is known as Wien’s
𝑇 𝑇 The values of these variables completely describe the equilibrium Heat energy concerns only transfer of internal energy from the hotter to a
constant. Its value is 2.898× 10-3 m K
state of a thermodynamic system. colder body.
11. Define thermal conductivity. Give its unit.
17. What are intensive and extensive variables? Give examples. 22. Define one calorie.
The quantity of heat transferred through a unit length of a material in a
Extensive variabledepends on the size or mass of the system. The amount of heat required at a pressure of standard atmosphere to
direction normal to unit surface area due to a unit temperature difference
Example: Volume, total mass, entropy, internal energy, heat capacity etc. raise the temperature of 1g of water 10C.

et

et

et
under steady state conditions is known as thermal conductivity of a material.
Intensive variablesdo not depend on the size or mass of the system.
Q KA∆T 23. Did joule converted mechanical energy to heat energy? Explain.
= ; Where, K is known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity. Example: Temperature, pressure, specific heat capacity, density etc.
L L

i.N

i.N

i.N
The SI unit of thermal conductivity is J s-1 m-1 K-1 or W m-1 K-1. 1) Yes, in his experiment, two masses were attached with a rope and a
18. What is an equation of state? Give an example. paddle wheel. When these masses fall through a distance h due to
12. What is a black body? Equation of state: gravity, both the masses lose potential energy equal to 2mgh.
A black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiations. The equation which connects the state variables in a specific manner is 2) When the masses fall, the paddle wheel turns. Due to the turning of

la

la

la
It is a perfect absorber and radiator of energy with no reflecting power. called equation of state. A thermodynamic equilibrium is completely wheel inside water, frictional force comes in between the water and the
specified by these state variables by the equation of state. If the system is paddle wheel.
sa

sa

sa
13. What is a thermodynamic system? Give examples. not in thermodynamic equilibrium, then these equations cannot specify the 3) This causes a rise in temperature of the water. This implies that
Thermodynamic system: state of the system. gravitational potential energy is converted to internal energy of water.
A thermodynamic system is a finite part of the universe. It is a collection Example of equation of state called vander Waals equation. Real gases 4) The temperature of water increases due to the work done by the
da

da

da
of large number of particles (atoms and molecules) specified by certain obey this equation at thermodynamic equilibrium. The air molecules in the masses. In fact, Joule was able to show that the mechanical work has
parameters called pressure (P), Volume (V) and Temperature (T). The room truly obey vander Waals equation of state. But at room temperature the same effect as giving heat.
remaining part of the universe is called surrounding. Both are separated by a with low density we can approximate it into an ideal gas.
Pa

Pa

Pa
boundary. 24. State the first law of thermodynamics.
Examples: A thermodynamic system can be liquid, solid, gas and radiation. 19. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics. Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied to
Bucket of water, Air molecules in the room, Human body, Fish in the sea. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states thatif two systems, A and B, are the system (Q) minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings.
w.

w.

w.
in thermal equilibrium with a third system, C, then A and B are in thermal
14. What are the different types of thermodynamic systems? equilibrium with each other. 25. Can we measure the temperature of the object by touching it?
Open system can exchange both matter and energy with the environment. 1) No, when you stand bare feet with one foot on the carpet and the other
20. Define the internal energy of the system.
ww

ww

ww
Closed systemexchange energy, but not matter with the environment. on the tiled floor, your foot on tiled floor feels cooler than the foot on
Isolated system can exchange neither energy nor matter with the The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the sum of kinetic and the carpet even though both the tiled floor and carpet are at the same
environment. potential energies of all the molecules of the system with respect to the room temperature.
center of mass of the system. 2) It is because the tiled floor transfers the heat energy to your skin at
15. What is meant by ‘thermal equilibrium’? The energy due to molecular motion including translational, rotational higher rate than the carpet. So the skin is not measuring the actual
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if they and vibrational motion is called internal kinetic energy (EK) The energy due to temperature of the object; instead it measures the rate of heat energy
are at the same temperature, which will not change with time. molecular interaction is called internal potential energy (EP). transfer.
Example: Bond energy. U = EK + EP 3) But if we place a thermometer on the tiled floor or carpet it will show
the same temperature.

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26. Give the sign convention for Q and W. 𝟏 ∆𝐔 b. Adiabatic process

By comparing the equations (1) and (2), ∆U = 𝛍Cv∆T or Cv =
𝛍 ∆𝐓
System gains heat - Q is positive 1 dU
System loses heat - Q is negative If the limit ∆Tgoes to zero, we can write Cv =
μ dT
Work done on the system - W is negative Since the temperature and internal energy are state variables, the above
Work done by the system - W is positive relation holds true for any process.

27. Define the quasi-static process. 34. Apply first law for (a) an isothermal (b) adiabatic (c) isobaric processes.
A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process in which the system Isothermal: Q = W ; Q – Heat ; W – Wire
changes its variables (P,V,T) so slowly such that it remains in Adiabatic: ∆U = W Change internal Energy; Isobaric:∆U = Q – P∆U
thermal,mechanical and chemical equilibrium with its surroundings
et

et

et
throughout. By this infinite slow variation, the system is always almost close 35. Give the equation of state for an adiabatic process.
to equilibrium state. The equation of state for an adiabatic process is given by
i.N

i.N

i.N
𝐶𝑝
c. isobaric process
28. Give the expression for work done by the gas. 𝐏𝐕 𝛄 = Constant.Here 𝛾 is called adiabatic exponent (𝛾 = ) which depends
𝐶𝑣
In general the work done by the gas by increasing the volume from Vi on the nature of the gas. The equation implies that if the gas goes from an
𝐕 equilibrium state (Pi, Vi) to another equilibrium state (Pf ,Vf) adiabatically then
to Vfis given by W = ∫𝐕 𝐢 𝐏𝐝𝐕
la

la

la
𝐟
it satisfies the relation.
29. What is PV diagram?
sa

sa

sa
PV diagram is a graph between pressure P and volume V of the system. 36. Give an equation state for an isochoric process.
𝝁𝑹
The P-V diagram is used to calculate the amount of work done by the gas The equation of state for an isochoric process is given by P= ( )T,
𝑽
da

da

da
during expansion or on the gas during compression. 𝜇𝑅
Where, ( ) = Constant
𝑉
30. Explain why the specific heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than
the specific heat capacity at constant volume. 37. If the piston of a container is pushed fast inward. Will the ideal gas
Pa

Pa

Pa
Because when heat is added at constant pressure the substance, equationbe valid in the intermediate stage? If not, why? d. Isochoric process
expands and work. i.e. more amount of energy has to be supplied to a Decrease in volume leading to increase in temperature work is done on
constant pressure to increase the system’s temperature by the same the gas. Ideal gas equation PV = RT. When piston be pushed further the
w.

w.

w.
amount. Some of this energy is lost due to expansion work done by the system. parameters V and Rare taken as constant. The equation becomes
P = kT. i.e P 𝛼 T
31. Give the equation of state for an isothermal process.
ww

ww

ww
The equation of state for isothermal process is given by PV = Constant 38. Draw the PV diagram for ;
32. Give an expression for work done in an isothermal process. a. Isothermal process
Vf
W = μRT in ( ) 39. What is a cyclic process?
Vi
This is a thermodynamic process in which the thermodynamic system
33. Express the change in internal energy in terms of molar specific heat returns to its initial state after undergoing a series of changes. Since the
capacity. system comes back to the initial state, the change in the internal energy
If Q is the heat supplied to mole of a gas at constant volume and if the iszero. In cyclic process, heat can flow in to system and heat flow out of the
temperature changes by an amount ∆T , we have Q = 𝛍Cv∆T -------------1 system.
By applying the first law of thermodynamics for this constant volume process
(W=0, since dV=0), we have Q = ∆U – 0 ------------2

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40. What is meant by reversible and irreversible processes? 45. Can the given heat energy be completely converted to work in a cyclic FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
Reversible process: A thermodynamic process can be considered process? If not, when can, the heat can completely have converted to work?
56. Explain the meaning of heat and work with suitable examples.
reversible only if it possible to retrace the path in the opposite direction in 1) No, In a cyclic process, the complete heat energy is not completely
Meaning of work:
sucha way that the system and surroundings pass through the same states converted to work. The whole heat cannot be converted into work, as it
1) When you rub your hands against each other the temperature of the
as in the initial, direct process. Example: A quasi–static isothermal expansion will violate second law of thermodynamics.
hands increases. You have done some work on your hands by rubbing.
of gas, slow compression and expansion of a spring. 2) In an Isothermal process the whole heat can be converted into work.
The temperature of the hands increases due to this work. Now if you
Irreversible process: All natural processes are irreversible. Irreversible For an isothermal process dQ = dT, which shows that whole heat can
place your hands on the chin, the temperature of the chin increases.
process cannot be plotted in a PV diagram, because these processes be converted into work.
2) This is because the hands are at higher temperature than the chin. In
cannothave unique values of pressure, temperature at every stage of the
46. State the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy. the above example, the temperature of hands is increased due to work
process.
et

et

et

“For all the processes that occur in nature (irreversible process), the and temperature of the chin is increased due to heat transfer from the
41. State Clausius form of the second law of thermodynamics entropy always increases. For reversible process entropy will not change”. hands to the chin.
i.N

i.N

i.N

“Heat always flows from hotter object to colder object spontaneously”. Entropy determines the direction in which natural process should occur. 3) By doing work on the system, the temperature in the system will
This is known as the Clausius form of second law of thermodynamics. increase and sometimes may not. Like heat, work is also not a
47. Why does heat flow from a hot object to a cold object? quantity and through the work energy is transferred to the system. So
42. State Kelvin-Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics. Because entropy increases when heat flows from hot object to cold we cannot use the word ‘the object contains more work’ or ‘less work’.
la

la

la

Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a heat engine that object. 4) Either the system can transfer energy to the surrounding by doing work
operates in a cycle, whose sole effect is to convert the heat completely into on surrounding or the surrounding may transfer energy to the system
sa

sa

sa

work. This implies that no heat engine in the universe can have 100% 48. Define the coefficient of performance. by doing work on the system. For the transfer of energy from one body
efficiency. COP is a measure of the efficiency of a refrigerator. It is defined as the to another body through the process of work, they need not be at
ratio of heat extracted from the cold body (sink) to the external work done by different temperatures.
da

da

da

43. Define heat engine. 𝐐𝐋

the compressor W. COP = 𝛃 =
Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input and converts this 𝐖 57. Discuss the ideal gas laws.
heat in to work by undergoing a cyclic process. 49. Can water be boiled without heating? Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and ideal gas law:
Pa

Pa

Pa

Yes, at low pressure, the water boils fast at low temperature below the 1) For a given gas at low pressure (density) kept in a container of volume
44. What are processes involves in a Carnot engine? room temperature, when the pressure is made low, the water starts boiling V, experiments revealed the following information.
without supplying any heat. When the gas is kept at constant temperature, the pressure of the gas
w.

w.

w.

is inversely proportional to the volume.

50. As air is a bad conductor of heat, why do we not feel warm without clothes? 1
P 𝛼 It was discovered by Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and is known as
This is conductor when we are without clothes air carries away heat from 𝑉
Boyle’s law.
ww

ww

ww

our body due to convection and hence we feel cold.

2) When the gas is kept at constant pressure, the volume of the gas is
51. Why is it hotter at the same distance over the top of a fire than in front of directly proportional to absolute temperature. V 𝛂 T.It was discovered
it? by Jacques Charles (1743-1823) and is known as Charles’ law.
At a point in front of fire, heat is received due to the process of radiation By combining these two equations we have PV = CT. Here C is a positive
only, while at a point above the fire, heat reaches both due to radiation and constant.
convection. 3) C is proportional to the number of particles in the gas container by
52. Define Triple point. considering the following argument.
Triple point the triple point of a substance is the temperature 4) If we take two containers of same type of gas with same volume V,
andpressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid and solid) of that same pressure P and same temperature T, then the gas in each
substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. The triple point of water is container obeys the above equation. PV = CT.
at 273.1 K

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5) If the two containers of gas is considered as a single system, then the 6) The expansion in length is called linear expansion. Similarly, the 59. Describe the anomalous expansion of water. How is it helpful in our lives?
pressure and temperature of this combined system will be same but expansion in area is termed as area expansionand the expansion in Anomalous expansion of water:
volume will be twice and number of particles will also be double as volume is termed as volume expansion. 1) Liquids expand on heating and
shown in figure. contract on cooling at moderate
Linear Expansion: temperatures. But water exhibits an
anomalous behavior. It contracts on
heating between 0˚C and 4˚C.
2) The volume of the given amount of
water decreases as it is cooled from
room temperature, until it reach 4˚C .

et

et

et
3) Below 4˚C the volume increases and
so the density decreases. This means

i.N
In solids, for a small change in temperature ΔT, the fractional change

i.N

i.N
For this combined system, V becomes 2V, so C should also double to that the water has a maximum density at 4˚C. This behavior of water
∆L ∆L
match with the ideal gas equation
P(2V)
= 2C. in length ( ) is directly proportional to ΔT. = 𝛼 LΔT is called anomalous expansion of water.
L L
T
∆L 4) In cold countries during the winter
6) It implies that C must depend on the number of particles in the gas and Therefore, 𝛼 L = ; Where, αL = coefficient of linear expansion.

la

la

la
L ∆T
PV
season, the surface of the lakes will be
also should have the dimension of [ ] = JK-1. ΔL = Change in length; L = Original length; at lower temperature than the bottom.
T
sa

sa

sa
7) we can write the constant C as k times the number of particles N. ΔT = Change in temperature. 5) Since the solid water (ice) has lower
Here k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23JK−1) and it is found to density than its liquidform, below 4°C,
Area Expansion:
be a universal constant. So the ideal gas law can be stated as follows the frozen water will be on the top
For a small change in temperature ΔT the fractional
da

da

da
PV = NkT ∆A surfaceabove the liquid water (ice floats).
change in area ( ) of a substance is directly 6) This is due to the anomalous expansion
A
58. Explain in detail the thermal expansion. ∆A
proportional to ΔT and it can be written as = 𝛼 A ΔT of water. As the water in lakes and ponds
Pa

Pa

Pa
1) Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, A
Therefore, freeze only at the top the species living in
and volume due to a change in temperature. the lakes will be safe at the bottom.
∆A
2) All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when heated. 𝛼A = ; Where, αA = coefficient of area expansion.
A ∆T
When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate with higher amplitude about 60. Explain Calorimetry and derive an expression for final temperature when
w.

w.

w.
ΔA = Change in area; A = Original area;
their fixed points. The relative change in the size of solids is small. twothermodynamic systems are mixed.
Railway tracks are given small gaps so that in the summer, the tracks ΔT = Change in temperature Calorimetry:
1) Calorimetry means the measurement of
ww

expand and do not buckle. Railroad tracks and bridges have expansion

ww

ww
Volume Expansion: the amount of heat released or
joints to allow them to expand and contract freely with temperature For a small change in temperature ΔT the
changes. absorbed by thermodynamic system
∆V
3) Liquids, have less intermolecular forces than solids and hence they fractional change in volume( )of a during the heating process. When a
V
expand more than solids. This is the principle behind the mercury substance is directly proportional to ΔT. body at higher temperature is brought in
∆V ∆V contact with another body at lower
thermometers. = 𝛼 V ΔT , Therefore, 𝛼 V =
V V ∆T temperature, the heat lost by the hot
4) In the case of gas molecules, the intermolecular forces are almost Where, αV = coefficient of volume expansion;
negligible and hence they expand much more than solids. For body is equal to the heat gained by the
ΔV = Change in volume; V = Original volume; ΔT = Change in
example, in hot air balloons when gas particles get heated, they cold body. No heat is allowed to escape to the surroundings. It can be
temperature. Unit of coefficient of linear, area and volumetric
expand and take up more space. mathematically expressed as Qgain = –Qlost ; Qgain + Qlost=0
expansion of solids is ˚C-1 or K-1
5) The increase in dimension of a body due to the increase in its
temperature is called thermal expansion.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

2) Heat gained or lost is measured with a calorimeter. Usually the 62. Explain in detail Newton’s law of cooling. 63. Explain Wien’s law and why our eyes are sensitive only to visible rays?
calorimeter is an insulated container Newton’s law of cooling: 1) Wien’s law states that, the wavelength of
of water as shown in Figure. 1) Newton’s law of cooling states that the maximum intensity of emission of a black
3) A sample is heated at high rate of loss of heat of a body is directly body radiation is inversely proportional to the
temperature (T1) and immersed into proportional to the difference in the absolute temperature of the black body.
temperature between that body and its 1 𝑏
water at room temperature (T2) in the 𝜆𝑚 𝛼 or 𝜆𝑚 = ---------1
surroundings. 𝑇 𝑇
calorimeter. After some time both
𝒅𝑸
Where, b is known as Wien’s constant.
sample and water reach a final 𝜶 – (T – Ts) ------------- 1 Its value is 2.898× 10-3 m K
𝒅𝒕
equilibrium temperature Tf. Since the 2) The negative sign indicates that the 2) The Sun is approximately taken as a black
et

et

et
calorimeter is insulated, heat given quantity of heat lost by liquid goes on body. Since any object above 0 K will emit
by the hot sample is equal to heat decreasing with time. Where, radiation, Sun also emits radiation. Its surface
gained by the water. It is shown in the
i.N

i.N

i.N
T = Temperature of the object temperature is about 5700 K. By substituting
Figure. Ts = Temperature of the surrounding. this value in the equation (1).
Qgain = – Qlost From the graph in Figure, it is clear that the rate of cooling is high 𝐛 𝟐.𝟖𝟗𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
Note the sign convention. The heat lost is denoted by negative sign and 𝝀𝒎 = = ≈508nm
initially and decreases with falling temperature. 𝐓 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟎
la

la

la
heat gained is denoted as positive. 3) Let us consider an object of mass m and specific heat capacity s at 3) It is the wavelength at which maximum
From the definition of specific heat capacity temperature T. Let Ts be the temperature of the surroundings. If the intensity is 508 nm. Since the Sun’s
sa

sa

sa
temperature is around 5700K, the spectrum
Qgain =m2s2 (Tf – T2) ; Qlost= m1s1(Tf– T1) temperature falls by a small amount dT in time dt, then the amount of
heat lost is, dQ = msdT ---------------- 2 of radiations emitted by Sun lie between
Here s1and s2specific heat capacity of hot sample and water
𝑑𝑄 msdT 400 nm to 700 nmwhich is the visible part of
respectively. So we can write
da

da

da
4) Dividing both sides of equation (2) by = -------------3 the spectrum.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
m2s2(Tf– T2) = − m1s1(Tf– T1) 𝑑𝑄
m2s2Tf– m2s2T2= − m1s1Tf+ m1s1T1 From Newton’s law of cooling 𝛼 – (T – TS) 4) The humans evolved under the Sun by
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑸 receiving its radiations. The human eye is
m2s2Tf + m1s1Tf = m2s2T2+ m1s1T1 = – a (T – TS) ---------- 4
Pa

Pa

Pa
𝐦𝟏 𝐒𝟏 𝐓𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐒𝟐 𝐓𝟐
𝒅𝒕 sensitive only in the visible not in infrared or
The final temperature Tf = Where a is some positive constant. From equation (2) and (4) X-ray ranges in the spectrum.
𝐦𝟏 𝐒𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐒𝟐
𝑑𝑇
61. Discuss various modes of heat transfer. – a (T – TS) = ms 5) Suppose if humans had evolved in a planet near the star Sirius
𝑑𝑡
w.

w.

w.
Conduction: 𝑑𝑇 𝑎 (9940K), then they would have had the ability to see the Ultraviolet rays!
=– dt --------------------- 5
(T – TS) 𝑚𝑠
Conduction is the process of direct transfer of heat through matter due
Integrating equation (5) on both sides,
to temperature difference. When two objects are in direct contact with one
ww

ww

ww
∞ 𝑑𝑇 𝑡 𝑎
another, heat will be transferred from the hotter object to the colder one. ∫0 (T – TS)
=–∫0 𝑚𝑠 dt
Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of the material. 𝑎
In (T – TS) = 𝑚𝑠 t + b1
Convection:
Convection is the process in which heat transfer is by actual movement Where b1is the constant of integration. taking exponential both
of molecules in fluids such as liquids and gases. In convection, molecules sides, we get,
𝒂
−𝒎𝒔𝐭
move freely from one place to another. T = T S + b2 𝒆 . Here b2 = eb1 = Constant
Radiation:
Radiation is a form of energy transfer from one body to another by
electromagnetic waves. Radiation which requires no medium to transfer
energy from one object to another.
Example: 1. Solar energy from the Sun. 2. Radiation from room heater.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

64. Discuss the 65. Explain Joule’s Experiment of the mechanical equivalent of heat. 4) But Adx = dV= change in volume during this expansion process.
a. Thermal equilibrium b. Mechanical equilibrium 1) Joule showed that mechanical So the small work done by the gas during the expansion is given by
c. Chemical equilibrium d. Thermodynamic equilibrium. energy can be converted into dW = PdV
a. Thermal equilibrium: internal energyand vice versa. 5) Note here that ispositive since the volume is increased. Here, is
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each In his experiment, two masses positive. In general the work done by the gas by increasing the volume
were attached with a rope and a 𝑽
other if they are at the same temperature, which will not change with from Vito Vf is given by W = ∫𝑽 𝒇 𝑷𝒅𝑽 ------------- 4
𝒊
time. paddle wheel.
Suppose if the work is done on the system, then Vi>Vf. Then, W is
2) When these masses fall through
b. Mechanical equilibrium: negative.
a distance h due to gravity, both
Consider a gas container with piston as shown in Figure. When 6) Note here the pressure P is inside the integral in equation (4). It implies
the masses lose potential
et

et

et

some mass is placed on the piston, it will move downward due to that while the system is doing work, the pressure need not be constant.
energy equal to 2mgh.
downward gravitational force 7) To evaluate the integration we need to first express the pressure as a
3) When the masses fall, the
i.N

i.N

i.N

and after certain humps and function of volume and temperature using the equation of state.
paddle wheel turns. Due to the turning of wheel inside water, frictional
jumps the piston will come to
force comes in between the water and the paddle wheel. 67. Derive Mayer’s relation for an ideal gas.
rest at a new position. When
4) This causes a rise in temperature of the water. This implies that Meyer’s relation
the downward gravitational
la

la

la

gravitational potential energy is converted to internal energy of water. 1) Consider μ mole of an ideal gas in a container with volume V, pressure
force given by the piston is
5) The temperature of water increases due to the work done by the P and temperature T.
balanced by the upward force
sa

sa

sa

masses. In fact, Joule was able to show that the mechanical work has 2) When the gas is heated at constant volume the temperature increases
exerted by the gas, the system
the same effect as giving heat. by dT. As no work is done by the gas, the heat that flows into the
is said to be in mechanical
6) He found that to raise 1 g of an object by 1°C, 4.186 J of energy is system will increase only the internal energy. Let the change in internal
equilibrium. A system is said
da

da

da

required. In earlier days the heat was measured in calorie. energy be dU.
to be in mechanical equilibrium if no unbalanced force acts on the
1 cal = 4.186 J. This is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat. If Cv is the molar specific heat capacity at constant volume,
thermodynamic system or on the surrounding by thermodynamic
dU = μCv dT -------------- 1
system.
Pa

Pa

Pa

66. Derive the expression for the work done in a volume change in a 3) Suppose the gas is heated at constant pressure so that the
c. Chemical equilibrium: thermodynamic system. temperature increases by dT. If ‘Q’ is the heat supplied in this process
If there is no net chemical reaction between two Work done in volume changes and ‘dV’ the change in volume of the gas. Q = μCp dT ------------ 2
thermodynamic systems in contact with each other then it is said to be 1) Consider a gas contained in the
w.

w.

w.

4) If W is the work done by the gas in this process, then

in chemical equilibrium. cylinder fitted with a movable W = PdV -------------3
d. Thermodynamic equilibrium: piston. Suppose the gas is But from the first law of thermodynamics, Q = dU + W ---------4
ww

ww

ww

If two systems are set to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, then expanded quasi-statically by Substituting equations (1), (2) and (3) in (4), we get,
the systems are at thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with pushing the piston by a small μCp dT = μCv dT + PdV ------------5
each other. In a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the macroscopic distance dx. 5) For mole of ideal gas, the equation of state is given by
variables such as pressure, volume and temperature will have fixed 2) Since the expansion occurs quasi- PV = μRT ⇒ PdV+VdP = μRdT ----------- 6
values and do not change with time. statically the pressure, Since the pressure is constant, dP=0
temperature and internal energy ∴CpdT = CvdT +RdT
will have unique values at every instant. The small work done by the ∴CP= Cv+R (or) Cp- Cv= R ------------ 7
gas on the piston. dW = Fdx ------------- 1 This relation is called Meyer’s relation

3) The force exerted by the gas on the piston F = PA. Here A is area of the
piston and P is pressure exerted by the gas on the piston.
Equation (1) can be rewritten as dW = PA dx ------------ 2

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

68. Explain in detail the isothermal process. 69. Derive the work done in an isothermal process 70. Explain in detail an adiabatic process.
Isothermal process Work done in an isothermal process: Adiabatic process:
1) It is a process in which the temperature remains constant but the 1) Consider an ideal gas which is 1) This is a process in which no heat flows into or out of the system (Q=0).
pressure and volume of a thermodynamic system will change. The allowed to expand quasi-statically at But the gas can expand by spending its internal energy or gas can be
ideal gas equation isPV= μRT, Here, T is constant for this process constant temperature from initial compressed through some external work. So the pressure, volume and
So the equation of state for isothermal process is given by state (Pi,Vi) to the final state (Pf, Vf). temperature of the system may change in an adiabatic process.
PV = constant----- 1 We can calculate the work done by the 2) The equation of state for an adiabatic process is given by
2) This implies that if the gas goes from one equilibrium state (P1,V1) to gas during this process. From 𝐏𝐕 𝛄 = Constant--------------1
another equilibrium state (P2,V2) the following relation holds for this equation the work done by the gas, 𝐶𝑝
Here 𝛾 is called adiabatic exponent (𝛾 = ) which depends on the
process P1V1= P2V2 --------2 𝑽 𝐶𝑣
W = ∫𝑽 𝒇 𝑷𝒅𝑽 -------------- 1

et

et

et
1 𝒊 nature of the gas.
3) Since PV = constant, P is inversely proportional to P α . 2) As the process occurs quasi-statically, 3) The equation (1) implies that if the gas goes from an equilibrium state
V
This implies that PV graph is a hyperbola. at every stage the gas is at equilibrium

i.N

i.N

i.N
(Pi,Vi) to another equilibrium state (Pf ,Vf) adiabatically then it satisfies
The pressure-volume graph for constant with the surroundings. Since it is in the relation
temperature is also called isotherm. PV equilibrium at every stage the ideal gas law is valid. Writing pressure in PiViγ = PfVfγ ------------- 2
diagram for quasi-static isothermal terms of volume and temperature, 4) ThePV diagram of an adiabatic expansion and adiabatic compression

la

la

la
expansion and quasi-static isothermal 𝝁𝑹𝑻
P= ---------------------2 process. The PV diagram for an adiabatic process is also called adiabat.
compression. 𝑽
Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get, 5) Note that the PV diagram for isothermal and adiabatic processes look
sa

sa

sa
4) We know that for an ideal gas the internal 𝐕 𝛍𝐑𝐓 𝐕 𝐝𝐕 similar. But actually the adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal
energy is a function of temperature only. For W = ∫𝐕 𝐟 dV ; W = 𝛍RT ∫𝐕 𝐟 -------------- 3
𝐢 𝐕 𝐢 𝐕 curve.
an isothermal process since temperature is constant, the internal In equation (3), we take μRTout of the integral, since it is constant 6) To rewrite the equation (1) in terms of T and V. From ideal gas
da

da

da
energy is also constant. throughout the isothermal process. 𝜇𝑅𝑇
equation, the pressure P = . Substituting this equation in the
This implies that dU or ∆U = 0.For an By performing the integration in equation (3), 𝑉
𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
isothermal process, the first law of 𝑽𝒇 equation (1), we have Vγ = Constant or Vγ =
we get W = 𝝁RT In ( ) ---------------- 4 𝑉 𝑉 𝜇𝑅
Pa

Pa

Pa
𝑽𝒊
thermodynamics can be written as 7) Note here that is another constant. So it can be written as
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
follows, Q = W ------------ 3 3) Since we have an isothermal expansion, > 1, So In ( )>0. T Vγ-1 = Constant ------------3
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
5) From equation (3), we infer that the As a result, the work done by the gas during an isothermal expansion The equation (3) implies that if the gas goes from an initial equilibrium
w.

w.

w.
heat supplied to a gas is used to do is positive. state (Ti,Vi) to final equilibrium state (Tf, Vf) adiabatically then it
only external work. The above result in equation (4) is true for isothermal compression also. satisfies the relationTiViγ-1 = TfVfγ-1 --------------- 4
6) The isothermal compression takes 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓 The equation of state for adiabatic process can also be written in terms
<1, So In ( )<0. As a result, the
ww

ww

ww
But in an isothermal compression
place when the piston of the cylinder is pushed. This will increase the 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 of T and P as TγP1-γ = constant.
internal energy which will flow out of the system through thermal work done on the gas in an
contact. isothermal compression is
negative.
4) In the PV diagram the work done
during the isothermal expansion
is equal to the area under the
graph. Similarly, for an isothermal
compression, the area under the
PV graph is equal to the work
done on the gas which turns out to
be the area with a negative sign.
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

71. Derive the work done in an adiabatic process 72. Explain the isobaric process and derive the work done in this process 73. Explain in detail the isochoric process.
Work done in an adiabatic process: Isobaric process: Isochoric process:
1) Consider μ moles of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder having perfectly 1) This is a thermodynamic process that occurs at constant pressure. Even 1) This is a thermodynamic process in which the
non conducting walls and base. A frictionless and insulating piston of though pressure is constant in this process, temperature, volume and volume of the system is kept constant. But
cross sectional area A is fitted in the cylinder. Let W be the work done internal energy are not constant. From the ideal gas equation, we have pressure, temperature and internal energy
when the system goes from the initial state (Pi,Vi,Ti) to the final state 𝝁𝑹 𝜇𝑅 continue to be variables. The pressure - volume
V = ( )T ----------1 Here = Constant
𝑽 𝑷 𝑃
(Pf,Vf,Tf) adiabatically. W = ∫𝑽 𝒇 𝑷𝒅𝑽 ---------------- 1 graph for an isochoric process is a vertical line
𝒊 2) In an isobaric process the temperature is
parallel to pressure axis.
2) By assuming that the adiabatic process occurs quasi-statically, at every directly proportional to volume. V ∝T
2) The equation of state for an isochoric process
stage the ideal gas law is valid. Under this condition, the adiabatic (Isobaric process) ---- (2) 𝜇𝑅
is given by P = ( )
et

et

et
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 This implies that for a isobaric process, the
equation of state is PVγ = constant (or) P = can be substituted 𝑉
𝑉𝛾 𝜇𝑅
𝑽 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 V-T graph is a straight line passing through Where, ( ) = Constant
in theequation (1), we get Wadia = ∫𝑽 𝒇 dV 𝑉
i.N

i.N

i.N
𝒊 𝑽𝜸 the origin.
𝑉 It that the pressure is directly proportional to temperature. This
= Constant ∫𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 𝛾 dV 3) If a gas goes from a state (Vi,Ti) to (Vf,Tf) at constant pressure, then the
implies that the P-T graph for an isochoric
𝑖
𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑖
𝑉 −𝛾+1 𝑉𝑓 system satisfies the following equation = process is a straight line passing through
= Constant [ ] 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖
la

la

la
−𝛾+1 origin. If a gas goes from state (Pi,Ti) to (Pf,Tf)
The work done in an isobaric process:
Constant Constant Constant 𝑽 at constant volume, then the system satisfies
= [ 𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1 ] Work done by the gas W = ∫𝑽 𝒇 𝑷𝒅𝑽 𝑃𝑓
sa

sa

sa
1−𝛾 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖 𝒊 𝑃𝑖
In an isobaric process, the pressure is constant, so P comes out of the the following equation =
But, PiViγ = PfVfγ = constant. 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑓
𝛾 𝛾 integral, For an isochoric process, ΔV=0 and W=0. Then
1 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Wadia = [ − ] 𝑽𝒇
the first law becomes ΔU = Q
da

da

da
𝛾−1
1−𝛾 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
𝛾−1 W=P ∫𝑽𝒊 𝒅𝑽 W = P [Vf – Vi] = P∆V -----------3
𝟏 4) Where ΔV denotes change in the volume. 3) Implying that the heat supplied is used to
Wadia = [PfVf – PiVi] -------- 2 increase only the internal energy. As a result, the temperature
𝟏−𝜸
If ΔV is negative, W is also negative. This
From ideal gas law, PfVf = μRTf and PiVi = μRTi
Pa

Pa

Pa
implies that the work is done on the gas. increases and pressure also increases.
μR 4) Suppose a system loses heat to the surroundings through conducting
Substituting in equation (2), we get, Wadia = [Ti – Tf] If ΔV is positive, W is also positive,
𝛾−1
implying that work is done by the gas. walls by keeping the volume constant, then its internal energy
3) In adiabatic expansion, work is done by the gas. i.e., Wadia is positive. As
decreases. As a result, the temperature decreases; the pressure also
w.

w.

w.
Ti>Tf,the gas cools during adiabatic expansion. In adiabatic 5) The equation (3) can also be rewritten
using the ideal gas equation. decreases.
compression, work is done on the gas. i.e., Wadia is negative. As Ti<Tf,
the temperature of the gas increases during adiabatic compression. From ideal gas equation PV = μRT and
74. What are the limitations of the first law of thermodynamics?
ww

ww

ww
𝛍𝐑𝐓
V= Substituting this in equation (3) we
𝐏 Limitations of first law of thermodynamics
𝑇𝑖 The first law of thermodynamics explains well the inter convertibility of
get, W = μRTf (1 − )
𝑇𝑓
heat and work. But it does not indicate the direction of change.
6) In the PV diagram, area under the isobaric curve is equal to the work
For example,
done in isobaric process. The shaded area in the following Figure is
a. When a hot object is in contact with a cold object, heat always flows
equal to the work done by the gas.
from the hot object to cold object but not in the reverse direction.
7) The first law of thermodynamics for isobaric process is given by
According to first law, it is possible for the energy to flow from hot object
∆U = Q - P∆V
to cold object or from cold object to hot object. But in nature the
direction of heat flow is always from higher temperature to lower
temperature.

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b. When brakes are applied, a car stops due to friction and the work 4) The heat engine works in a cyclic process. After a cyclic process it Carnot’s cycle:
done against friction is converted into heat. But this heat is not returns i) The working substance is subjected to four successive reversible
reconverted to the kinetic energy of the car. So the first law is not to the same state. Since the heat engine returns to the same state after processes formingwhat is called Carnot’s cycle.
sufficient to explain many of natural phenomena. it ejects heat, the change in the internal energy of the heat engine is ii) Let the initial pressure, volume of the working substance be P1,V1.
zero. Step A to B: Quasi-static isothermal expansion from
75. Explain the heat engine and obtain its efficiency. 5) The efficiency of the heat engine is defined as the ratio of the work (P1,V1,TH) to (P2,V2,TH):
Heat engine is a device which takes heat as done (output) to the heat absorbed (input) in one cyclic process. Let 5) The cylinder is placed on the
input and converts this heat in to work by undergoing the working substance absorb heat QHunits from the source and reject source. The heat (QH) flows
a cyclic process. QLunits to the sink after doing work W units from source to the working
A heat engine has three parts: We can write Input heat = Work done + ejected heat substance (ideal gas)
et

et

et

(a) Hot reservoir (b) Working substance QH= W + QL through the bottom of the
(c) Cold reservoir W = QH- QL cylinder. Since the process is
i.N

i.N

i.N

𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐𝐇 −𝐐𝐋 isothermal, the internal

A Schematic diagram for heat engine is given below Then the efficiency of heat engine 𝛈 = = =
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐇 energy of the working
in the figure 𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐖 𝐐𝐋
1) Hot reservoir (or) Source: 𝛈= = =1– substance will not change.
𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐇
la

la

la

It supplies heat to the engine. It is always 6) Note here that QH, QLand W all are taken as positive, a sign convention The input heat increases the
maintained at a high temperature TH followed in this expression. volume of the gas. The piston
sa

sa

sa

2) Working substance: It is a substance like Since QL<QH, the efficiency (η) always less than 1. This implies that is allowed to move out very
gas or water, which converts the heat absorbed is not completely converted into work. The second law slowly (quasi-statically).
heat supplied into work. of thermodynamics placed fundamental restrictions on converting heat 6) W1is the work done by the
da

da

da

i) A simple example of a heat engine is a completely into work. gas in expanding from
steam engine. In olden days’ steam engines were used to drive volume V1to volume V2with a
trains. The working substance in these is water which absorbs 76. Explain in detail Carnot heat engine. decrease of pressure from
Pa

Pa

Pa

heat from the burning of coal. P1to P2. This is represented by the P-V diagram along the path AB.
A reversible heat engine operating in a cycle between two temperatures 7) Then the work done by the gas (working substance) is given by
ii) The heat converts the water in a particular way is called a Carnot Engine. The Carnot engine has four parts 𝑽𝟐
which are given below. ∴QH= WA→B= ∫𝑽 𝑷𝒅𝑽
into steam. This steam is does 𝟏
w.

w.

w.

work by rotating the wheels of 1) Source: It is the source of heat maintained at constant high Since the process occurs quasi-statically, the gas is in equilibrium with
the train, thus making the train temperature TH. Any amount of heat can be extracted from it, without the source till it reaches the final state. The work done in the
changing its temperature. isothermal expansion is given by the equation.
ww

move.
ww

ww

2) Sink: It is a cold body maintained at a constant low temperature TL. It Step B to C: Quasi-static adiabatic expansion from (P2,V2,TH) to (P3,V3,TL)
3) Cold reservoir (or) Sink: The heat
can absorb any amount of heat. 1) The cylinder is placed on the insulating stand and the piston is allowed
engine ejects some amount of heat
3) Insulating stand: It is made of perfectly non-conducting material. Heat to move out. As the gas expands adiabatically from volume V2 to
(QL) in to cold reservoir after it doing
is not conducted through this stand. volume V3 the pressure falls from P2 to P3.
work. It is always maintained at a low
4) Working substance: It is an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with 2) The temperature falls to TL. This adiabatic expansion is represented by
temperature TL.
perfectly non-conducting walls and perfectly conducting bottom. A non- curve BC in the P-V diagram. This adiabatic process also occurs quasi-
For example, in the automobile
conducting and frictionless piston is fitted in it. statically and implying that this process is reversible and the ideal gas
engine, the cold reservoir is the
is in equilibrium throughout the process. The work done by the gas in
surroundings at room temperature.
an adiabatic expansion is given by,
The automobile ejects heat to these
surroundings through a silencer. 𝑽 𝝁𝑹
WB→C= ∫𝑽 𝟑 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = [TH – TL] = Area under the curve BC
𝟐 𝜸−𝟏

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Step C → D: Quasi-static isothermal compression from (P3,V3,TL) to (P4,V4,TL): 77. Derive the expression for Carnot engine efficiency. 3) In fact we can reformulate the second law of thermodynamics as follows
1) The cylinder is placed on the sink and the gas is isothermally Efficiency of a Carnot engine: “For all the processes that occur in nature (irreversible process), the
compressed until the pressure and volume become P4 and V4 Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done by the working substance entropy always increases. For reversible process entropy will not
respectively. This is represented by the curve CD in the PV diagram. Let in one cycle to the amount of heat extracted from the source. change”. Entropy determines the direction in which natural process
WC→D be the work done on the gas. According to first law of 𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐖
should occur.
thermodynamics 𝛈= = ---------- 1 4) Because entropy increases when heat flows from hot object to cold
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐐𝐇
𝑽
WC→D= ∫𝑽 𝟒 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝝁RTL In =
𝑽𝟒
= – 𝝁RTL In =
𝑽𝟑 From the first law of thermodynamics, W = QH − QL object. If heat were to flow from a cold to a hot object, entropy will
𝟑 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝐐𝐇 − 𝐐𝐋 𝐐𝐋
𝜂= =1– -------------- 2 decrease leading to violation of second law thermodynamics.
= – Area under the curve CD 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐇
5) Entropy is also called ‘measure of disorder’. All natural process occurs
Here V3is greater than V4. So the work done is negative, implying work Applying isothermal conditions, we get,
such that the disorder should always increases.

et

et

et
is done on the gas. 𝑉2 𝑉3
QH = 𝜇RTH In ; QL = 𝜇RTL In ------------ 3 6) Consider a bottle with a gas inside. When the gas molecules are
𝑉4 𝑉4
Step D→A: Quasi-static adiabatic compression from (P4,V4,TL) to (P1,V1,TH):
Here we omit the negative sign. Since we are interested in only the amount inside the bottle it has less disorder. Once it spreads into the entire

i.N

i.N

i.N
1) The cylinder is placed on the 𝑉
𝑇𝐿 𝐼𝑛 𝑉3 room it leads to more disorder.
insulating stand again and the gas is 𝑄𝐿 4
of heat (QL) ejected into the sink, we have, = 𝑉 ---------4 7) In other words when the gas is inside the bottle the entropy is less
compressed adiabatically till it 𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻 𝐼𝑛 𝑉2
1 and once the gas spreads into entire room, the entropy increases.
attains the initial pressure P1, volume 𝛾−1 𝛾−1

la

la

la
By applying adiabatic conditions, we get, TH𝑉2 = TL𝑉3 From the second law of thermodynamics, entropy always increases.
V1and temperature TH. This is shown 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
By dividing the above two equations, we get, TH𝑉1 = TL𝑉4 8) If the air molecules go back in to the bottle, the entropy should
by the curve DA in the P-V diagram.
sa

sa

sa
𝑽 𝜸−𝟏 𝑽 𝜸−𝟏
decrease, which is not allowed by the second law of thermodynamics.
𝑽 𝝁𝑹
WD→A= ∫𝑽 𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝑽= [TL – TH] = Area By dividing the above two equations, we get, ( 𝟐 ) =(𝑽𝟑 ) 9) The same explanation applies to a drop of ink diffusing into water. Once
𝟒 𝜸−𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝟒
under the curve DA 𝑉2 𝑉3 the drop of ink spreads, its entropy is increased. The diffused ink can
Which implies that, = ---------------5
da

da

da
2) In the adiabatic compression also 𝑉1 𝑉4 never become a drop again. So the natural processes occur in such a
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿
work is done on the gas so it is Substituting equation (5) in (4), we get, = way that entropy should increase for all irreversible process.
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
negative. Let ‘W’ be the net work 𝑇𝐿
The efficiency 𝜂 - 1 –
Pa

Pa

Pa
done by the working substance in one cycle 𝑇𝐻 79. Explain in detail the working of a refrigerator.
∴W=Work done by the gas – work done on the gas Note: TL and TH should be expressed in Kelvin scale. Refrigerator:
= WA→B + WB→C − WC→D − WD→A since WB→C = WD→A A refrigerator is a Carnot’s engine working in the
78. Explain the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy. reverse order.
w.

w.

w.
= WA→B − WC→D Entropy and second law of thermodynamics:
Working Principle:
The net work done by the Carnot engine in one cycle 𝐐𝐇 𝐐𝐋
1) We have seen in the equation that the quantity . Is equal to the The working substance (gas) absorbs a
W=WA→B − WC→D ---------------1 𝐓𝐇 𝐓𝐋
ww

ww

ww
𝐐 quantity of heat QLfrom the cold body (sink) at a
Equation (1) shows that the net work done by the working substance quantity is called entropy.It is a very important thermodynamic
𝐓 lower temperature TL. A certain amount of work W
in one cycle is equal to the area (enclosed by ABCD) of the property of a system.
is done on the working substance by the
P-V diagram. 𝐐𝐇
2) It is also a state variable. is the entropy received by the Carnot compressor and a quantity of heat QH is rejected to
3) It is very important to note that after one cycle the working substance 𝐓𝐇
𝐐𝐋 the hot body (source) ie, the atmosphere at TH.
returns to the initial temperature TH. This implies that the change in enginefrom hot reservoir and is entropy given out by the Carnot
𝐓𝐋 When you stand beneath of refrigerator, you can feel
internal energy of the working substance after one cycle is zero. engine to the cold reservoir. For reversible engines (Carnot Engine) both warmth air. From the first law of thermodynamics,
entropies should be same, so that the change in entropy of the Carnot we have QL +W = QH
engine in one cycle is zero. But for all practical engines like diesel and As a result, the cold reservoir (refrigerator) further
petrol engines which are not reversible engines, they satisfy the relation cools down and the surroundings (kitchen or
𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻
> . atmosphere) gets hotter.
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻

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UNIT – IX (KINETIC THEORY OF GASES) 6. Define the term degrees of freedom. Where𝑣12̅ and 𝑣22̅
are the mean square speed for two gases and N1 and N2 are
The minimum number of independent coordinates needed to specify the the number of gas molecules in two different gases.
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: position and configuration of a thermo-dynamical system in space is called At the same temperature, average kinetic energy per molecule is the same for
the degree of freedom of the system. 𝟏 ̅ 𝟏 ̅
two gases. m1𝒗𝟏𝟐 = m2𝒗𝟐𝟐 --------------------- 2
1. What is the microscopic origin of pressure? 𝟐 𝟐

With the help of kinetic theory of gases, the pressure is linked to the 7. State the law of equipartition of energy. Dividing the equation (1) by (2) we get N1= N2
1𝑁 According to kinetic theory, the average kinetic energy of system of This is Avogadro’s law. It is sometimes referred to as Avogadro’s hypothesis or
velocity of molecules. P = mV-2 m – mass of a molecule;
3𝑉 molecules in thermal equilibrium at temperature T is uniformly distributed to Avogadro’s Principle.
N - Avogadro Number; V – Volume; V-2 – Avogadro velocity molecules. all degrees of freedom (x or y orfreedom will get ½ kT of energy. This is called
law of equipartition of energy. 12. List the factors affecting the mean free path.
et

et

et
2. What is the microscopic origin of temperature? 1) Mean free path increases with increasing temperature. As the
3 8. Define mean free path and write down its expression. temperature increases, the average speed of each molecule will
Average Kinetic Energy / Molecule : KE = 𝜺 = NkT
i.N

i.N

i.N
2 Average distance travelled by the molecule between collisions is called increase. It is the reasonwhy the smell of hot sizzling food reaches
3. Why moon has no atmosphere? mean free path (λ). We can calculate the mean free path based on kinetic several meter away than smell of cold food.
theory. 2) Mean free path increases with decreasing pressure of the gas and
The escape speed of gases on the surface of Moon is much less than
la

la

la
the root mean square speeds of gases due to low gravity. Due to this all the diameter of the gas molecules.
9. Deduce Charles’ law based on kinetic theory.
gases escape from the surface of the Moon. 2𝑈 2 2
Charles’ law: From the equation P =
sa

sa

sa
= u we get PV = U 13. What is the reason for Brownian motion?
3𝑉 3 3
4. Write the expression for rms speed, average speed and most probable speed For a fixed pressure, the volume of the gas is proportional to internal According to kinetic theory, any particle suspended in a liquid or gas is
ofa gas molecule. continuously bombarded from all the directions so that the mean free path is
energy of the gas or average kinetic energy of the gas and the average kinetic
almost negligible. This leads to the motion of the particles in a random and
da

da

da
3RT 8RT 2RT energy is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
Vrms = √ ̅=√
; Vave V ; Vmp = √ zig–zag manner.
M πM M V
It implies that V α T or = Constant.
T
5. What is the relation between the average kinetic energy and pressure? 14. What are the factors which affect Brownian motion?
Pa

Pa

Pa
3 10. Deduce Boyle’s law based on kinetic theory. 1) Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature.
The internal energy of the gas is given by U = NkT 2𝑈 2 2 2) Brownian motion decreases with bigger particle size, high viscosity and
2
Boyle’s law: From the equation P = = u we get PV = U
3 3𝑉 3 3
The above equation can also be written as U = PV Since PV = NkT density of the liquid (or) gas.
2 But the internal energy of an ideal gas is equal to N times the average kinetic
w.

w.

P=
𝟐𝑼
𝟑𝑽
𝟐
= u ----------------1
𝟑
From the equation (1), we can state that the pressure of the gas is equal to two
energy (∈) of each molecule. U = N∈
For a fixed temperature, the average translational kinetic energy ∈ will remain
15.
w.
What is meant by rms speed of the molecules of a gas? Is rms speed same
asthe average speed?
ww

ww

ww
𝟐 The rms speed of the molecule of a gas is defined as the square root of
𝑈 constant. It implies that PV = N∈ Thus PV = constant
thirds of internal energy per unit volume or internal energy density. u = 𝟑 the mean of the square of speeds of all molecules.
𝑉
Therefore, pressure of a given gas is inversely proportional to its volume
Writing pressure in terms of mean kinetic energy density using equation. 2 +V2 +V2
V1
provided the temperature remains constant. This is Boyle’s law. No, rms speed is different from the average speed. Vrms = √ 2 3
𝟏 ̅ 𝟏 ̅ 3
𝟐 𝟐
P = nm𝒗 = 𝝆𝒗 ---------------2
𝟑 𝟑
11. Deduce Avogadro’s law based on kinetic theory. ̅ = Average speed = 𝑉1 +𝑉2+𝑉3
V
3
where ρ = nm = mass density (Note n is number density) This law states that at constant temperature and pressure, equal
Multiply and divide R.H.S of equation (2) by 2, we get P = ( 𝑣 2̅ )
2 𝜌
volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. For two different 16. Why No hydrogen in Earth’s atmosphere?
3 2
gases at the same temperature and pressure, according to kinetic theory of As the root mean square speed of hydrogen is much greater than that of
𝟐
P = ̅̅̅̅
𝐊𝐄 ----------------------3 gases, nitrogen, it easily escapes from the earth’s atmosphere. In fact, the presence
𝟑
From the equation (3), pressure is equal to 2/3 of mean kinetic energy per unit 𝟏 𝑵𝟏 ̅ 𝟏 𝑵𝟐 ̅ of nonreactive nitrogen instead of highly combustible hydrogen deters many
From equation P = m1𝒗𝟏𝟐 = m2𝒗𝟐𝟐 -------------- 1
volume. 𝟑 𝑽 𝟑 𝑽 disastrous consequences.

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17. Mention the different ways of increasing the number of molecular 22. Derive the expression of pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of 6) The change in momentum of the molecule
collisionsper unit time in a gas. thecontainer. in x direction =Final momentum – initial
The numbers of collisions per unit time can be increased by increasing 1) Consider a monatomic gas of N molecules each having a mass m inside momentum = −mvx−mvx= −2mvx
the temperature of the gas, increasing the number of molecules, and a cubical container of side l as shown in the Figure According to law of conservation of linear
decreasing the volume of the gas. (a). momentum, the change in momentum of
2) The molecules of the gas are in random motion. the wall = 2mvx
18. On which factors does the average kinetic energy of gas molecular depend? They collide with each other and also with the
7) The number of molecules hitting the right
The average kinetic energy of a gas molecular depends only on the walls of the container. As the collisions are elastic
side wall in a small interval of time Δt is
absolute temperature of the gas and is directly proportional to it. in nature, there is no loss of energy, but a change
calculated as follows. The molecules
in momentum occurs.
et

et

et

19. When a gas is heated, its temperature increases. Explain it on the basis within the distance of vxΔt
3) The molecules of the gas exert pressure on the
ofkinetic temperature of gases. from the right side wall and moving towards the right will hit the wall in
walls of the container due to collision on it. During
i.N

i.N

the time interval Δt. This is shown in the Figure. The number of
i.N

When a gas is heated, the rms velocity of its molecule increases. As each collision, the molecules impart certain
Vrms √T. So the temperature of the gas increases. momentum to the wall. Due to transfer of momentum, the walls molecules that will hit the right side wall in a time interval Δt is equal
experience a continuous force. to the product of volume (AvxΔt) and number density of the molecules
(n). Here A is area of the wall and n is number of molecules per unit
la

la

la

20. What is an ideal gas? (or) What is perfect gas? 4) The force experienced per unit area of the walls of the container
N
An ideal gas is that gas which obeys the gas laws. i.e. Charle’s law, determines the pressure exerted by the gas. It is essential to determine volume ( ). We have assumed that the number density is the same
V
Boyle’s law etc, at all values of temperature and pressure. Molecules of such
sa

sa

sa

the total momentum transferred by the molecules in a short interval of throughout the cube.
a gas should be free from intermolecular attraction. time. 8) Not all the n molecules will move to the right, therefore on an average
5) A molecule of mass m only half of the n molecules move to the right and the other half moves
da

da

da

FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER towards left side. The number of molecules that hit the right side wall
moving with a velocity
21. Write down the postulates of kinetic theory of gases. 𝑛
𝑣̅ having components in a time interval Δt = AvxΔt ---------------------- 1
2
1) All the molecules of a gas are identical, elastic spheres. (vx, vy, vz) hits the right
In the same interval of time Δt, the total momentum transferred by the
Pa

Pa

Pa

2) The molecules of different gases are different. side wall. Since we 𝒏

3) The number of molecules in a gas is very large and the average have assumed that the molecules Δp = AvxΔt × 2mvx= Avx2 nmΔt ------------2
𝟐
separation between them is larger than size of the gas molecules. collision is elastic, the 9) From Newton’s second law, the change in momentum in a small interval
w.

w.

w.

4) The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous random motion. particle rebounds with of time gives rise to force. The force exerted by the molecules on the
5) The molecules collide with one another and also with the walls of the same speed and its ∆𝑃
wall (in magnitude) F = = nm Avx2 --------------- 3
container. ∆𝑡
x-component is
ww

ww

ww

6) These collisions are perfectly elastic so that there is no loss of kinetic Pressure, P = force divided by the area of the wall.
reversed. This is shown in the Figure (b). The components of velocity of
energy during collisions. 𝑭
the molecule after collision are (—vx, vy, vz). P = = nmvx2 -------------------- 4
𝑨
7) Between two successive collisions, a molecule moves with uniform The x-component of momentum of the molecule before collision = mvx Since all the molecules are moving completely in random manner, they
velocity. The x-component of momentum of the molecule after collision = −mvx do not have same speed. So we can replace the term vx2by the average
8) The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on each
̅̅̅
𝑣 2 ̅̅̅𝟐
𝑥 in equation. P = nm 𝒗𝒙 ----------------- 5
other except during collision. The molecules do not possess any
potential energy and the energy is wholly kinetic. 10) Since the gas is assumed to move in random direction, it has no
9) The collisions are instantaneous. The time spent by a molecule in preferred direction of motion (the effect of gravity on the molecules is
eachcollision is very small compared to the time elapsed between two neglected). It implies that the molecule has same average speed in all
consecutive collisions. ̅̅̅𝟐𝒙 =𝒗
thethree direction. So, 𝒗 ̅̅̅𝟐𝒚 = 𝒗
̅̅̅𝟐𝒛 .
10) These molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion even though they
move randomly.
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̅̅̅𝟐 = ̅̅̅
The meansquare speed is written as 𝒗 ̅̅̅𝟐𝒚 = 𝒗
𝒗𝟐𝒙 =𝒗 ̅̅̅𝟐𝒛 𝟑
By using equation (3) U = NKT ----------- 5 It has two rotational degrees of freedom because it is similar to
𝟐
1 ̅̅̅ diatomic molecule except there is an additional atom at the center. At
̅̅̅
𝑣 2
𝑥 = 𝑣
2 From equation (5), we understand that the internal energy of an ideal
3 normal temperature, linear tri-atomic molecule will have five degrees of
1
gas depends only on absolute temperature and is independent of
̅̅̅
Using this in equation (5), we get, 𝑣 2 ̅̅̅2
𝑥 = nm𝑣 or pressure and volume.
freedom. At high temperature it has two additional vibrational degrees
3
of freedom. So a linear tri-atomic molecule has seven degrees of
𝟏𝑵 ̅̅̅𝟐 as [𝒏 = 𝑵
P= m𝒗 ] 24. Describe the total degrees of freedom for mono-atomic molecule, diatomic freedom. Example: Carbon dioxide
𝟑𝑽 𝑽
molecule and tri-atomic molecule. Non-linear tri-atomic molecule in this case, the three atoms lie at
23. Explain in detail the kinetic interpretation of temperature. Mono-atomic molecule: A mono-atomic molecule by the vertices of a triangle as shown in the Figure. It has three
1) To understand the microscopic origin of temperature in the same way, virtue of its nature has only three translational degrees of translational degrees of freedom and three rotational degrees of
̅̅̅
2 freedom. Therefore, f = 3 freedom about three mutually orthogonal axes. The total degrees of

et

et

et
Rewrite the equation P = nm𝑣 𝑥
Example: Helium, Neon, Argon freedom, f = 6
𝟏𝑵 ̅̅̅𝟐 ; PV = 𝟏Nm𝒗
̅̅̅𝟐 ---------------1
P= m𝒗 Diatomic molecule: There are two cases. Example: Water, Sulphurdioxide.
𝟑𝑽 𝟑

i.N

i.N

i.N
Comparing the equation (1) with ideal gas equation PV=NkT, 1) At Normal Temperature A molecule of a diatomic
gas consists of two atoms bound to each other by 25. Derive the ratio of two specific heat capacities of mono-atomic, diatomic
1 ̅̅̅2 ;
NkT = Nm𝑣 a force of attraction. Physically the molecule can and Tri-atomic molecules.
3
Application of law of equipartition energy in specific heat of a gas:

la

la

la
𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐 -----------------2 be regarded as a system of two point masses fixed
KT = m𝒗
𝟑 Meyer’s relation CP− CV= R connects the two specific heats for one mole
at the ends of a mass less elastic spring. The center
Multiply the above equation by 3/2 on both sides, of an ideal gas. Equipartition law of energy is used to calculate the value of
sa

sa

sa
of mass lies in the center of the diatomic molecule.
𝟑 𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐 ---------------------- 3 CP
KT = m𝒗 So, the motion of the center of mass requires three CP−CVand the ratio between them γ = . Here γ is called adiabatic exponent.
𝟐 𝟐 CV
translational degrees of freedom (figure a). In
R.H.S of the equation (3) is called average kinetic energy of a single
da

da

da
̅̅̅̅ ). Th e average kinetic energy per molecule addition, the diatomic molecule can rotate about i) Monatomic molecule:
molecule(𝐾𝐸
three mutually perpendicular axes (figure b). But 𝟑
Average kinetic energy of a molecule = [ 𝐤𝐓]
̅̅̅̅ = ∈ = 𝟑KT ------------- 4
𝐾𝐸 the moment of inertia about its own axis of rotation 𝟐
𝟐 3 3
Pa

Pa

Pa
is negligible (about y axis in the figure). Therefore, Total energy of a mole of gas kT x NA ; = RT
2) Equation (3) implies that the temperature of a gas is a measure 2 2
it has only two rotational degrees of freedom (one For one mole, the molar specific heat at constant volume
of the average translational kinetic energy per molecule of the gas.
rotation is about Z axis and another rotation is 𝑑𝑈 𝑑 3
Equation 4 is a very important result from kinetic theory of gas. We CV = = [ RT]
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2
about Y axis). Therefore, totally there are five
w.

w.

w.
can infer the following from this equation. 3
CV = [ R] ; CP = CV + R
degrees of freedom. 2
3) The average kinetic energy of the molecule is directly proportional to f= 5 3 𝟓
absolute temperature of the gas. The equation (3) gives the = R+R= R
ww

ww

ww
2) At High Temperature at a very high temperature 2 𝟐
connectionbetween the macroscopic world (temperature) to CP
such as 5000 K, the diatomic molecules possess The ratio of specific heats, γ = ;
CV
microscopic world (motion of molecules). additional two degrees of freedom due to 5
R 5
4) The average kinetic energy of each molecule depends only on vibrationalmotion [one due to kinetic energy of = 2
3 = 𝛄 =1.67
R 3
temperature of the gas not on mass of the molecule. In other words, if vibration and the other is due to potential energy] 2

the temperature of an ideal gas is measured using thermometer, the (Figure c). So totally there are seven degrees of freedom. ii) Diatomic molecule:
average kinetic energy of each molecule can be calculated without f = 7. Examples: Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen. 5
seeing the molecule through naked eye. Average kinetic energy of a diatomic molecule at low temperature = kT
2
3) Tri-atomic moleculesThere are two cases. 5 5
5) By multiplying the total number of gas molecules with average kinetic Linear tri-atomic molecule in this type, two atoms lie on either Total energy of one mole of gas = kT x NA ; = RT
2 2
energy of each molecule, the internal energy of the gas is obtained. side of the central atom as shown in the Figure. Linear tri-atomic (Here, the total energy is purely kinetic) For one mole Specific heat at
𝟏 molecule has three translational degrees of freedom.
̅̅̅𝟐 )
Internal energy of ideal gas U = N( 𝒎𝒗
𝟐

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𝑑𝑈 5 5 Note that according to kinetic theory model of gases the specific 27. Derive the expression for mean free path of the gas.
constant volume. CV = ; =[ RT] ; CV= R
𝑑𝑇 2 2
heat capacity at constant volume and constant pressure are Expression for mean free path
independent of temperature. But in reality it is not sure. The specific 1) We know from postulates of kinetic theory that the molecules of a gas
But, CP = CV + R
𝟓 𝟕
heat capacity varies with the temperature. are in random motion and they collide with each other. Between two
= R+R= R successive collisions, a molecule moves along a straight path with
𝟐 𝟐
CP
7
R 7
26. Explain in detail the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution function. uniform velocity.
The ratio of specific heats, γ = ; = 52 = 𝛄 =1.40 1) The air molecules are moving in random directions. The speed of each
CV R 5 2) This path is called mean free
2
𝟕 molecule is not the same even though macroscopic parameters like path. Consider a system of
Energy of a diatomic molecule at high temperature is equal to RT temperature and pressure are fixed.
𝟐 molecules each with diameter
𝑑𝑈 7 7 2) Each molecule collides with every other molecule and they exchange d. Let n be the number of
et

et

et
CV = ; =[ RT] ; CV= R
𝑑𝑇 2 2 their speed. Section we calculated the rms speed of each molecule molecules per unit volume.
But, CP = CV + R and not the speed of each molecule which is rather difficult. Assume that only one molecule is in motion and all others are at rest
i.N

i.N

i.N
𝟕 𝟗
= R+R= R 3) In this scenario we can find the number of gas molecules that move as shown in the Figure.
𝟐 𝟐
with the speed of 5 m s−1to 10 m s−1or 10 m s−1to 15 m s−1etc. 3) If a molecule moves with average speed v in a time t, the distance
Note that the CVand CPare higher for diatomic molecules than
4) In general our interest is to find how many gas molecules have the travelled is vt. In this time t, consider the molecule to move in an
the mono atomic molecules. It implies that to increase the temperature
range of speed from v to v + dv. This is given by Maxwell’s speed
la

la

la
ofdiatomic gas molecules by 1°C it requires more heat energy than imaginary cylinder of volume πd2vt.
𝟑
mono-atomic molecules. 𝒎 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 4) It collides with any molecule whose center is within this cylinder.
distribution function. NV = 4pN( ) v2
sa

sa

sa
CP 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑻 𝒆𝟐𝒌𝑻 Therefore, the number of collisions is equal to the number of
The ratio of specific heats, γ = ; The above expression is graphically
CV molecules in the volume of the imaginary cylinder. It is equal to πd2vtn.
9
R
shown as follows The total path length divided by the number of collisions in time t is the
9
= 2
= 𝛄 =1.28
da

da

da
7 5) for a given temperature the number of
2
R 7 mean free path.
molecules having lower speed 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝒗𝒕 𝟏
iii) Tri-atomic molecule: Mean free path = ;𝝀= = -------------- 1
increases parabolically but decreases 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝒕 𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐
Pa

Pa

Pa
a) Linear molecule: exponentially after reaching most 5) Though we have assumed that only one molecule is moving at a time
7 7 and other molecules are at rest, in actual practice all the molecules
Energy of one mole = kT x NA ; = RT probable speed. The rms speed,
2 2 are in random motion. So the average relative speed of one molecule
average speed and most probable
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 7 7 with respect to other molecules has to be taken into account. After
CV = ; = [ RT] ; CV= R speed are indicated in the Figure. It can
w.

w.

𝑑𝑇
But, CP = CV + R
7
= R+R= R
𝑑𝑇 2

9
2
be seen that the rms speed is greatest
among the three. w.
some detailed calculations (you will learn in higher classes) the correct
expression for mean free path. 𝝀 =
𝟏
√𝟐𝒏𝝅𝒅𝟐
------------------- 2
ww

ww

ww
2 2 6) The area under the graph will give the 6) The equation (1) implies thatthe mean free path is inversely
9
CP R 9 total number of gas molecules in the
The ratio of specific heats, γ = ;= 2
= 𝛄 =1.28 proportional to number density. When the number density increases
7
CV R 7 system. Figure shows the speed distribution graph for two different
2 the molecular collisions increasesso it decreases the distance travelled
b) Non-linear molecule: temperatures. As temperature increases, the peak of the curve is by the molecule before collisions.
6 6 shifted to the right. It implies that the average speed of each molecule Case1: Rearranging the equation (2) using ‘m’ (mass of the molecule)
Energy of a mole = kT x NA; = RT = 3RT
2 2 will increase. But thearea under each graph is same since it represents 𝒎
𝑑𝑈
𝝀= But mn=mass per unit volume = ρ (density of the gas)
the total number of gas molecules. √𝟐𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒎𝒏
CV = ; = 3R ; 𝑚
𝑑𝑇
𝜆= Also we know that PV = NkT
But, CP = CV + R ;= 3R + R = 4R √2𝜋𝑑2 ρ
𝑁 𝑃
CP 4R 4 P= kT = nkT ; n =
The ratio of specific heats, γ = = = 𝛄 = 1.33 𝑉 𝑘𝑇
CV 3R 3
𝑃 𝒌𝑻
Substituting n = in equation (2), we get 𝝀 =
𝑘𝑇 √𝟐𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝑷

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28. Describe the Brownian motion. UNIT – X (OSCILLATIONS) 6. Write short notes on two springs connected in series.
1) Brownian motion is due to the Consider only two springs whose spring constant are k1 and k2 and which
bombardment of suspended particles by TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER: can be attached to a mass m. The results thus obtained can be generalized for
molecules of the surrounding fluid. any number of springs in series.
2) According to kinetic theory, any particle 1. What is meant by periodic and non-periodic motion? Give any two examples,
suspended in a liquid or gas is foreach motion. 7. Write short notes on two springs connected in parallel.
continuously bombarded from all the 1) Periodic motionAny motion which repeats itself in a fixed time interval is Consider only two springs of spring constants k1 and k2 attached to a
directions so that the mean free path is known as periodic motion. mass m. The results can be generalizedto any number of springs in parallel.
almost negligible. This leads to the motion Examples: Hands in pendulum clock, swing of a cradle, the revolution of
8. Write down the time period of simple pendulum.
of the particles in a random and zig–zag the Earth around the Sun, waxing and waning of Moon, etc.
et

et

et

The angular frequency of this oscillator (natural frequency of this

manner 2) Non-Periodic MotionAny motion which does not repeat itself after
Factors affecting Brownian motion: 𝒈 𝒈
aregular interval of time is known as non-periodic motion. system) is ω2 = ⇒ω = √ in rads-1
i.N

i.N

i.N

𝒍 𝒍
1) Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature. Example: Occurrence of Earth quake, eruption of volcano, etc.
2) Brownian motion decreases with bigger particle size, high viscosity 1 𝑔
The frequency of oscillations is f =
2𝜋
√ 𝑙 in Hz, and time period of oscillations
and density of the liquid (or) gas. 2. What is meant by force constant of a spring?
la

la

la

The displacement of the particle is measured in terms of linear 𝒍

is T = 2𝝅√
𝒈
displacement 𝐫 . The restoring force is 𝐅 = – k𝐫, where kis a spring constant or
,
sa

sa

sa

force constant. 9. State the laws of simple pendulum?

1) Oscillations of a loaded spring 2) Vibrations of a turning force Law of length: For a given value of acceleration due to gravity, the time
3. Define time period of simple harmonic motion. period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of
da

da

da

The time period is defined as the time taken by a particle to complete length of the pendulum. T 𝜶√𝒍
one oscillation. It is usually denoted by T. For one complete revolution, the time Law of acceleration: For a fixed length, the time period of a simple
𝟐𝝅 pendulum is inversely proportional to square root of acceleration due to
Pa

Pa

Pa

taken is t = T, therefore, ωT = 2π ⇒T =
𝝎 𝟏
gravity. T 𝜶
√𝒈
4. Define frequency of simple harmonic motion.
The number of oscillations produced by the particle per second is called 10. Write down the equation of time period for linear harmonic oscillator.
w.

w.

w.

frequency. It is denoted by f. SI unit for frequency is s−1 or hertz From Newton’s second law, we can write the equation for the particle
(In symbol, Hz). 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝟏
executing simple harmonic motion m =−𝒌𝒙 ;
𝒅𝒕𝟐
ww

ww

ww

Angular frequency is related to time period by f = 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘

𝐓
The number of cycles (or revolutions) per second is called angular frequency. =− 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
, Comparing the equation with simple harmonic motion equation,
It is usually denoted by the Greek small letter ‘omega’, ω.
Angular frequency and frequency are related by ω = 2πf 𝑘
SI unit for angular frequency is rad s−1. we get, ω = √ rad s-1
𝑚

𝛚 𝟏 𝒌
5. What is an epoch? Natural frequency of the oscillatoris f = = √ Hertz.
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒎
The displacement time t = 0 s (initial time), the phase φ = φ0 is called
𝟏 𝒎
epoch. (initial phase) where φ0is called the angle of epoch. and the time period of the oscillation is T = = 2𝝅√ second.
𝒇 𝒌

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11. What is meant by free oscillation? 22. Glass windows may be broken by a far-away explosion. Explain why? 7) This means that the exponent of force 𝐅and the exponent of
When the oscillator is allowed to oscillate by displacing its position from A large amplitude in all directions. As these sound waves strike the displacement 𝐫are unity. The sketch between cause (magnitude of
equilibrium position, it oscillates with a frequency which is equal to the glass windows, they set them into forced oscillations. ⃗ |) and effect (magnitude of displacement |𝐫|) is a straight line
force |F
natural frequency of the oscillator. Such an oscillation or vibration is known Since glass is brittle, so the glass windows break as soon as they start
as free oscillation or free vibration. passing through second and fourth quadrant
oscillating due to forced oscillations. 1
By measuring slope , one can find the numerical value of force
k
12. Explain damped oscillation. Give an example. FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER constant k.
1) Due to the presence of friction and air drag, the amplitude of oscillation
23. What is meant by simple harmonic oscillation? Give examples and explain 24. Describe Simple Harmonic Motion as a projection of uniform circular
decreases as time progresses. It implies that the oscillation is not
whyevery simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion whereas the converse motion.
sustained and the energy of the SHM decreases gradually indicating the neednot be true.

et

et

et
1) Consider a particle of mass m moving with uniform speed v along the
loss of energy. 1) Simple harmonic motion is a special type of circumference of a circle whose radius is r in anti-clockwise direction.
2) The energy lost is absorbed by the surrounding medium. This type of oscillatory motion in which the acceleration Let us assume that the origin of the coordinate system coincides with

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oscillatory motion is known as damped oscillation. or force on the particle is directly the center O of the circle.
Examples (i) The oscillations of a pendulum (including air friction) or proportional to its displacement from a 2) If ω is the angular velocity of the particle and θ the angular
pendulum oscillating inside an oil filled container. (ii) Electromagnetic fixed point and is always directed towards displacement of the particle at any instant of time t, then θ = ωt. By

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oscillations in a tank circuit. (iii) Oscillations in a dead beat and ballistic that fixed point. projecting the uniform circular motion on its diameter gives a simple
galvanometers. 2) In one dimensional case, let x be the harmonic motion.
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13. Define forced oscillation. Give an example. displacement of the particle and ax be the acceleration of the particle, 3) This means that we can associate
In this type of vibration, the body executing vibration initially vibrates with then 𝒂𝒙 ∝ ; 𝒂𝒙 = – b 𝒙 map (or a relationship) between
its natural frequency and due to the presence of external periodic force, the where b is a constant which measures acceleration per unit uniform circular (or revolution) motion
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body later vibrates with the frequency of the applied periodic force. Such displacement and dimensionally it is equal to T−2. By multiplying by to vibratory motion. Conversely, any
vibrations are known as forced vibrations. Example: Sound boards of stringed mass of the particle on both sides of equation and from Newton’s vibratory motion or revolution can be
instruments. second law, the force is 𝑭𝒙 = − k𝒙 mapped to uniform circular motion. In
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where kis a force constant which is defined as force per unit length. other words, these two motions are similar in nature.
14. What is meant by maintained oscillation? Give an example. 3) The negative sign indicates that displacement and force 4) Let us first project the position of a particle moving on a circle, on to
While playing in swing, the oscillations will stop after a few cycles, this is (or acceleration) are in opposite directions. its vertical diameter or on to a line parallel to vertical diameter.
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due to damping. To avoid damping we have to supply a push to sustain 4) This means that when the displacement of the particle is taken Similarly, we can do it for horizontal axis or a line parallel to horizontal
oscillations. By supplying energy from an external source, the amplitude of towards right of equilibrium position (x takes positive value), the force axis.
the oscillation can be made constant. Such vibrations are known as (or acceleration) will point towards equilibrium (towards left) and 5) As a specific example, consider a spring mass system (or oscillation of
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maintained vibrations. similarly, when the displacement of the particle is taken towards left pendulum). When the spring moves up and down (or pendulum moves
Example: The vibration of a tuning fork getting energy from a battery or of equilibrium position (x takes negative value), the force (or to and fro), the motion of the mass or bob is mapped to points on the
from external power supply. acceleration) will point towards equilibrium (towards right). circular motion.
5) This type of force is known as restoring forcebecause it always directs 6) Thus, if a particle undergoes uniform circular motion then the
15. Explain resonance. Give an example. the particle executing simple harmonic motion to restore to its original projection of the particle on the diameter of the circle (or on a line
The frequency of external periodic force (or driving force) matches with (equilibrium or mean) position. This force (restoring force) is central parallel to the diameter) traces straight-line motion which is simple
the natural frequency of the vibrating body (driven). As a result, the oscillating and attractive whose center of attraction is the equilibrium position. harmonic in nature.
body begins to vibrate such that its amplitude increases at each step and 6) In order to represent in two or three dimensions, we can write using 7) The circle is known as reference circle of the simple harmonic motion.
ultimately it has a large amplitude. Such a phenomenon is known as ⃗ = – kr , where ris the displacement of the particle from
vector notation F The simple harmonic motion can also be defined as the motion of the
resonance and the corresponding vibrations are known as resonance projection of a particle on any diameter of a circle of reference.
the chosen origin. Note that the force and displacement have a linear
vibrations.
relationship.
Example: The breaking of glass due to sound.

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25. What is meant by angular harmonic oscillation? Compute the time period 26. Write down the difference between simple harmonic motion and 28. Explain the horizontal oscillations of a spring.
of angular harmonic oscillation. angularsimple harmonic motion. 1) Consider a system containing a block of mass m
1) When a body is allowed to rotate freely about a given axis then the S. attached to a mass less spring with stiffness
oscillation is known as the angular Simple Harmonic Motion Angular Harmonic Motion constant or force constant or spring constant k
No.
oscillation. The point at which the The displacement of the particle The displacement of the particle is placed on a smooth horizontal surface
resultant torque acting on the body 1 is measured in terms of linear measured in terms of angular (frictionless surface) as shown in Figure.
is taken to be zero is called mean displacement 𝑟 displacement ⃗θ 2) Let x0 be the equilibrium position or mean
position. Acceleration of the particle is Angular Acceleration of the particle position of mass m when it is left undisturbed.
2
⃗ = −𝝎𝟐 𝒓
𝒂 ⃗ is 𝜶⃗⃗ = −𝝎𝟐 𝛉 ⃗ Suppose the mass is displaced through a small
2) If the body is displaced from the
Force , ⃗F= m𝐚⃗ where m is called Torque, 𝜏 = I𝜶⃗⃗ where I is called moment displacement x towards right from its equilibrium
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mean position, then the resultant 3
mass of the particle. of inertia of a body. position and then released, it will oscillate back
torque acts such that it is
The restoring torque τ⃗= – kθ ⃗ where k is and forth about its mean position x0.
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proportional to the angular The restoring force F⃗ = – k𝑟 where
4 restoring torsion constant. 3) Let F be the restoring force (due to stretching of
displacement and this torque has a k is restoring force constant Note: k pronounced “kappa” the spring) which is proportional to the amount
tendency to bring the body towards of displacement of block. For one dimensional
𝑘 𝑘
the mean position. Let ⃗𝛉 be the angular displacement of the body and 5 Angular frequency 𝜔 = √ rad-1 Angular frequency 𝜔 = √ rad-1
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𝑚 𝐼 motion, mathematically, we have Fα 𝑥 ; F = – k𝑥
the resultant torque 𝜏⃗⃗ acting on the body is ⃗⃗𝜏 𝛼 ⃗𝛉 ------------- 1 4) Where negative sign implies that the restoring
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27. Discuss the simple pendulum in detail. force will always act opposite to the direction of the displacement.
𝝉 ⃗ ------------- 2
⃗⃗ =–k𝛉 1) A pendulum is a mechanical system which exhibits periodic motion. It Notice that, the restoring force is linear with the displacement.
k is the restoring torsion constant, which is torque per unit angular has a bob with mass m suspended by a long string (assumed to be 5) This is not always true; in case if we apply a very large stretching force,
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displacement. If I is the moment of inertia of the body and 𝛼 is the mass less and inextensible string) and the other end is fixed on a stand. then the amplitude of oscillations becomes very large (which means,
⃗ .
angular acceleration then ⃗⃗𝜏 = I𝛼 =–k𝛉 2) When a pendulum is displaced through a small displacement from its force is proportional to displacement containing higher powers of x)
⃗
𝑑2 𝜃 𝒅𝟐 ⃗𝜽 𝒌 equilibrium position and released, the bob of the pendulum executes and therefore, the oscillation of the system is not linear and hence, it is
⃗ ------------- 3
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But 𝛼 = and therefore, ⃗𝜶
⃗ = = 𝛉 to and fro motion. Let l be the length of the pendulum which is taken as called non-linear oscillation.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑰
3) This differential equation resembles simple harmonic differential the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity 6) We restrict ourselves only to linear oscillations throughout our
equation.So, comparing equation with simple harmonic motion given of the bob. discussions, which means Hooke’s law is valid (force and displacement
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𝒌 3) Two forces act on the bob of the pendulum at any displaced position. have a linear relationship).
in equation, we have 𝝎 = √ rad s-1 ----------- 4 From Newton’s second law, we can write the equation for the particle
𝑰 (i) The gravitational force acting on the body (𝐅=–m𝐠 ⃗ ) which acts
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝐤
vertically downwards. (ii) The tension in the string 𝐅which acts along executing simple harmonic motion m =– k𝒙; =– 𝐱 ------------1
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𝛚 𝟏 𝒌 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝐦
The frequency of the angular harmonic motion is f = = √ Hz…5 the string to the point of suspension. Comparing the equation (1) with simple harmonic motion equation, we
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝑰
4) Resolving the gravitational force into its components: 2 k
𝟏 𝑰 get ω = . Which means the angular frequency or natural frequency
and the time period of the oscillation is T = = 2𝝅√ second. m
𝒇 𝒌 a. Normal component: The component along the string but in
𝒌
opposition to the direction of tension, Fas= mg cosθ. of the oscillator is𝝎 = √ rsd s-1 -------------- 2
𝒎
b. Tangential component: The component perpendicular to the string
𝛚 𝟏 𝒌
i.e., along tangential direction of arc of swing, Fps= mg sinθ. Natural frequency of the oscillator is f = = √ Hertz --------- 3
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒎

𝟏 𝒎
and the time period of the oscillation is T = = 2𝝅√ second --------- 4
𝒇 𝒌
Notice that in simple harmonic motion, the time period of oscillation
is independent of amplitude. This is valid only if the amplitude of
oscillation is small.
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

29. Describe the vertical oscillations of a spring. 30. Write short notes on the oscillations of liquid column in U-tube. 𝑘
From equation 𝜔 = √ , we can substitute the value of force constant
1) Consider a mass less spring with 1) Consider a U-shaped glass tube which consists of two open arms with 𝑚
stiffness constant or force constant uniform cross-sectional area A. Let us pour a non-viscous uniform k = mω2in equation (3),U(x) = m ω2x2
k attached to a ceiling as shown in incompressible liquid of 4) where ω is the natural frequency of the
Figure. Let the length of the spring density ρ in the U-shaped oscillating system. For the particle
before loading mass m be L. If the tube to a height h as shown executing simple harmonic motion from
block of mass m is attached to the in the Figure. equation x = A sin ωt
other end of spring, then the spring 2) If the liquid and tube are not U(t) = ½ mω2A2Sin2ωt -------------4
elongates by a length 𝑙. disturbed then the liquid This variation of U is shown below.
2) Let F1 be the restoring force due to stretching of spring. Due to mass surface will be in
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b. Expression for Kinetic Energy

m, the gravitational force acts vertically downward. We can draw free- equilibrium position O.
𝑑𝑥 2
body diagram for this system as shown in Figure. When the system is It means the pressure as measured at any point on the liquid is the Kinetic energy KE = ½ mvx2 = ½ m ( )
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𝑑𝑡
under equilibrium, same and also at the surface on the arm (edge of the tube on either Since the particle is executing simple harmonic motion, from equation
F1 + mg = 0---------------- 1 side), which balances with the atmospheric pressure. 𝑑𝑥
y = A sin ωt ; x = A sin ωt Therefore, velocity is vx = A ωcosωt
3) But the spring elongates by small displacement l, 3) Due to this the level of liquid in each arm will be the same. By blowing 𝑑𝑡
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therefore,F1 ∝ 𝒍 ⇒ F1 = − k 𝒍------------ 2 air one can provide sufficient force in one arm, and the liquid gets 𝒙 𝟐
= aω√𝟏 − ( ) ; vx =ω √𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 --------------- 5
𝑨
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get – k 𝑙 + mg = 0 disturbed from equilibrium position O, which means, the pressure at
Hence, KE = ½ mvx2 = ½mω2 (A2−x2) ------------- 6
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m 𝑙 blown arm is higher than the other arm.

mg = k𝑙 or = ----------- 3 KE = ½mω2A2cos2ωt -------------- 7
𝑘 𝑔 4) This creates difference in pressure which will cause the liquid to
4) Suppose we apply a very small external force on the mass such that the This variation with time is shown below.
oscillate for a very short duration of time about the mean or equilibrium
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mass further displaces downward by a displacement y, then it will position and finally comes to rest.
oscillate up and down. Now, the restoring force due to this stretching of
𝒍
spring (total extension of spring is y + 𝑙) is Time period of the oscillation is T = 2𝝅√ second
𝒈
F2∝ (y + 𝒍) F2 = − k (y + 𝒍) = −ky−k𝒍------4
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𝑑2 𝑦 31. Discuss in detail the energy in simple harmonic motion.

Since, the mass moves up and down with acceleration , by drawing
𝑑𝑡 2 a. Expression for Potential Energy
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
the free body diagram for this case, we get −ky− k𝒍 + mg = m ------ 5 1) For the simple harmonic motion, the force and the displacement are c. Expression for Total Energy
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𝒅𝒕𝟐
The net force acting on the mass due to this stretching is F = F2 +mg related by Hooke’s law ⃗F = – kr Total energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
F = − ky−k𝒍+mg ------------- 6 2) Since force is a vector quantity, in three dimensions it has three E = KE + U -------------8 ;E = ½m ω2(A2−x2) + ½m ω2x2
Hence, cancelling x2 term, E = ½m ω2A2 = Constant ----------9
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5) The gravitational force opposes the restoring force. Substituting components. Further, the force in the above equation is a conservative
equation (3) in equation (6), we get F = −ky − k𝒍+ k𝒍 = −ky force field; such a force can be derived from a scalar function which has Alternatively, from equation (4) and equation (7),
𝑑2 𝑦 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌 only one component. In one dimensional case we get the total energy as E = ½ mω2A2Sin2ωt +½mω2A2cos2ωt
Applying Newton’s law, we get m = −ky ; m = − y ------------- 7 E = ½ mω2A2(Sin2ωt + cos2ωt)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎 F = − kx -----------------(1)
6) The above equation is in the form of simple harmonic differential From trigonometry identity,
The work done by the conservative force field is independent of path.
𝟏 𝒎 The potential energy U can be calculated from the following expression. (Sin2ωt + cos2ωt) = 1
equation. Therefore, we get the time period as T = = 2𝝅√ second
𝒇 𝒌 𝒅𝑼 E = ½ mω2A2 = Constant.
The time period can be rewritten using equation (3) F= -------------- 2
𝒅𝒙 which gives the law of conservation of
𝒅𝑼
𝒎 𝒍 Comparing (1) and (2), we get – = – kx ; dU = kxdx total energy. This is depicted in Figure.
T= 2𝝅√ = 2𝝅√ second 𝒅𝒙
𝒌 𝒈 Thus the amplitude of simple harmonic
3) This work done by the force F during a small displacement dx stores as
The acceleration due to gravity g can be computed from the formula 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬
potential energy U(x) = ∫𝟎 𝒌𝒙′ 𝒅𝒙 = (𝒙′ )𝟐 | = ½ kx2 ------- 3 oscillator, can be expressed in terms of total energy. A = √ =√
𝒍
g = 4𝛑𝟐 ( 𝟐 )ms-1 𝟎 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒌
𝐓

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32. Explain in detail the four different types of oscillations. force, the body later vibrates with the frequency of the applied periodic UNIT – XI (WAVES)
Damped oscillations: force. Such vibrations are known as forced vibrations.
1) During the oscillation of a simple Example: Sound boards of stringed instruments. TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER:
pendulum, we have assumed that
Resonance:
the amplitude of the oscillation is 1. What is meant by waves?
1) It is a special case of forced vibrations where the frequency of external
constant and also the total energy The disturbance which carries energy and momentum from one point in
periodic force (or driving force) matches with the natural frequency of
of the oscillator is constant. But in space to another point in space without the transfer of the medium is known
the vibrating body (driven). as a wave.
reality, in a medium, due to the
2) As a result the oscillating body begins to vibrate such that its
presence of friction and air drag,
amplitude increases at each step and ultimately it has a large 2. Write down the types of waves.
the amplitude of oscillation

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amplitude. Such a phenomenon is known as resonance and the a) Mechanical wave:
decreases as time progresses.
corresponding vibrations are known as resonance vibrations. Waves which require a medium for propagation are known as
2) It implies that the oscillation is not sustained and the energy of the

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Example: The breaking of glass due to sound. mechanical waves.
SHM decreases gradually indicating the loss of energy. The energy lost
Examples: sound waves, ripples formed on the surface of water, etc.
is absorbed by the surrounding medium. This type of oscillatory motion 33. Show that the projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter is SHM. b) Non mechanical wave:
is known as damped oscillation. 1) Consider a particle of mass m moving with Waves which do not require any medium for propagation are known as

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3) In other words, if an oscillator moves in a resistive medium, its uniform speed v along the circumference of a non-mechanical waves. Example: light
amplitude goes on decreasing and the energy of the oscillator is used circle whose radius is r in anti-clockwise Further, waves can be classified into two types
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to do work against the resistive medium. direction as shown in Figure. Let us assume that a. Transverse waves b. Longitudinal waves
4) The motion of the oscillator is said to be damped and in this case, the the origin of the coordinate system coincides
resistive force (or damping force) is proportional to the velocity of the with the center O of the circle. 3. What are transverse waves? Give one example.
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oscillator. 2) If ω is the angular velocity of the particle and θ In transverse wave motion, the constituents of the medium oscillate or
Examples (i) The oscillations of a pendulum (including air friction) or the angular displacement of the particle at any vibrate about their mean positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction
pendulum oscillating inside an oil filled container. (ii) Electromagnetic instant of time t, then θ = ωt. of propagation (direction of energy transfer) of waves.
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oscillations in a tank circuit. (iii) Oscillations in a dead beat and 3) By projecting the uniform circular motion on its diameter gives a simple Example: light (electromagnetic waves)
ballistic galvanometers. harmonic motion. This means that we can associate a map (or a
relationship) between uniform circular (or revolution) motion to 4. What are longitudinal waves? Give one example.
Maintained oscillations:
In longitudinal wave motion, the constituent of the medium oscillate or
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w.
1) While playing in swing, the oscillations will stop after a few cycles, this vibratory motion.
4) Conversely, any vibratory motion or revolution can be mapped to vibrate about their mean positions in a direction parallel to the direction of
is due to damping. To avoid damping we have to supply a push to
uniform circular motion. In other words, these two motions are similar propagation (direction of energy transfer) of waves.
sustain oscillations.
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in nature. Example: Sound waves travelling in air.
2) By supplying energy from an external source, the amplitude of the
oscillation can be made constant. Such vibrations are known as 5. Define wavelength.
maintained vibrations. For transverse waves, the distance between two neighbouring crests
Example: The vibration of a tuning fork getting energy from a battery or troughs is known as the wavelength.
or from external power supply. For longitudinal waves, the distance between two neighbouring
Forced oscillations: compressions or rarefactions is known as the wavelength.
1) Any oscillator driven by an external periodic agency to overcome the The SI unit of wavelength is meter.
damping is known as forced oscillator or driven oscillator.
2) In this type of vibration, the body executing vibration initially vibrates
with its natural frequency and due to the presence of external periodic

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6. Write down the relation between frequency, wavelength and velocity of a 12. What is meant by end correction in resonance air column apparatus? 23. Is it possible to realize whether a vessel kept under the tap is about to
wave. The antinodes are not exactly formed at the open end, we have to fillwith water?
Dimension of wavelength is, [λ] = L; 𝝀 𝟑𝝀 The frequency of the note produced by an air column is inversely
include a correction, called end correction. L1 + e = and L2 + e =
1 𝟒 𝟒 proportional to its length. As the level of water in the vessel rises, the length
Frequency f = ,
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 of the air column above it decreases. It produces sound of decreasing
𝟏 13. Sketch the function y = x + a. Explain your sketch.
which implies that the dimension of frequency is, |𝒇| = |𝑻| = T-1 frequency. i.e. the sound becomes shorter. From the shrillness of sound, it is
i) A combination of constant and direct possible to realize whether the vessel is filled which water. Vmin = 11.71ms-1
⇒[λf]= [λ] [f] = LT-1 = [Velocity] ii) A fixed amount is added at regular intervals
Therefore, Velocity, λf = v iii) y = x + a, a suitable conclusion statement would be that, FIVE MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER
Where v is known as the wave velocity or phase velocity. This is the 1) Y is linear with x 24. Discuss how ripples are formed in still water.
velocity with which the wave propagates. Wave velocity is the distance
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2) Y varies linearly with x 1) A stone in a trough of still water, we can see a disturbance produced
travelled by a wave in one second. 3) Y is a linear function of x, y is the intercept at the place where the stone strikes the water surface. We find that
this disturbance spreads out (diverges out) in the form of concentric
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7. What is meant by interference of waves? 14. Write down the factors affecting velocity of sound in gases. circles of ever increasing radii (ripples) and strike the boundary of the
Interferenceis a phenomenon in which two waves superimpose to form Pressure, Temperature, Density, Humidity and wind trough.
a resultant wave of greater, lower or the same amplitude.
15. What is meant by an echo? Explain. 2) This is because some of the kinetic energy of the stone is transmitted
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8. Explain the beat phenomenon. to the water molecules on the surface. Actually the particles of the water
1) An echo is a repetition of sound produced by the reflection of sound
When two or more waves superimpose each other with slightly different (medium) themselves do not move outward with the disturbance.
waves from a wall, mountain or other obstructing surfaces. The speed
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frequencies, then a sound of periodically varying amplitude at a point is 3) This can be observed by keeping a paper strip on the water surface. The
of sound in air at 20°C is 344 ms-1. If we shout at a wall which is at
observed. This phenomenon is known as beats. The number of amplitude strip moves up and down when the disturbance (wave) passes on the
344 m away, then the sound will take 1 second to reach the wall.
maxima per second is called beat frequency. If we have two sources, then their water surface. This shows that the water molecules only undergo
2) After reflection, the sound will take one more second to reach us.
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difference in frequency gives the beat frequency. vibratory motion about their mean positions.
Therefore, we hear the echo after two seconds. Scientists have
Number of beats per second n = | f1 - f2| per second. estimated that we can hear two sounds properly if the time gap or time 25. Briefly explain the difference between travelling waves and standing waves.
1 th
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9. Define intensity of sound and loudness of sound. interval between each sound is( ) of a second (persistence of S.
10 No. Progressive waves Stationary waves
The intensity of soundis defined as “the sound power transmitted per hearing) i.e., 0.1 s. Then, Crests and troughs are formed in Crests and troughs are formed in
unit area taken normal to the propagation of the sound wave”. Distance travelled 2d
transverse progressive waves, and transverse stationary waves, and
Velocity = ;=
The loudness of soundis defined as “the degree of sensation of sound
w.

w.

w.
Time taken t
2d = 344 x 0.1=34.1m; d = 17.2 m compression and rarefaction are compression and rarefaction are
produced in the ear or the perception of sound by the listener”. formed in longitudinal progressive formed in longitudinal stationary
The minimum distance from a sound reflecting wall to hear an echo 1
waves. These waves move forward waves. These waves neither move
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10. Explain Doppler Effect. at 20°C is 17.2 meter. or backward in a medium i.e., they forward nor backward in a
When the source and the observer are in relative motion with respect will advance in a medium with a medium i.e., they will not advance
to each other and to the medium in which sound propagates, the frequency 16. What is reverberation? definite velocity. in a medium.
of the sound wave observed is different from the frequency of the source. This In a closed room the sound is repeatedly reflected from the walls and Except at nodes, all other particles
phenomenon is called Doppler Effect. it is even heard long after the sound source ceases to function. The residual of the medium vibrate such that
All the particles in the medium
sound remaining in an enclosure and the phenomenon of multiple reflections amplitude of vibration is different
11. Explain red shirt and blue shift in Doppler Effect. 2 vibrate such that the amplitude of
of sound is called reverberation. for different particles. The
the vibration for all particles is
The spectral lines of the star are found to shift towards red end of the amplitude is minimum or zero at
same.
spectrum (called as red shift) then the star is receding away from the Earth. nodes and maximum at anti-
Similarly, if the spectral lines of the star are found to shift towards the blue nodes.
end of the spectrum (called as blue shift) then the star is approaching Earth. 3 These wave carry energy while These waves do not transport
propagating. energy.

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

θ
26. Show that the velocity of a travelling wave produced in a string is v = √
𝑻 Fr= 2T sin( ) ----------6 Pressure (NTP) is VT =√
𝟎.𝟕𝟔 𝐱𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝐱 𝟗.𝟖
=279.80 ms-1 ≈ 280 ms-1
2
𝝁 𝟏.𝟐𝟗𝟑
7) Since the amplitude of the wave is very small when it is compared with
1) Consider an elemental segment in the string as shown in the Figure. (theoretical value)
the length of the string, the sine of small angle is approximated as
Let A and B be two points on the string at an instant of time. Let d𝒍 𝛉 𝛉
But the speed of sound in air at 0°C is experimentally observed as
and dmbe the length and mass of the elemental string, respectively. sin( ) ≈ . Hence, equation (6) can be written as 332ms-1 which is close upto 16% more than theoretical value
𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒎 𝛉 (332−280)
By definition, linear mass density, μ is 𝛍 = --------- 1 Fr= 2T x = T θ ---------7 (Percentage error is x 100% = 15.6%) This error is not small.
𝒅𝒍 𝟐 332
dm = 𝛍d𝒍 ------------ 2 𝑑𝑙
8) But θ = , therefore substituting in equation (7),
2) The elemental string AB has a curvature which looks like an arc of a
𝑅 Laplace’s correction:
𝑑𝑙
circle with centre at O, radius R and the arc subtending an angle θ at we get Fr= T ------------8 1) Laplace assumed that when the sound propagates through a
𝑅
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the origin O as shown in Figure. The angle θ can be written in terms of Applying Newton’s second law to the elemental string in the medium, the particles oscillate very rapidly such that the
𝑑𝑙 radial direction, under equilibrium, the radial component of the force compression and rarefaction occur very fast. Hence the
arc length and radius as θ= . The centripetal acceleration supplied by exchange of heat produced due to compression and cooling
𝑅 is equal to the centripetal force. Hence equating equation (5) and
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𝑣2
the tension in the string is acp = ---------------- 3 equation (8), we have effect due to rarefaction do not take place, because, air
𝑅
3) Then, centripetal force can be obtained when mass of the string (dm) 𝒅𝒍 𝒅𝒍 𝑻
(medium) is a bad conductor of heat.
T = 𝝁𝒗𝟐 v = √ measured in ms-1 ---------9 2) Since, temperature is no longer considered as a constant here,
is included in equation (3) 𝑹 𝑹 𝝁
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(𝒅𝒎)𝒗𝟐
sound propagation is an adiabatic process. By adiabatic
Fcp =
𝑹
---------------- 4 27. Describe Newton’s formula for velocity of sound waves in air and also considerations, the gas obeys Poisson’s law (not Boyle’s law as
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4) The centripetal force experienced by elemental string can be calculated discussthe Laplace’s correction. Newton assumed), which is
by substituting equation (2) in equation (4) we get, 1) Newton assumed that when sound propagates in air, the formation of P𝒗𝜸 = Constant ----------- 4
(𝒅𝒎)𝒗𝟐 𝝁𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒍
compression and rarefaction takes place in a very slow manner so that 𝐶𝑃
= ------------- 5 Where, 𝛾= , which is the ratio between specific heat at constant
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𝑹 𝑹 the process is isothermal in nature. 𝐶𝑉

5) The tension T acts along the tangent of the elemental segment of the 2) That is, the heat produced during compression (pressure increases, pressure and specific heat at constant volume. Differentiating
string at A and B. Since the arc length is very small, variation in the volume decreases), and heat lost during rarefaction (pressure equation (4) on both the sides, we get
𝒅𝑷
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tension force can be ignored. We can resolve T into horizontal decreases, volume increases) occur over a period of time such that the 𝒗𝜸 dP + P(𝜸𝑽𝜸−𝟏 𝒅𝑽) = 0 or 𝜸𝑷 = −V BA -------------5
𝒅𝑽
θ θ temperature of the medium remains constant. Therefore, by treating
component T cos( )and vertical component Tsin( ). where, BA is the adiabatic bulk modulus of air. Now, substituting
2 2
the air molecules to form an ideal gas, the changes in pressure and
B
volume obey Boyle’s law, equation (5) in equation V = √ the speed of sound in air is
w.

w.

w.

ρ
PV = Constant ------------ 1
𝐁𝐓 𝜸𝑷
3) Differentiating equation (1), we get PdV+ VdP = 0 or VA = √ =√ = √𝜸VT -------------6
𝛒 𝝆
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𝐝𝐏
P= –V = BT-------- 2 VA = 331ms-1
𝐝𝐕
where, BT is an isothermal bulk modulus of air. Substituting equation
B
(2) in equation V = √ the speed of sound in air is
ρ

𝐁𝐓 𝐏
VT = √ = √ --------------3
𝛒 𝛒
6) The horizontal components at A and B are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction; therefore, they cancel each other. Since the Since P is the pressure of air whose value at NTP (Normal Temperature
elemental arc length AB is taken to be very small, the vertical and Pressure) is 76 cm of mercury, we have
components at A and B appears to acts vertical towards the centre of P = (0.76 × 13.6 ×103× 9.8) Nm-2
the arc and hence, they add up. The net radial force Fris ρ = 1.293 kg m-3. here ρ is density of air
Then the speed of sound in air at Normal Temperature and

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

28. Write short notes on reflection of sound waves from plane and 3) When the pulses have the same shape, at the crossing, the total 30. Explain how the interference of waves is formed.
curvedsurfaces. displacement is the algebraic sum of their individual displacements 1) Consider two harmonic waves having identical frequencies, constant
1) Sound also reflects from a harder flat surface; this is called as specular and hence its net amplitude is higher than the amplitudes of the phase difference φ and same wave form (can be treated as coherent
reflection. individual pulses. source), but having amplitudes A1and A2, then
2) Specular reflection is observed only when the wavelength of the source 4) Whereas, if the two pulses have same y1= A1sin (kx− ωt) -------------------------1
is smaller than dimensions of the reflecting surface, as well as smaller amplitude but shapes are 180° out of y2 = A2sin (kx− ωt+φ) -------------------- 2
than surface irregularities. phase at the crossing point, the net Suppose they move simultaneously in a particular direction, then
3) When the sound waves hit the plane wall, they bounce off in a manner amplitude vanishes at that point and interference occurs (i.e., overlap of these two waves),
similar to that of light. Suppose a loudspeaker is kept at an angle with the pulses will recover their identities y = y1+ y2 -------------3
respect to a wall (plane surface), then the waves coming from the after crossing. 2) Therefore, substituting equation (1) and equation (2) in equation (3),

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source (assumed to be a point source) can be treated as spherical wave 5) Only waves can possess such a we get y = A1sin (kx− ωt) + A2sin (kx− ωt + φ)
fronts (say, compressions moving like a spherical wave front). peculiar property and it is called Using trigonometric identity sin (α+β) = (sin α cosβ + cosα sinβ),

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4) Therefore, the reflected wave front on the plane surface is also superposition of waves. This means we get
spherical, such that its centre of curvature (which lies on the other side that the principle of superposition y = A1sin (kx− ωt)+A2[sin(kx− ωt) cosφ + cos(kx− ωt) sinφ]
of plane surface) can be treated as the image of the sound source explains the net behaviour of the waves when they overlap. y = sin (kx− ωt) (A1+A2cosφ) + A2sinφ cos(kx− ωt) ----------------4

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(virtual or imaginary loud speaker) which can be assumed to be at a 6) Generalizing to any number of waves i.e, if two are more waves in a Let us re-define
position behind the plane surface. medium move simultaneously, when they overlap, their total A cosθ = (A1+ A2cosφ) ----------------- 5
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displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacements. and A sinθ = A2sinφ ----------------------6
Reflection of sound through the curved surface:
7) To understand mathematically, let us consider two functions which then equation (4) can be rewritten as
1) The behaviour of sound is different when it is reflected from different
characterize the displacement of the waves, for example, y = A sin(kx−ωt) cosθ + A cos(kx−ωt) sinθ
surfaces-convex or concave or plane. The sound reflected from a
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y1= A1sin (kx− ωt) and y2= A2cos(kx− ωt) y = A (sin(kx−ωt) cosθ + sinθ cos(kx−ωt))
convex surface is spread out and so it is easily attenuated and
weakened. Whereas, if it is reflected from the concave surface it will
8) Since, both y1and y2satisfy the wave equation (solutions of wave y = A sin (kx−ωt + θ) ---------------7
equation) then their algebraic sum y = y1 + y2also satisfies the wave By squaring and adding equation (5) and equation (6), we get
converge at a point and this can be easily amplified.
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equation. A2= A12+ A22+ 2A1A2cosφ ----------------8
2) The parabolic reflector (curved reflector) which is used to focus the
9) This means, the displacements are additive. Suppose we multiply Since, intensity is square of the amplitude (I = A2),
sound precisely to a point is used in designing the parabolicmicswhich
y1and y2with some constant then their amplitude is scaled by that we have I = I1 + I2 + 2√𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 cosφ ----------------9
are known as high directional microphones.
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constant Further, if C1and C2are used to multiply the displacements This means the resultant intensity at any point depends on the phase
3) We know that any surface (smooth or rough) can absorb sound. For
y1and y2, respectively, then, their net displacement y is difference at that point.
example, the sound produced in a big hall or auditorium or theatre is
y = C1y1 + C2y2
absorbed by the walls, ceilings, floor, seats etc.
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10) This can be generalized to any number of waves. In the case of n such
29. Briefly explain the concept of superposition principle. waves in more than one dimension the displacements are written using
1) When a jerk is given to a stretched string which is tied at one end, a vector notation. Here, the net displacementy ⃗ is ⃗y = ∑ni=1 Ci y
⃗i
wave pulse is produced and the pulse travels along the string. Suppose The principle of superposition can explain the following:
two persons holding the stretched string on either side give a jerk (a) Space (or spatial) Interference (also known as Interference) a) For constructive interference:
simultaneously, then these two wave pulses move towards each other, (b) Time (or Temporal) Interference (also known as Beats) 1) When crests of one wave overlap with crests of another wave, their
meet at some point and move away from each other with their original (c) Concept of stationary waves. amplitudes will add up and we get constructive interference. The
identity. 11) Waves that obey principle of superposition are called linear waves resultant wave has a larger amplitude than the individual waves as
2) Their behaviour is very different only at the crossing/meeting points; (amplitude is much smaller than their wavelengths). In general, if the shown in Figure.
this behaviour depends on whether the two pulses have the same or amplitude of the wave is not small then they are called non-linear 2) The constructive interference at a point occurs if there is maximum
different shape as figure. waves. These violate the linear superposition principle, e.g. laser. In this intensity at that point, which means that cosφ = + 1
chapter, we will focus our attention only on linear waves. ⇒φ = 0, 2π,4π,… = 2nπ, where n = 0,1,2,...

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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

3) This is the phase difference in which two waves overlap to give Using trigonometric identity, we rewrite equation (4) as iii) The law of mass:
constructive interference. Therefore, for this resultant wave, y (x, t) = 2A cos(ωt) sin(kx) ------------ 5 For a given vibrating length 𝑙(fixed) and tension T(fixed) the frequency
𝟐
Imaximum = (√𝐈𝟏 + √𝐈𝟐 ) = (𝐀𝟏 + 𝐀𝟐 )𝟐 3) This represents a stationary wave or standing wave, which means that varies inversely with the square root of the mass per unit length μ,
1 𝐵
Hence, the resultant amplitude A = A1 + A2 this wave does not move either forward or backward, whereas fα ⇒f = , where B is a constant.
√𝜇 √𝜇
progressive or travelling waves will move forward or backward.
b) For destructive interference: 34. Explain the concepts of fundamental frequency, harmonics and overtones
1) When the trough of one wave overlaps with the crest of another wave, 4) Further, the displacement of the particle in equation (5) can be written
in detail.
their amplitudes “cancel” each other and we get destructive in more compact form, y(x, t) = Aʹcos(ωt) where, Aʹ = 2Asin(kx), implying
1) Keep the rigid boundaries at x = 0 and x = L and produce a standing
interference as shown in Figure. The resultant amplitude is nearly zero. that the particular element of the string executes simple harmonic
wave by wiggling the string (as in plucking strings in a guitar). Standing
2) The destructive interference occurs if there is minimum intensity at motion with amplitude equals to Aʹ.
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waves with a specific wavelength are produced. Since, the amplitude
that point, which means cosφ = − 1 ⇒φ = π,3π,5π,… = (2n-1) π, 5) The maximum of this amplitude occurs at positions for whichsin(kx) =1 must vanish at the boundaries, therefore, the displacement at the
where n = 0,1,2,…. i.e. This is the phase difference in which two waves 𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝟓𝛑
⇒kx = , , ,…. m 𝛑 boundary y(x = 0, t) = 0 and y(x = L, t) = 0 --------------1
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overlap to give destructive interference. 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
λn λ
𝟐 where m takes half integer or half integral values. The position of Since the nodes formed are at a distance apart, we have n[ n ]=L
2 2
3) Therefore,Iminimum = (√𝐈𝟏 − √𝐈𝟐 ) = (𝐀𝟏 − 𝐀𝟐 )𝟐 maximum amplitude is known as antinodes. 2) where n is an integer, L is the length between the two boundaries and
Hence, the resultant amplitude A = A1 - A2 Characteristics of stationary waves: λnis the specific wavelength that satisfy the specified boundary
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31. Describe the formation of beats. 1) Stationary waves are characterized by the confinement of a wave 2𝐿
conditions. Hence, λn = ( ) -----------------2
disturbance between two rigid boundaries. This means, the wave does 𝑛
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sa

sa
Formation of beats: When two or more waves superimpose each other with
slightly different frequencies, then a sound of periodically varying amplitude not move forward or backward in a medium (does not advance), it 3) Therefore, not all wavelengths are allowed. The (allowed) wavelengths
at a point is observed. This phenomenon is known as beats. The number of remains steady at its place. Therefore, they are called “stationary waves should fit with the specified boundary conditions, i.e., for n = 1, the first
amplitude maxima per second is called beat frequency. If we have two or standing waves”. mode of vibration has specific wavelength λl= 2L. Similarly, for n = 2,
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da
sources, then their difference in frequency gives the beat frequency. Number the second mode of vibration has specific wavelength λ2 = ( ) = L
𝟐𝑳
of beats per second n = | f1 - f2| per second 2) Certain points in the region in which the wave exists have maximum 𝟐
2L
amplitude, called as anti-nodes and at certain points the amplitude is For n = 3, the third mode of vibration has specific wavelength λ3 = ( )
3
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Pa
32. What are stationary waves? Explain the formation of stationary waves and minimum or zero, called as nodes.
alsowrite down the characteristics of stationary waves. and so on. The frequency of each mode of vibration (called natural
𝛌 𝐯 𝐯
1) When the wave hits the rigid boundary it bounces back to the original 3) The distance between two consecutive nodes (or) anti-nodes is
𝟐
frequency) can be calculated. fn = = n ( ) -------------3
𝛌𝐧 𝟐𝐋
medium and can interfere with the original waves. A pattern is formed, 4) The lowest natural frequency is called the fundamental frequency.
w.

w.

w.
𝛌
4) The distance between a node and its neighbouring anti-node is 𝐯 𝐯
which are known as standing waves or stationary waves. 𝟒
5) The transfer of energy along the standing wave is zero f1 = = ( ) -------------4
𝛌𝟏 𝟐𝐋
2) Consider two harmonic progressive waves (formed by strings) that have The second natural frequency is called the first over tone.
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the same amplitude and same velocity but move in opposite directions. 33. Discuss the law of transverse vibrations in stretched strings. 𝐯 𝟏 𝐓
Then the displacement of the first wave (incident wave) is i) The law of length: f2 = 2( ) = √
𝟐𝐋 𝐋 𝛍

y1 = A sin (kx− ωt) (waves move toward right) ------------------1 For a given wire with tension T (which is fixed) and mass per unit length The third natural frequency is called the second over tone.
μ (fixed) the frequency varies inversely with the vibrating length. 𝐯 𝟏 𝐓
and the displacement of the second wave (reflected wave) is
1 𝑐
f3 = 3( ) =3( √ )and so on. Therefore, the nth natural frequency
𝟐𝐋 𝟐𝐋 𝛍
Therefore, f 𝛼 ⇒f = ⇒l × f = C, where C is a constant.
y2 = A sin (kx+ ωt) (waves move toward left) ---------------2 𝑙 𝑙
can be computed as integral (or integer) multiple of fundamental
ii) The law of tension:
both will interfere with each other by the principle of superposition, the frequency, i.e., fn= nf1, where n is an integer ------------- 5
For a given vibrating length l(fixed) and mass per unit length μ (fixed)
net displacement is y = y1 + y2 -------------------3 5) If natural frequencies are written as integral multiple of fundamental
the frequency varies directly with the square root of the tension T, f α√T frequencies, then the frequencies are called harmonics. Thus, the first
Substituting equation (1) and equation (2) in equation (3), we get
⇒f = A√Twhere A is a constant harmonic is f1 = f1 (the fundamental frequency is called first harmonic),
y = A sin (kx− ωt)+A sin(kx+ ωt) ---------------4
the second harmonic is f2 = 2f1 , the third harmonic is f3 = 3f1 etc.

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35. What is a sonometer? Give its construction and working. Explain how to 36. Write short notes on intensity and loudness. 37. Explain how overtones are produced in a
determine the frequency of tuning fork using sonometer. Intensity of sound: (a) Closed organ pipe (b) Open organ pipe
1) Sono means sound related, and sonometer implies sound-related 1) When a sound wave is emitted by a source, the energy is carried to all a) Closed organ pipes:
measurements. It is a device for demonstrating the relationship possible surrounding points. The average sound energy emitted or 1) It is a pipe with one end closed
between the frequency of the sound produced in the transverse transmitted per unit time or per second is called sound power. and the other end open. If one
standing wave in a string, and the tension, length and mass per unit 2) Therefore, the intensity of sound is defined as “the sound power end of a pipe is closed, the
length of the string. transmitted per unit area taken normal to the propagation of the wave reflected at this closed
2) Therefore, using this device, we can determine the following quantities: sound wave”. end is 180° out of phase with the incoming wave.
a) the frequency of the tuning fork or frequency of alternating current 3) For a particular source (fixed source), the sound intensity is inversely 2) Thus there is no displacement of the particles at the closed end.
b) the tension in the string proportional to the square of the distance from the source. Therefore, nodes are formed at the closed end and anti-nodes are
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c) the unknown hanging mass power of the source 1

I= ⇒Iα formed at open end.
Construction: 4πr2 r2
This is known as inverse square law of sound intensity. 3) Consider the simplest mode of vibration of the air column called the
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3) The sonometer is made up of a hollow fundamental mode. Anti-node is

Loudness of sound:
box which is one-meter-long with a formed at the open end and node at
1) Two sounds with same intensities need not have the same loudness.
uniform metallic thin string attached closed end. From the Figure, let L be
For example, the sound heard during the explosion of balloons in a
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to it. One end of the string is the length of the tube and the
silent closed room is very loud when compared to the same explosion
connected to a hook and the other end is connected to a weight hanger wavelength of the wave produced.
happening in a noisy market.
through a pulley as shown in Figure.
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2) Though the intensity of the sound is the same, the loudness is not. If For the fundamental mode of
4) Since only one string is used, it is also known as monochord. The vibration, we have,
the intensity of sound is increased, then loudness also increases. But
weights are added to the free end of the wire to increase the tension 𝛌𝟏
additionally, not only does intensity matter, the internal and subjective L= or 𝛌𝟏 = 4L ; The frequency of the note emitted is
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da

of the wire. 𝟒
experience of “how loud a sound is” i.e., the sensitivity of the listener 𝐯 𝐯
5) Two adjustable wooden knives are put over the board, and their f1 = = which is called the fundamental note.
also matters here. 𝛌𝟏 𝟒𝐋
positions are adjusted to change the vibrating length of the stretched 4) The frequencies higher than
3) This is often called loudness. That is, loudness depends on both
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Pa

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wire. fundamental frequency can be

intensity of sound waves and sensitivity of the ear (It is purely observer
Working: produced by blowing air strongly at
dependent quantity which varies from person to person) whereas the
6) A transverse stationary or standing wave is produced and hence, at the open end. Such frequencies are called
intensity of sound does not depend on the observer.
knife edges P and Q, nodes are formed. In between the knife edges,
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4) The loudness of sound is defined as “the degree of sensation of sound overtones.

anti-nodes are formed. The Figure 2 shows the second mode of
𝝀 produced in the ear or the perception of sound by the listener”.
If the length of the vibrating element is 𝒍then𝒍 = ⇒𝝀 = 2𝒍 vibration having two nodes and two
𝟐
ww

ww

ww

𝟑𝛌𝟐 𝟒𝐋
7) Let f be the frequency of the vibrating element, Tthe tension of in the anti-nodes. 4L = 3𝛌𝟐 L = or 𝛌𝟐 =
𝟒 𝟑
string and μthe mass per unit length of the string. Then using equation 𝐯 𝟑𝐯
The frequency of this f2 = = = 3f1
𝐓 𝒗 𝟏 𝐓 𝛌𝟐 𝟒𝐋
v =√ , we get f = =
𝛍 𝝀 𝟐𝒍
√𝛍 in Hz ------------1 is called first over tone, since here, the frequency is three times the
8) Let ρbe the density of the material of the string and dbe the diameter fundamental frequency it is called third harmonic.
of the string. Then the mass per unit length μ, 5) The Figure 3 shows third mode of vibration having three nodes and
𝟓𝛌𝟑 𝟒𝐋
𝝅𝝆𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻
three anti-nodes. 4L = 5𝛌𝟑 L = or 𝛌𝟑 =
𝟒 𝟓
μ= Area × density = πr2ρ= ;f= = f= √𝝅𝝆
𝟒 𝝀 𝟐𝒍 √ 𝝅𝝆𝒅𝟐 𝒍𝒅 𝐯 𝟓𝐯
𝟒 The frequency of this f3 = = = 5f1 is called second over tone, and
𝛌𝟑 𝟒𝐋
since n = 5 here, this is called fifth harmonic.

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , www.Padasalai.Net XI STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL,
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ,
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 210 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 211 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 212
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

6) Hence, the closed organ pipe has only odd harmonics and frequency of 38. How will you determine the velocity of sound using resonance air 9) Now the length of the air column is increased to get the second
the nth harmonic isfn= (2n+1)f1. Therefore, the frequencies of columnapparatus? resonance. Let L2be the length at which the second resonance occurs.
harmonics are in the ratio f1: f2: f3: f4:…= 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : … 1) The resonance air column 𝟑
Again taking end correction into account, 𝝀 = L2 + e
apparatus is one of the simplest 𝟒
b) Open organ pipe: In order to avoid end correction,
techniques to measure the speed 1
1) It is a pipe with both the ends let us take the difference of equation 𝜆 = L,
of sound in air at room 4
open. At both open ends, anti-
temperature. and equation f1: f2: f3: f4:…= 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : …
nodes are formed. Let us 3 1
2) It consists of a cylindrical glass tube 𝜆– 𝜆 = (L2 + e – L1 + e)
consider the simplest mode of 4 4
of one-meter length whose one end 𝟏
vibration of the air column
A is open and another end B is ⇒ 𝝀 = L2– L1 = 𝚫𝐋⇒ 𝝀 = 2 𝚫𝐋
𝟐

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called fundamental mode.
connected to the water reservoir R
Since anti-nodes are formed at 39. What is meant by Doppler effect? Discuss the following cases
through a rubber tube as shown in

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the open end, a node is formed (1) Source in motion and Observer at rest
Figure. This cylindrical glass tube is
at the mid-point of the pipe. (a) Source moves towards observer (b) Source moves away from the observer
mounted on a vertical stand with a
2) From Figure, if L be the length of the tube, the wavelength of the wave Doppler effect:
scale attached to it.
produced is given by Whenever there is a relative motion between the source of sound and

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3) The tube is partially filled with
λ1 the listener, the frequency of the sound observed by the listener is different
L= or λ1 = 2L water and the water level can be
2 from the frequency produced by the source.
𝐯 𝐯
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The frequency of the note emitted is f1 = = adjusted by raising or lowering the
𝛌𝟏 𝟐𝐋 i) Observed frequency: Stationary source and Moving listener:
water in the reservoir R. The surface
which is called the fundamental note. 1) Consider a point source S of sound at rest with respect to the medium
of the water will act as a closed end
3) The frequencies higher than fundamental (air) in which it is kept. The medium is
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and other as the open end.
frequency can be produced by blowing air assumed to be uniform and is also at
4) Therefore, it behaves like a closed organ pipe, forming nodes at the
strongly at one of the open ends. Such rest. The source emits sound waves of
surface of water and antinodes at the closed end.
frequencies are called overtones. frequency fand wavelength 𝝀.
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Pa
5) When a vibrating tuning fork is brought near the open end of the tube,
4) The Figure shows the second mode of 2) Sound waves travel with the same speed
longitudinal waves are formed inside the air column. These waves
vibration in open pipes. It has two nodes and vin all directions radially away from the
𝒗 𝐯 move downward as shown in Figure, and reach the surfaces of water
three anti-nodes, and therefore, L =λ2or λ2= L .The frequency f2 = = source in the form of spherical waves.
and get reflected and produce standing waves.
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w.
𝝀𝟐 𝐋
𝐯 The compressions (or wave fronts) of sound waves are represented by
=2x = 2f1is called first over tone. Since n = 2 here, it is called the 6) The length of the air column is varied by changing the water level until
𝟐𝐋 concentric circles in the Figure. The distance between two successive
second harmonic. a loud sound is produced in the air column. At this particular length
compressions is equal to its wavelength 𝜆 and the frequency of the
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ww
5) The Figure shows the third mode of the frequency of waves in the air column resonates with the frequency 𝒗
of the tuning fork (natural frequency of the tuning fork). wave is given by f = ---------- 1
vibration having three nodes and four 𝝀
𝟑 𝟐𝐋 7) At resonance, the frequency of sound waves produced is equal to the 3) When the listener L is stationary, there is no relative motion between
anti-nodes L = 𝛌𝟑 or 𝛌𝟑 = ;
𝟐 𝟑 frequency of the tuning fork. This will occur only when the length of air the source and the listener. Since 𝑣and 𝜆remain unchanged, the
𝐯 𝟑𝐯 𝐯
f3 = = =3x = 3f1 1 𝑡ℎ frequency of sound observed by the listener is the same as the source
𝛌𝟑 𝟐𝐋 𝟐𝐋 column is proportional to ( ) of the wavelength of the sound waves
is called second over tone. Since n = 3 4 frequency 𝑓.
𝟏
here, it is called the third harmonic. produced. Let the first resonance occur at lengthL1, then 𝝀 = L1 4) Now the listener moves directly toward the stationary source figure. If
𝟒
6) Hence, the open organ pipe has all the 8) But since the antinodes are not exactly formed at the open end, we have 𝒗𝑳 is the speed of the listener, then the relative speed of sound with
harmonics and frequency of nthharmonic to include a correction, called end correction e, by assuming that the respect to the listener becomes𝒗′ = 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑳 . Since the wavelength
is fn = nf1. Therefore, the frequencies of harmonics are in the ratiof1: antinode is formed at some small distance above the open end. remains unchanged (because the source is stationary), the frequency
𝟏
f2: f3: f4:…= 1 : 2 : 3 : 4: ……. Including this end correction, the first resonance is 𝝀 = L1 + e
𝟒

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ,
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 213 SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 214
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS

of sound observed by the listener is changed and the observed 𝒗𝒔

𝝀′ = 𝝀 − 𝒗𝒔 𝑻 = 𝝀 − ( )
frequency 𝑓 𝐼 is given by𝑓 ′ =
𝑣′
=
𝑣+𝑣𝐿 𝒇
𝜆 𝜆 𝑣 𝑣
𝑣+𝑣𝐿 The observed frequency is then given by𝑓 ′ = = 𝑣
′ 𝜆′ 𝜆−( 𝑠 )
Using the equation 1, 𝑓 = ( ) 𝑓 --------- 2 𝑓
𝑣
𝒗 𝒗
(listener moving toward the source) = 𝒗 𝒗 ; 𝒇′ = (𝒗−𝒗 ) 𝒇--------------4
( 𝒇𝒔 )−( 𝒇𝒔 ) 𝒔
5) Thus, the observed frequency is greater than the source frequency
when the listener moves toward the stationary source. If the listener is (source moving away from the listener)
moving away from the stationary source, the observed frequencycan be 4) Thus, whenever the source moves toward the stationary listener, the
obtained from equation 2 by taking negative value for 𝑣𝐿 . It is given observed frequency is greater than the source frequency. If the source
is moving away from the stationary listener, the observed frequency can
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𝑣+(−𝑣𝐿)
by𝑓 ′ = ( )𝑓 ; be obtained from equation 3 by taking negative value for 𝑣𝑠 . It is given
𝑣
𝒗−𝒗𝑳 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇′ = ( ) 𝒇 -------------- 3 by𝒇′ = ( ) 𝒇 ; 𝒇′ = ( ) 𝒇___________ 4
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𝒗 𝒗−(−𝒗𝒔 ) 𝒗+𝒗 𝒔
(listener moving away from the source) (source moving away from the listener)
Thus, the observed frequency is less than the source frequency when Thus, the observed frequency is less than the source frequency when
the listener is moving away from the stationary source.
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the source is moving away from the stationary listener.

ii) Observed frequency: Moving source and stationary listener: iii) Observed frequency: Both source and listener moving:
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1) Assume that both the source S and the listener L are at rest as shown When both source and listener are moving, the observed
in Figure. Two successive frequency is obtained by combining equations2and 4.
𝒗 + 𝒗𝑳
compressions arealso shown and 𝒇′ = ( )𝒇
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are represented by two concentric 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒔

circles. The second compression 𝑣𝑆 and 𝑣𝐿 take positive values if the source or the listener moves toward
has just been emitted and is still the other. Likewise, they are negative when the source or the listener
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near the source. The distance moves away from the other.
between two successive 40. Write the expression for the velocity of longitudinal waves in an
compressions is the wavelength elasticmedium.
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𝜆of the sound. Since 𝒇is the

1) Consider an elastic medium (here we assume air) having a fixed mass
frequency of the source, then the
contained in a long tube
time between emissions of
(cylinder) whose cross sectional
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ww

𝟏 𝝀
compressions is T= = area is A and maintained under
𝒇 𝒗
2) Now the listener is stationary and a pressure P. One can generate
the source moves directly toward longitudinal waves in the fluid
the listener. Let the speed of the either by displacing the fluid
source be 𝑣𝑠 which is less than the using a piston or by keeping a
speed of sound 𝑣. vibrating tuning fork at one end
of the tube.
3) In a time T,the first compression travels a distance 𝐯 T = 𝛌 and the
2) Let us assume that the
source moves a distance 𝐯𝐬 T. As a result, the distance between
direction of propagation of
twosuccessive compressions is decreased from 𝝀 to 𝝀′ = 𝝀 − 𝒗𝒔 𝑻.
waves coincides with the axis of the cylinder. Let ρ be the density of
Therefore, the wavelength observed by the listener is given by

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