QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

Introduction
Questioned Document Examination (QDE) is a forensic science discipline that analyzes documents to determine
their authenticity, origin, or any alterations. It involves handwriting analysis, ink and paper examination, forgery
detection, and digital document verification. QDE plays a vital role in legal investigations, helping identify fraud,
forgery, and document tampering to ensure the integrity of evidence in court proceedings.

WEEKS 2-3
Introduction
II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
a. Document
b. Document as Defined by Laws / Supreme Court
c. Writings That DO NOT
Constitute Documents
d. Questioned Document/Disputed Document
e. Standard / Standard Document
f. kinds of document
j. Classes of questioned document
h. forms/aspects of questioned document examination

A. Document
 A document is any material that contains marks, signs, or symbols—whether visible, partially visible, or
invisible—that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.

Etymology of the Word "Document"

 Derived from the Latin word documentum, meaning "lesson" or "example" (in Medieval Latin, it also
meant "instruction" or "official paper").

 Related to the French word docere, which means "to teach."

Note: Once a document is introduced as evidence, it becomes known as documentary evidence.

Document as Evidence

A document used as evidence consists of writings or any material containing letters, words, numbers, figures,
symbols, or other written expressions offered as proof of their contents. This is defined under Criminal Evidence,
Rule 130, Section 2.

B. Document as Defined by Laws / Supreme Court/Legal Basis of Documents

1. Definition in Jurisprudence

 People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119

A document refers to any written material by which a right is established or an obligation is extinguished.

 People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453

A document includes every deed or instrument executed by a person by which some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced, or set forth.

2. Relation to Criminal Jurisprudence

 Under the Best Evidence Rule, a document is any physical embodiment of information or ideas. Examples
include:

o A letter
 o A contract
o A receipt

o A book of accounts

o A blueprint

o An X-ray plate

(Source: Black's Law Dictionary)

C. What May Not Constitute a Document?

The following are examples of materials that may not be considered documents:

 A draft of a municipal payroll that has not yet been approved by the proper authority. (People vs.
Camacho, 44Phil. 484)

 Mere blank forms of official documents. (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558)

 Pamphlets or books that do not evidence any disposition or agreement—these are considered mere
merchandise rather than documents. (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945)

D. Questioned Document/Disputed Document

Questioned – Any material about which an issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

Questioned Document – A document in which the facts appearing may not be true and are contested, either in
whole or in part, concerning its authenticity, identity, or origin. This may include deeds, contracts, wills, election
ballots, marriage contracts, checks, visas, application forms, check writers, certificates, and other similar
documents.

Questioned document examination is a branch of forensics that focuses on the analysis of disputed documents.
A questioned document examiner analyzes the document using a variety of techniques to determine its
authenticity, origin, or any signs of alteration. Depending on the outcome of the examination, the examiner may
also be called as a witness in a legal case.

Disputed Document – A term indicating that there is an argument or controversy over a document. Although
strictly speaking, this is its true meaning, the terms disputed document and questioned document are often used
interchangeably to refer to a document under special scrutiny.

E. Standard Document

Standard (Standard Document) – A condensed and compact set of authentic specimens from a known source.
In questioned document examination, a standard refers to materials whose origins are known and can be legally
used for comparison. In handwriting analysis, a standard is synonymous with a specimen of handwriting.

Types of Standard Document:

a. Collected or Procured Standard- Specimens that are obtained from a file of document executed
in the regular course of man’s activity or a person’s day to day business, official, social, or personal
activities.
 15-20 genuine signatures
 4-5 pages of handwriting
b. Requested or dictated- Made upon request for purposes of making a comparative examination
with the request writing.
  25-30 genuine signatures
 5-6 pages handwriting

Exemplar – A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to refer to known material. The term
standard is the older and more commonly used term.

Terminologies:

Contemporary Document- Documents which are not more than 5 years before or after.

Holographic Document – Any document completely written and signed by a single person, also known as a
holograph. In some jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated even without witnesses.

Reference Collection – A compilation of materials organized by a document examiner to assist in answering

specific questions. Common reference collections include specimens of typewriting, check writing, inks, pens,
pencils, and papers.

F. Kinds of Documents

1. Public Document – A document notarized by a notary public or a competent public official with the
solemnities required by law.

o Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742

2. Official Document – A document issued by the government, its agents, or officers who have the authority
to do so, in accordance with their official duties.

3. Private Document – A document executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public
or any legally authorized person. It serves as proof or evidence of a disposition or agreement.

o U.S. vs. Orera, 11 Phil. 596

4. Commercial Document – A document executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any
Mercantile Law, containing dispositions of commercial rights or obligations.

Note: If a private document is intended to become a part of the public record and falsified prior thereto,
the crime committed is falsification of a public document. If someone falsifies a private document before
it officially becomes part of public record, the act is considered falsification of public documents.

5. Electronic Document (E-Document) – A document that exists only in electronic form, such as data stored
on a computer, network, backup, archive, or other storage media. Examples include emails, instant
messages, e-calendars, audio files, data on handheld devices, animations, metadata, graphics,
photographs, spreadsheets, websites, drawings, and other types of digital data.

o Governed by RA 8792 (E-Commerce Act of 2000)

G. Classes of Questioned Documents

1. Documents with questioned signatures.

2. Questioned documents alleged to have contained fraudulent alterations.

3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

a. Holographic Will – A will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator.
b. Notarial Will – A will signed by the testator, acknowledged before a notary public with three
witnesses.

4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.

a. With a view of ascertaining their source.
 b. With a view of ascertaining their date.
c. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted pages.

5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.

6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.

7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters.
b. Superscriptions, registrations, and miscellaneous writings.

H. forms/aspects of questioned document examination

Addition

Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation may be referred to as addition.

Conclusion

A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by logical, common-sense reasoning in accordance
with established rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in legal terms, is referred to as "opinion."

Document Examiner

One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover
other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts,
but today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of
handwriting.

Erasure

The removal / effaced of writings, typewriting, or printing from a document is an erasure. It may be accomplished
by either of two means:

 Chemical eradication – in which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g., liquid ink
eradicator).

 Abrasive erasure/ mechanical erasure – where the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or
scratching out with a knife or other sharp implement.

Examination

It is the act of making a close and critical study of material, and with questioned documents, it is the process
necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual,
photographic, chemical, ultraviolet, and infrared examination.

Expert Witness

A legal term used to describe a witness who, by reason of his special training or experience, is permitted to
express an opinion in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information in his particular specialty in
order to assist the court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.

Insertion or Interlineation

The term "insertion" and "interlineations" include the addition of writing and other material between lines or
paragraphs or the addition of a whole page to a document.

Non-Identification (Non-Identity)
As used in this text, it means that the source or authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens
is different.

Obliteration/SUPERIMPOSITION OF WRITING

The blotting out or smearing over the writing to make the original invisible is considered an obliteration.

Opinion

In legal language, it refers to the document examiner's conclusion. Actually, in court, he not only expresses an
opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are
used synonymously.

Qualification

The professional experience, education, and ability of a document examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as
an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

Divisions of Questioned Document Examination

A. Criminalistics Examination – This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration, or obliteration of
documents.

Note: Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents, said that an intelligent police
investigator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a document with simple
magnifiers and measuring tools.

B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis- This is more focused on determining the author of writing. It is a more
difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.

H. 4RFORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

1. Examination of signatures and initials

2. Examination of anonymous letters
3. Hand printing examination

B. Examination of Typewritings and Typeprints

C. Examination of Inks

D. Examination of Erasures, Alterations, or Obliterations

1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings

E. Counterfeiting

1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like

2. Examination of fake documents

F. Miscellaneous Aspects

1. Determination of age of documents

2. Identification of stamps
3. Examination of seals and other authenticating devices
DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (IN GENERAL)

A. VALUE

1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one or more documents in
furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against the government, documents often play an important part in
proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual may show that:
o a. He committed the crime.
o b. He had knowledge of the crime.
o c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

B. PURPOSE

A document may be examined to determine the following:

a. Identity of the author.

b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.
THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS

To select "QUESTIONED," "DENIED," "ADMITTED," "AUTHENTIC," and "DOUBTFUL" documents.

1. Concerning the Document in Question

 a. Is only one signature questioned?

 b. Is any part of the document questioned?
 c. Is the date of the document questioned?
 d. Is the paper or typewriter used in the document questioned?

2. Regarding the Standards

 a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for comparison submitted. If
there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
 b. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can be built for
admitting them in evidence.

B. SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS

Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances, conditions, technical problems, and the like.

1. The examiner, after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the circumstances of
the questioned document, the condition of an alleged writer, or any condition that may have affected
the writing or typewriting.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such as:
o Was the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed?
o Was it signed in a moving automobile or while having a drink at the bar?
C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE

1. How much time is needed for the examination?

2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make special photo-
enlargements for proper examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it advisable to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion is based,
especially in court.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Analysis (Recognition) - Properties or characteristics observed or measured.

B. Comparison- Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined through analysis are now compared
with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.

C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain value for
identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of each must therefore be
considered.

D. Verification- if an identification is made, the conclusion must be verified by another fingerprint examiner.

CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

A. Accuracy- Correspondence between results obtained and the truth.

B. Precision- Measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or experimentation.

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

It is the initial examination conducted on a document to determine whether it is genuine or not. It is not a
misnomer, for in reality, it consists of painstaking analysis more than looking at a document and expressing an
off-hand opinion.

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

1. Ensures preparedness.
2. Avoidance of delay.
3. Ensures success of the case.

B. PRINCIPAL POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION IN THE PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

(Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.)

1. Is the signature genuine?

2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine, and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the signature or other
writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Was the writing done before the paper was folded?
8. Was the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness, and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned, or mutilated in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
 12. Is the paper unnecessarily soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and alterations/substitutions of any
kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure, or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, or pages written on a different
typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in size, position, and arrangement of matters with the
original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does the postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing, and opening of the
envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed above the paper
examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression, if any appears, made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal, and is it made in
proper sequence?

C. WHO CONDUCTS THE PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION?

It should be conducted by a QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT.

D. WHO IS A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT?

A Questioned Document Expert is one who has:

1. Attained the appropriate education and training.

2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document examinations.
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.

E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. Assurance of preparedness.
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently, they do not
possess the knowledge of the document expert's ability or the various methods that exist for determining
forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an "OFF-HAND" OPINION.

F. WHAT IS AN "OFF-HAND OPINION"?

Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not based on thorough scientific examination.

G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS

It has happened in some cases that an off-hand opinion has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer
was given a chance to escape.
 WEEK 4

III. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

a. Handwriting
b. Early forms of writing/ forerunners of writing
c. Development of Handwriting
d. Kinds of Writings
e. Basis of Handwriting Identification
f. Physiological Basis of Handwriting
g. Principles Involved In Handwriting Identification

A. HANDWRITING

Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a whole, a combination of certain
forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued, painstaking effort. Some define
handwriting as "visible speech."

I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:

A. Cursive- Connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

B. Script- Separated or printed writing.

C. BLOCK- All CAPITAL LETTERS.

B. EARLY FORMS OF WRITING/ FORERUNNERS OF WRITING

HISTORY OF WRITING

 Writing consists of letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to represent the sounds or
words of a language. It conveys messages to others and evolved from man's desire to communicate his
thoughts
 Cave Drawings: The earliest form of writing, called petroglyphs or petrograms, developed between 20,000
BC and 10,000 BC. These paintings evolved into words or pictures or ideographs used by the Sumerians,
Chinese, Aztecs, Mayas, and Egyptians. Egyptian word pictures are called hieroglyphs.
 These word pictures developed into symbols which were used to represent sounds or syllables called
Phonographs- symbols representing sounds and syllables. This then developed into simplifies phonetic
symbols called the Phonetic Alphabet: an alphabet of characters intended to represent specific sound
of speech. The Sumerians are credited with developing the first alphabet.
  Phoenician Alphabet (1700-1500 BC): Consisted of 22 letters
written from right to left.

Greek Alphabet (8th century BC): Derived from the Phoenician

Alphabet, consisting of 24 letters and including vowels. The term
"alphabet" originates from "Alpha" and "Beta."

 The Greek Alphabet evolved into the Roman alphabet or Latin

alphabet: which consisted disconnected capital letter for
centuries. Roman scribes invented lowercase letters that were
patterned from the capital letters. These letters simplifies the
forms and made it easier to copy manuscripts.

HISTORY OF PAPER

Origin

 Papyrus: Discovered by Egyptians over 4,000 years ago, made from grasses called reeds.
 First Paper was made in China 2000 years ago: Made from the bark of the mulberry tree.

Development

 Middle 8th Century: Arabs began making paper; Moors introduced it to Europe.
 1150: First papermaking mill was established in Spain.
 1496: First paper mill was established in England.
 1690: Paper introduced in the U.S.
 1798: Nicolas Louis Robert (France) invented the first practical paper molding machine.
PAPYRUS

 Came into use around 3,500 B.C. in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and
Southern Europe. It was made from the pith of the sedge (grass-like
herb) Cyperus papyrus.

PARCHMENT

 Writing material made from the skin of animals, primarily sheep,

calves, or goats. Probably developed in the Middle East around the same
time as papyrus. It became widely used in the 2nd century B.C. in the city
of Pergamum in Anatolia.

VELLUM

 Writing material made from fine skins of young calves or kids. The
term was often used for all kinds of parchment manuscripts. Vellum
became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while
parchment continued to be used for special manuscripts.
 Almost every portable surface that could retain the marks of a brush
or pen was used as a writing material during the early period.

PEN

A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink. It came from the Latin word PENNA, meaning
feather.

Types of Pens
A. Reed Pens / Swamp Reed

 Made from water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia, and along the
Persian Gulf.
 Prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
 The first writing tool with a slightly frayed end like a brush.
 First used in Near East around 2000 B.C. on papyrus and later on
parchment.

B. Quill Pen

 Made from the outer wing feathers of birds like goose, swan, crow, or
turkey.
 First referenced in the 6th century AD by Spanish theologian St. Isidore
of Seville.
  Used as the principal writing tool for nearly 1300 years.
 To make a quill pen, the feather was hardened by heating or gradual drying, then cut to a broad edge
using a special pen knife.
 Required frequent re-cutting to maintain the writing edge.

C. Steel Point Pens (Brazen Pens)

 The earliest mention of “brazen pens” was in 1465.

 16th-century Spanish calligrapher Juan de Yciar mentioned brass pens
in his 1548 writing manual.
 Became widespread only in the 19th century.
 First patented steel pen point made by English engineer Bryan Donkin
in 1803.
 Leading 19th-century English pen manufacturers: William Joseph
Gillot, William Mitchell, and James Stephen Perry.

D. Fountain Pens

 Lewis Waterman, a New York insurance agent, patented the first

practical fountain pen in 1884.
 Contained its own ink reservoir and used capillary action for even ink
flow
 By the 1920s, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the
West. Replaced by the ballpoint pen after World War II.

E. Ballpoint Pens

 John Loud patented the first ballpoint pen in 1888.

 Hungarian brothers Ladislao and Georg Biro (1938) invented a viscous,
oil-based ink, making the ballpoint pen practical.
 Early ballpoint pens had issues with skipping and smudging but were
improved over time.

Advantages over fountain pens:

1. Waterproof and almost un-erasable ink.

2. Could write on various surfaces and in different positions.
3. Ideal for making carbon copies.

F. Fiber Tip Pens

 Invented in 1962 by Yukio Horie of Japan.

 Uses dye instead of ink, allowing for a wider range of colors.
 Tip made from fine nylon or synthetic fibers.
G. Felt-Tip Markers

 Made from dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with dye.

 Introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

INK

A viscous fluid or paste used for marking or writing. Derived from the Latin encaustum (pigment for coloring baked
tiles), it entered English through the Old French word enque.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INK

 Indian Ink: Carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water with glue or vegetable gum.
 Logwood Inks: Used in the past but now obsolete.
 Iron Gallotanate Inks: Used for over 1000 years, made from gall nut infusion and iron salts.
 Fountain Pen Inks: Modified iron gallotanate inks with added dye.
 Dyestuff Inks: Made with synthetic dyes and preservatives.
 Water-Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks: Pigment-based with shellac solution.
 Alkaline Writing Inks: Quick-drying inks with pH 9–11.
 Ballpoint Pen Inks: Developed during World War II for high-altitude use.
 Stamp Pad Inks: Made with substances like glycerol and dyes.
 Hectograph Inks: Made with basic dyes and glycerol.
 Typewriter Ribbon Inks: Contain aniline dyes, carbon black, and oils.
 Printing Inks: Mix of pigments, carbon black, and resins.

C. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.

B. After acquiring some degree of skill, children no longer follow the school model.

C. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.

D. In the course of trial and error, modifications are made, simplifications and elaborations occur, and additions
and omissions take place.

1. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviations from the standard
letter forms or school model and becomes his personal habit.
2. Although thousands learn the same system and the natural result is identity, facts show that those who
were taught the same system or school copy a class of writers, but such an impulse does not necessarily
produce a slavish uniformity.
3. Variation begins as soon as writing starts and continues until each writer develops in a way that seems
best and easiest to him.
D. KINDS OF WRITINGS:

A. Cursive- Connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

B. Script- Separated or printed writing.

C. BLOCK- All CAPITAL LETTERS.

E. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. In Wignore's Principles of Judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily movement which is
an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from a fixed mental impression of certain
ideas associated with script form.

B. Environment, education, and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of these muscular
habits that finally, the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts stimulated by these habits.

C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other person cannot, by
mere willpower, reproduce in himself all the muscular combinations from the habit of the first writer.

F. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

 In writing, the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper the directive
impulse and the variation in muscular tension that, according to the nature of the writer's nervous
organization, occur during the act of writing.
 This center, near the motor area of the cortex, is responsible for the finger movements involved in
handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased, as in agraphia, one loses
the ability to write, although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen, or pencil. Thus, the ability or
power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from its
cortical center.

Two Groups of Muscles Involved in Handwriting:

1. Extensor muscles - Push up the pen to form the upward strokes.

2. Flexor muscles - Push the pen to form the downward strokes.

 Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing: those which operate the joints of the
fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

G. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. No two writers write exactly alike- this is the basis of all handwriting identification. Even a single writer cannot
perfectly duplicate his own handwriting. Each writer has their own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the
mental capability of the person including the process of transmitting through the nerves, the impulse to produce
a writing, constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer. The mental and physical condition of a person
as well as his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting.

2. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing instrument may affect the
handwriting characteristics, but they do not confine all its identifying elements - Both illness and old age may be
reflected in handwriting. A transitory change may be injected into handwriting by temporary physical and
mental conditions such as fatigue, nervous tension, and intoxication or severe illness from which the writer
ultimately recovers. The writing position may also affect the qualities of handwriting.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and training applied over a
period of time- No writer can spontaneously exceed his best handwriting. Disguise for the most part is completely
unpracticed and even if it has been practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person's writing ability
and habit are bound to bring about a less fluent and less skilful mode of writing. Even if practiced, disguise hardly
enables the writer to achieve his best writing.

4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form and writing movements are
essential elements of identification- The elements of movements such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis
and shading, location and quality of starts and stops, pen lifts and the like, are reflected in the finished
specimen. The combination of these elements describe the fundamental writing movement.

5. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative examination with the standard
written or prepared under comparable conditions- Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual's
normal writing habit and to show the degree of variation common to his writing. Unless they completely fulfill
these conditions, their usefulness in any examination is limited. Standards which do not comply with these
requirements lead to erroneous conclusions.

6. Similarity does not mean identity- There are many handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance
especially in the formation of letters, but no identical individual handwriting characteristics, especially with regard
to subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing habits.

7. Complete identity means definite forgery- If a signature is geometrically identical with one another, it points
inevitably to racing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such a perfect
copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. If a signature looks, on first
impression, different from other authentic signature, that fact may indicate genuineness.

8. A. A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical writing habits and
identical primary controlling characteristics and in addition, the absence of divergent characteristics.
B. A writing was not written by one person when there is sufficient number of divergent writing
characteristics and the absence of identical primary controlling characteristics