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 Ajit Singh

Python
Programming
4th Edition

Featured With......
ISBN-13 :979-8321458457

Pandas
GUI Programming
Modules & Library
Database Connectivity
101 Python Programs

Copyrighted Material
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
This piece of study of python is an outcome of the encouragement, guidance, help and assistance provided
to us by our colleagues, faculties, Tech-friends and my family members.

As an acknowledgement, I would like to take the opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to all
those who played a crucial role in the successful completion of this book, especially to my senior scholars;
this book certainly has been benefited from discussions held with many IT professionals (Ex-students)
over the years it took to write it.

Python reflects on a number of growing trends in software development, putting it at or near the leading
edge of good programming languages. It is a very simple language surrounded by a vast library of add­
on modules. It is an open source project, supported by many individuals. It is an object-oriented language,
binding data and processing into class definitions. It is a platform-independent, scripted language, with
complete access to operating systems APIs. It supports integration of complex solutions from pre-built
components. It is a dynamic language, which avoids many of the complexities and overheads of compiled
languages.

Three Faces of a Language. There are three facets to a programming language: how you write it, what it
means, and the additional practical considerations that make a program useful. While many books cover
the syntax and semantics of Python, in this book, the pragmatic considerations are also covered. My core
objective is to build enough language skills with a good object-oriented design so that the students can have
an efficient knowledge about python on windows platform.
Special thanks goes to our respected professor Prof. Dr. Bal Gangadhar Prasad, who is not only my role
model in learning and teaching but, also a source of encouragement who has always pushed me forward to
utilize my skills in a timely manner and have ever obliged for bearing with me from time to time, insisting
me on sticking to my determination all throughout.

I would also like to thank those who provided the odd suggestions via email to me. All feedbacks were
listened to, as you will no doubt see some content influenced by your suggestions.

I hope that the reader likes this book and finds it useful in learning the concepts of python.

Thank You!!

Ajit Singh!!

PREFACE

Share the knowledge........

Strengthen the sur­
roundings........
Python Simply In Depth provides all essential programming concepts and information one shall need in
order to start developing their own Python program. The book provides a comprehensive walk-through of
Python programming in a clear, straightforward manner that beginners will appreciate. Important con­
cepts are introduced through a step-by-step discussion and reinforced by relevant examples and illustra­
tions. This book can be used as a guide to help explore, harness, and gain appreciation of the capabilities
and features of Python.

This book encapsulates rich practical hands-on experience in developing python based applications,
combined with teaching the subject for graduate/post-graduate students. The book is therefore a culmi­
nation of putting together what has been both practiced as well as preached, which is the one of the most
compelling differentiators for this book. It can also be used for independent study by anyone interested in
getting a broad introduction to a core useful set of the python language.

This book isfeatured with advanced topics, such as Python Pandas, Database Connectivity, Python GUI
Programming and Python Libraries apartfrom the core concepts like Multithreading, Exception Handling
and Useful Modules. We explained these because they can solve some problems better than standard solutions.

My approach in this book is to regard python as a language that readers will want to use as a primary tool
in many different areas of their programming work - not just for creating programs with graphical content.
Nevertheless, I recognized that visual examples are much more fun to create and work with.
This book is a close-to-complete presentation of the Python language. Whether you are new to program­
ming or a professional developer, this book’s goal is to bring you quickly up to speed on the fundamentals of
the core Python language. After reading this book, you will know enough about Python to apply it in what­
ever application domains you choose to explore in your career.

Compatible with CBSE and AICTE Syllabus........

About This Forth Edition

In the four years since the first edition of this book was published in late 2019, there have been sub­
stantial changes in Python itself. Although I have attempted to retain as much of the prior version of
this text as possible, this new edition reflects many recent changes in the Python language, as well as a
handful of structural changes.

This Book’s Prerequisites

There are no absolute prerequisites to speak of, really. Both true beginners and crusty programming
veterans have used this book successfully. If you are motivated to learn Python, this text will probably
work for you. In general, though, we have found that any exposure to programming or scripting before
this book can be helpful, even if not required for every reader.

Feedback
I have tried to wash out every error in our third edition of this book after being reviewed by lots of bachelor of
Computer Science, but as happens with any programming language - A few difficult to understand bugs shall
remain and of course, typos - and therefore, suggestions from students that may lead to improvement in next
edition in shortcomingfuture are highly appreciated.

Constructive suggestions and criticism always go a long way in enhancing any endeavour. I request all readers
to email me their valuable comments / views /feedback for the betterment of the book at ajit_singh24@ya-
hoo.com, mentioning the title and author name in the subject line. Please report any piracy spotted by you as
well. I would be glad to hear suggestionsfrom you.

Python Programming
4th Edition

Copyrighted Material
Copyright © 2024-25 by Ajit Singh, All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any
form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise— without
prior written permission from the author, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
For information about this title or to order other books and/or electronic media, contact the
publisher:

Ajit Singh - 24+ years of experience in academics.

M.Phil, UGC NET Qualified

PYTHON
? INSTITUTE
MnM r.to*
PCAP: Programming Essentials in Python

Statement of Achievement
Presented To:

Ajit Singh
Warne

During the Cisco Networking Academy® self-paced course.the student has studied the following Skills:

• the universal concepts of computer programing (i e variables, flow control, data structures, algorrthms, condtional execution loops, functions, etc,)
• developer teds and the runtime environment;
• lire syntax and semantics of the Python language;
• the fundamentals d cbicct oncnlod programing and the way they arc acoprtcd m Python .
• the means by which to rcsdvc typ<cal implementation problems
• the writing of Python programs using standard language infrastructure.
• fundamental programing techniques, best practices, customs and vocabulary, inducing the most common library function in Python 3;

17 Jan 2020
Date

By completing the course. tha student is no* randy Io atisrn.nl rhn quaincaron PCAP-Ceditmri Assoc nte in Python Programing certification, from ths OpnnEDG Python Inshtuls
. rotacad com |mm pythoninstttixe <x g
 CONTENTS

Chapter Topic(s) Page

No
1 Getting Started with Python 09
History
Evolution
Features of Python
Limitation of Python
Comparisons
Some Jargon
2 Installing Python 17
Windows Installation
Customizing Environment
Whats new
3 Interacting with Python 26
Running Python
Command-Line Interaction
The IDLE Development Environment
Script Mode
Getting Help
4 Python Syntax 34
Syntax Formalities
Indentation
Keywords
Identifiers
Statements
Comments
print() and input() functions
5 Variables and Data Types 41
Variables
Several Data Types
Numeric Conversion (or Factory) Functions
Math function
6 Operators in Pyhton 51
Types of operators
Example of each type of operators.
7 Built-in Functions 61
8 Conditional Statements 66
Conditional Processing: the if Statement
The pass Statement
The assert Statement
The if-else Operator
9 Loops 72
Iterative Processing: The for Statement
Iterative Processing: The while Statement
More Iteration Control: break and continue
Infinite loop
Nested loop
10 User-Defined Functions 78
Function Definition: The def and return Statements
Function Use
Function Varieties
Some Examples
More Function Definition Features
Local and global variable
Lamda
Functions and Namespaces
The global Statement
11 Python Useful Modules 90
Module Definition
Module Use: The import Statement
Finding Modules: The Path
Math
datetime
os
zipfileurllib
winsound
finding module PYTHONHOME & PYTHONPATH
The exec Statement
12 Classes and Object-Oriented Programming 100
Class Definition: the class Statement
 Class Responsibilities
Creating and Using Objects
Constructor
Instance & global variable
Static Methods and Class Method
Object Lifecycle
Special Method Names
Inheritance
Polymorphism
13 Exception Handling in Python 113
Basic Exception Handling
Raising Exceptions
An Exceptional Example
Complete Exception Handling and The finally Clause
Exception Functions
Exception Attributes
Built-in Exceptions
14 Multithreading 124
Defination
Starting new thread
The threading module
Synchronizing thread
Multithreaded priority queue
15 Text Files in Python 133
File semantics
File Organization and Structure
Additional Background
Built-in Functions
File Statements
 File Methods
File and directory related methods
16 Regular Expression in Python
Creating a Regular Expression
Using a Regular Expression
Regular Expression Exercises
17 String, List & Dictionary
String Literal Values
String Operations
String Comparison Operations
String Statements
String Built-in Functions
String Methods
String Modules
Digression on Immutability of Strings

Lists
List Literal Values
List Operations
List Comparison Operations
List Statements
List Built-in Functions
List Methods
Stack & queue using list
Copy list

Mappings and Dictionaries

Dictionary Literal Values
Dictionary Operations
144

150
 Dictionary Comparison Operations
Dictionary Statements
Dictionary Built-in Functions
Dictionary Methods
Iterators
18 Python Pandas 166
Introduction to Pandas
Key features of Pandas
Anaconda Pythons Distribution
Downloading, installing and customizing Anaconda on Windows
Working with Numpy
Working with Series
Working with DataFrame
Working with Panel
Data transferring from CSV files to data frame and vice versa.
Data transferring from Excel files to data frame and vice versa.
Data transferring from SQLite to data frame and vice versa.
19 Python GUI Programming 201
Introduction to TKinter
GUI Components
Label, Button, Entry Box, Textbox, Frame, Dialog, Windows,Radio,
Checkbok
Event & Event Handling
20 Database Connectivity In Python 222
Database
Database Interface
Phythons Database API
Python Database Programming Using MySQL
Python Database Programming Using ORACLE
 Handling errors in Database Programming
21 The Python Library 223
Overview of the Python Library
Most Useful Library Sections
22 101 Python Programs 243

Chapter 1
Getting Started with Python
Python is an open source, high-level programming language developed by Guido van Rossum in the late
1980s and presently administered by Python Software Foundation. It came from the ABC language that he
helped create early on in his career.

Python is an interpreted language. This means that every time a program is run, its interpreter runs through
the code and translates the codes into machine-readable byte code.
Python is an object-oriented language that allows users to manage and control data structures or objects to
create and run programs. Everything in Python is, infact,jirst class. All objects, data types, junctions, meth­
ods, and classes take equal position in Python.

The official introduction to Python is

Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a
simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Pythons elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application develop­
ment in many areas on most platforms.

It is a high-level language. Reading and writing codes in Python is much like reading and writing simple
regular English statements. Python is a powerful language that you can use to create games, write GUIs,
and develop web applications.

History of Python
Python language was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at
the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

Python is derived from many other languages, including Modula-3, ABC, C, C+

+, Algol-68, SmallTalk, and UNIX shell and other scripting languages.
Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available
under the GNU General Public License (GPL).

Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although

Guido van Rossum still holds a major role in directing its development.

Python is implemented in C, and relies on the extensive, well understood, portable C libraries. It fits seam­
lessly with Unix, Linux and POSIX environments. Since these standard C libraries are widely available for
the various MS-Windows variants, and other non-POSIX operating systems, Python runs similarly in all
environments.

Evolution of Python

The development of Python occurred at a time when many other dynamic (and open-source) program­
ming languages such as Tel, Perl, and (much later) Ruby were also being actively developed and gaining
popularity.

Version 1 of Python : Python 1.0 was released in January 1994. The major release included a number of
new features and functional programming tools including lambda, filter, map and reduce.

Version 2 of Python: In October 2000, Python 2.0 was released with the new list comprehension feature
and a garbage collection system. The Python Software Foundation has already announced that there
would be no Python 2.8. However, the Foundation will provide support to version 2.7 of the programming
language till 2020.

Version 3 of Python : Python 3.0 was released in December 2008. It came with a several new features
and enhancements, along with a number of deprecated features. The deprecated features and backward
incompatibility make version 3 of Python completely different from earlier versions. So many Python
developers still use Python 2.6 or 2.7 to avail the features deprecated from last major release.

As Python 3 is backward incompatible, the programmers cannot access features like string exceptions, old-
style classes, and implicit relative imports. Also, the developers must be familiar with changes made to
syntax and APIs. They can use a tool called 2to3 to migrate their application from Python 2 to 3 smoothly.
The tool highlights incompatibility and areas of concern through comments and warnings. The comments
help programmers to make changes to the code, and upgrade their existing applications to the latest ver­
sion of programming language.

The version 2 and version 3 of Python are completely different from each other. So each programmer must
understand the features of these distinct versions, and compare their functionality based on specific needs
of the project. Also, he needs to check the version of Python that each framework supports. However, each
developer must take advantage of the latest version of Python to avail new features and long-term support.
The difference between
"Python Implementation" vs. "Python distribution" vs. Python

Python itself is a programming language as per the behavior defined by the documentation available on
python.org. Anything that does what that documentation says it's supposed to do would "count" as being
Python....

An implementation of Python is an actual program that provides the behavior defined by the documenta­
tion available on python.org. It has various implementations which allow you to run programs written in
it. To give you a better idea, msvc, clang, gcc are implementations of C. Here are some python implementa­
tions:
 • CPython: this is the default, and what you should be using if you have no idea.
• Jython: implementation in java, allows you to use the java api.
• IronPython: implementation for .net, allows you to use the .net api.
• PyPy: JIT implementation.

A distribution of Python is a bundle that contains an implementation of Python along with a bunch of
libraries or tools or packages. In theory, a distribution of Python could use any implementation, although
all the ones I know of use CPython. The download from python.org could also be considered a distribution
(a minimal distribution that doesn't contain any "extras").

In practice, most people using Python for practical purposes are using CPython (the de facto standard
implementation), so the real choice is among different distributions of that. Among those, you mainly
choose based on what extras you want to come with it. You can choose to use the "bare" distribution from
python.org and then install packages yourself, or if you plan on doing scientific/analytics computing, you
could choose one of the distributions geared towards that (e.g., Anaconda or Canopy).
Features/Advantages of Using Python Language

The features/advantages of Python language are as follows;

1. Interpreted Language - as well as also compiled to bytecode. Modules are automatically compiled
(to .pyc) when imported as well as also be explicitly compiled as per the requirement. It facilitates an inter­
active command line and interpreter shell.

2. Object Oriented Language - Almost everything is an object in this language. It supports Data hiding,
Multiple inheritance, Interfaces and polymorphism.

3. Runs across different platforms - Python works on Windows, Linux/UNIX, Mac OS X, other operating
systems and small-form devices as well as it also runs on microcontrollers used in appliances, toys, remote
controls, embedded devices, and other similar devices.
4. Highly Structured Language - Statements, functions, classes, modules, and packages enable us to write
large, well structured applications so that to have the feature of readability, locate ability, modifiability.

5. Higher Productive Language - Pythons codes are considerably shorter, simpler, and less verbose than
other high-level programming languages such as Java and C++. In addition, it has well-designed built-in
features and standard library as well as access to third party modules and source libraries. These features
enable programming in Python more efficient.

6. Dynamic Language - It is dynamic language as types are bound to values, not to variables, function and
method lookup is done at runtime, values are inspectable and we can list the methods supported by any
given object.

7. Strongly Typed Language - at runtime rather than compile time. Objects (values) have a type, but vari­
ables do not have in this language.

8. Embedding and Extending Language - Python provides a well documented and supported way
(1) to embed the Python interpreter in C/C++ applications and
(2) to extend Python with modules and objects implemented in C/C++.
Cython enables us to generate C code from Python and to "easily" create wrappers for C/C++ functions.
To embed and extend Python with Java, there is Jython.

9. Reasonably High level - It contains high level builtin data types as well as high level control structures.

10. Less Learning Time - Python is relatively easy to learn as compare to other languages. Python is a a
good to first language for learning programming because it uses simple syntax and shorter codes.

Limitations/Disadvantages of Python Language

Python has varied advantageous features, and programmers prefer this language to other programming
languages because it is easy to learn and code too. But, this language has still not made its place in some
computing arenas that includes Enterprise Development houses. Therefore, this language may not solve
some of the enterprise solutions, and limitations include-

1. Difficulty in Using Other Languages

The Python lovers become so accustomed to its features and its extensive libraries, so they face problem in
learning or working on other programming languages. Python experts may see the declaring of cast values
or variable types, syntactic requirements of adding curly braces or semi colons as an onerous task.

2. Weak Language in Mobile Computing

Python has made its presence on many desktop and server platforms, but it is seen as a weak language for
mobile computing. That is why very few mobile applications are built in it like Carbonnelle.
3. Gets Slow in Speed
Python executes with the help of an interpreter instead of the compiler, which causes it to slow down
because compilation and execution help it to work normally. On the other hand, it can be seen that it is fast
for many web applications too.

4. Run-time Errors
The Python language is dynamically typed so it has many design restrictions that are reported by some
Python developers. It is even seen that it requires more testing time, and the errors show up when the ap­
plications are finally run.

5. Underdeveloped Database Access Layers

As compared to the popular technologies like JDBC and ODBC, the Pythons database access layer is found to
be bit underdeveloped and primitive. It cannot be applied in the enterprises that need smooth interaction
of complex legacy data.

Varieties of Python Language:

Jython Python for the Java environment http://www.jython.org/

PyPy Python with a JIT compiler and stackless mode http://pypy.org/
CPython Standard Python 2.xx implemented in C.
Stackless Python with enhanced thread support and microthreads etc.
http://www.stackless.com/
 IronPython Python for .NET and the CLR http://ironpython.net/
Python 3 The new, new Python. This is intended as a replacement for Python
2.x. http://www.python.org/doc/

Some Jargon

For folks new to developing software, it might help to understand a few distinctions made above.
Interpreted
Not Interpreted (i.e., Compiled)

Python is a byte-code interpreter. A Python code object is a sequence of bytes that represent various opera­
tions and values. The Python interpreter steps through the bytes, performing the operations.

A compiled language (e.g., C, C++, etc.) is translated from source form to executable binary specific to oper­
ating system and hardware platform.
Java is similar to Python: its compiled and the Java Virtual Machine is a byte-code interpreter.
Dynamic
Not Dynamic (i.e., Static)
Python is a dynamic language. Variables and functions do not have defined data types. Instead, a variable
is simply a label attached to an object. A function is a callable object with parameters, but no declared result
type. Each object has a strongly-defined permanent class.
There is no sophisticated compile-time type checking. Instead, any type mismatches will be detected at
run-time. Since many types are nearly interchangeable, there isnt a need for a lot of type checking. For ex­
amples of interchangeable (polymorphic) types, see Simple Numeric Expressions and Output.
Languages like C, C++ and Java have statically-declared variables and functions.
Scripting
Non-Scripting

The scripting distinction is an operational feature of POSIX-compliant operating systems. Files which
begin with the #!/path/to/interpreter will be used as scripts by the OS. They can be executed from the com­
mand-line because the interpreter is named in the first line of the file.

Languages like Java, C and C++ do not have this feature; these files must be compiled before they can be
executed.

Chapter 2
Installing Python
Installing Python in Windows

To install Python, you must first download the installation package of your preferred version from this
link:

https://www.python.org/downloads/

On this page, you will be asked to choose the recent versions for Python 3.11.x/3.12.x which was released
on 8th Feb 2023. Alternatively, if you are looking for a specific release, either Python 2 or 3, you can scroll
down the page to find download links for earlier versions.

python i
About Downloads Documentation Community

Download the latest version for Windows

Download Python 3.11.2

Looking for Python with a different OS? Python for Windows,

Linux/UNIX, macOS, Other

Want to help test development versions of Python? Prereleases,

Docker images
You would normally opt to download the latest version, which is Python 3.12.x. However, you may opt for the latest
version of Python 2, 2.7.18. Your preferences will usually depend on which version will be most usable for your
curriculum / project. While Python 3 is the present and future of the language, issues such as third party utility or
compatibility may require you to download Python 2.

Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy to use. Just accept
the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you are done.

£* Python 3.11.2 (64-bit) Setup

Install Python 3.11.2 (64-bit)

Select Install Now to install Python with default settings, or choose
Customize to enable or disable features.

—> Install Now

C:\Users\vignan\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python311

Includes IDLE, pip and documentation

Creates shortcuts and file associations

—> Customize installation

Choose location and features

python Use admin privileges when installing py.exe

for
0 Add python.exe to PATH Cancel
windows
Note that depending on your needs, you may also check the box to add Python to the Path. It will inform the
python file installer that the executable python path folder will be added to the environment variable with
the name of ‘Path’.

Finally, if the installation process is a success, the following window will appear:
£• Python 3.10.5 (64-bit) Setup

Setup was successful

New to Python? Start with the online tutorial and
documentation. At your terminal type "py" to launch Python,
or search for Python in your Start menu.

See what's new in this release, or find more info about using
Python on Windows.

S Disable path length limit

Changes your machine configuration to allow programs, including Python, to
bypass the 260 character "MAX-PATH'' limitation.

python
for
windows Close

Windows Configuration (Optional)

Windows users will need to be sure that python.exe is on their PATH. This is done with the System control
panel. Click on the Advanced tab. Click on the Environment Variables... button. Click on the System vari­
ables Path line, and click the Edit... button. This will often have a long list of items, sometimes starting
with %SystemRoot%. At the end of this list, add and the direction location of Python.exe. On my ma­
chine, I put it in D:\Softwares\Python\.

For Windows programmers, the windows command interpreter uses the last letters of the file name to
associate a file with an interpreter. You can have Windows run the python.exe program whenever you dou­
ble-click a .py file. This is done with the Folder Options control panel. The File Types tab allows you to pair
a file type with a program that processes the file.

Follow the below steps to add Python Path to Environment Variables.

Step 1: Click on Start Button and Open the Run Program.

Step 2: Now type sysdm.cpl and click OK. This opens the System Properties Dialog Box.
Step 3: Go to Advanced Tab and and Click on Environment Variables.
Step 4: In the System Variable section, Select the path variable.
Step 5: Click on Edit button and add python path to variable value.
Step 6: Click OK.

You can get your python path in the folder where you have installed python. Example - for us it D:\Soft-
wares\Python\
How to Test the Python in Microsoft Windows

The last part, it will display on how to test the result of the python installation in the previous part. It is
actually very simple as it exist in the following steps:
As usual, just execute the Command Prompt.
Following after, type the command below to test whether ‘python’ is available and it is exist in the environ­
ment variable of ‘Path’:

C:\Users\Personal>python
Python 3.11.2 (tags/v3.11.2:f377153, Jun 6 2022,16:14:13) [MSC v.1929 64 bit (AMD64)] on Win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Last but not least, just perform another test to make sure. The following test is executing a certain com­
mand to check the version of the installed python as follows :

C:\Users\Personal>python -V
Python 3.11.2
C:\Users\Personal>

As it appear in the output of the above command execution, the version is matched. It is python with the
version of‘3.11.2’.

Python Editors
 > Vim http://www.vim.org/
> Emacs See http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/
> SciTE http://www.scintilla.org/SciTE.html.
> MS Windows only
(1) TextPad http://www.textpad.com;
(2) UltraEdit http://www.ultraedit.com/.
> Jed See http://www.jedsoft.org/jed/.
> jEdit Requires a bit of customization for Python See http://jedit.org.
> Geany http://www.geany.org/

Interactive Interpreters:
> python
> ipython
> Idle IDEs

Integrated Development Environments for Python:

> PyWin MS Windows only. Available at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/pywin3 2/
> Kdevelop Linux/KDE See http://www.kdevelop.org/
> Eric Linux KDE? See http://ericide.pythonprojects.org/index.html
> WingIDE See http://wingware.com/wingide/
> Eclipse http://eclipse.org/ There is a plug in that supports Python.
> Emacs and SciTE will evaluate a Python buffer within the editor.
Whats new in Python 3.11.x

This new version of Python mainly focuses on improving the performance of the language. A few nice features
around exception handling and error display should also improve the development experience.

1. Improved performance

On average, a 25% performance gain compared to Python 3.11 is announced. Some operations are even up to 60%
faster than the latest version. The start-up time is reduced by 10% on average.
The measurements were performed with performance using CPython compiled with GCC under Ubuntu.

The performance gain comes mainly from the specialization of some instructions when the calls to a code are repet­
itive. The fact that the code repeats itself without necessarily changing allows the interpreter to analyze the running
code and replace the generic code with type-specific pieces.
Another improvement comes from reducing the number of calls to the system memory in favor of allocating more
space. If these performance gains are always good to take, they do not turn Python into an efficient programming
language.

An increase in memory consumption of around 20% is anticipated following the implementation of these changes on
CPython.
Further performance gains are already planned in versions 3.12 and later.

2. Better exception handling

Special work has been done on error management. It is now possible to add annotations on exceptions.

try:
raise ExceptionGroup("Exception Group", (
TypeErrorf'Type error"),
KeyError("Key error"),
ValueError("Value error"),
except* (ValueError, TypeError) as exc:
exc.add_note("Add more information about the error")
raise exc

except* KeyError as exc:

raise exc
Similarly, a new syntax is emerging. It is now possible to create groups of exceptions and break down the use of except
to catch certain exceptions contained in a group.

3. A more accurate traceback

The error messages returned by Python are now more precise and include the position of the error on the faulty line
of code. This function is very similar to what other modern languages can offer.
+--------------------------
I Traceback (most recent call last):
I File "test.py", line 5, in test
I assertx < 0
|AAAAAAAAAAAA

I AssertionError: assert 0 < 0

+--------------------------

4. Improved typing
As we know, Python is a dynamically typed language, which is not always appreciated by developers. The latest
Python updates have already started the integration of an optional type system. This release continues that trend by
adding more types like Self, Literalstring, Required, and NotRequired.

from typing import Self

class Foo:
def _init_ (self, x: str):
self.x = x

def bar(self, y: str) -> Self:

return Foo(y)

5. An update to the standard library

The standard Python library is not left out and is experiencing some changes.

TOML
First of all, the tomllib module is added to the standard library to parse TOML. This addition follows support for the
pyproject.toml file, added in a previous version of Python.
This library remains limited in terms of functionalities and has only one purpose: file parsing.

import tomllib
with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
data = tomllib.load(f)
print(data["project"]["name"])

AsyncIO
The asyncio library is also entitled to an update with the addition of Task Group to replace the use of the .gather()
method on asynchronous operations.
import asyncio
async def task 1():
print("Foo")
await asyncio.sleep(5)

async def task2():

print("Bar")
await asyncio.sleep(2)

async def main():

try:
async with asyncio.TaskGroupO as task_group:
task_group.create_task(task 1 ())
task_group.create_task(task2())
except* ValueError as exc:
print(exc.exceptions)

if_ name_ == "__ main_

asyncio.run(main())
This update makes the syntax more pleasant, but does not bring any other major changes to the library.

StrEnum

The StrEnum makes an appearance. It allows to automatically convert a character string into an Enum.

from enum import StrEnum, auto

class Foo(StrEnum):
BAR = auto()
print(Foo.BAR.value) # "bar"

Path
The Path.glob() method of pathlib now allows you to specify whether you only want to retrieve folders.

from pathlib import Path

p = Path("/Users/foobar/")
everything = p.glob("*")
dirs = p.glob("7")

6. Miscellaneous deprecation

Finally, this version brings a background cleanup and removes support for many legacy modules: aifc, chunk, msilib,
pipes, telnetlib, audioop, crypt, nis, sndhdr, uu, cgi, imghdr, nntplib, spwd, xdrlib, cgitb, mailcap, ossaudiodev,
sunau...

Some of these modules will not be removed from the standard library until Python 3.13. Others will simply be re­
placed by alternative solutions, more modern and better maintained, already present in the standard library.

In conclusion, if this update does not bring anything revolutionary, it continues the Python projects already launched
with regard to the improvement of the performances of CPython, the improvement of the error management and the
addition of solutions for typing requested by part of the community.

Chapter 3
Interacting with Python
Python is a flexible and dynamic language that you can use in different ways. You can use it interactively
when you simply want to test a code or a statement on a line-by-line basis or when youre exploring its
features. You can use it in script mode when you want to interpret an entire file of statements or applica­
tion program.
To use Python interactively, you can use either the Command Line window or the IDLE Development
Environment.

Command Line Interaction

The command line is the most straightforward way to work with Python. You can easily visualize how
Python works as it responds to every completed command entered on the

> > > prompt. It may not be the most preferred interaction with Python, but it is the simplest way to explore
how Python works.

Running Python
There are three different ways to start Python -
1. Interactive Interpreter
From Windows
Start-> All Programs -> Python 3.11 -> Python 3.11
2. Script from the Command-line
A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter on your application, as in the
following -
C: >python script.py

3. Integrated Development Environment

You can run Python from a Graphical User Interface (GUI) environment as well, if you have a GUI applica­
tion on your system that supports Python.
Windows - PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE with a GUL
From Windows
Start-> All Programs -> Python 3.11 -> IDLE
Note: If youre using GNU/Linux, UNIX, and Mac OS systems, you have to run the Terminal Tool and enter
the Python command to start your session.

We use commands to tell the computer what to do. When you want Python to do something for you, you
have to instruct it by entering commands that it is familiar with. Python will then translate these com­
mands to instructions that your computer or device can understand and execute.

To see how Python works, you can use the print command to print the universal program Hello, World!
Open Pythons command line.
At the >>>prompt, type the following: print(Hello, World!)
Press enter to tell Python that youre done with your command. Very quickly, the command line window
will display Hello, World! on the following line:

Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

»> print(”hello”>
hello
»>
Python responded correctly because you gave it a command in a format that it requires. To see how it
responds when you ask it to print the same string using a wrong syntax for the print command, type and
enter the following command on the Python command prompt:
Print(Hello, World!)
This is how Python will respond:
Syntax error: invalid syntax

Youll get syntax error messages whenever you enter invalid or incomplete statements. In this case, you
typed print with a capital letter which is a big no to a case-sensitive language like Python.

If youre just using Python interactively, you can do away with the print command entirely by just typing
your statement within quotes such as Hello, World!

Getting Help
Python has two closely-related help modes. One is the general help utility, the other is a help function that
provides the documentation on a specific object, module, function or class.

The help() Utility

Help is available through the help() function.
If you enter just help() you will enter the online help utility. This help utility allows you to explore the
Python documentation.
The interaction looks like this:
> > > help
Type help() for interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.
>>> help()

Help on a specific topic

If you enter help( object) for some object, you will be given help on that specific object. This help is dis­
played using a help viewer.
Youll enter something like this:
»> help("EXPRESSIONS")

Exiting Python
To exit from Python, you can type any of these commands:
quit()
exit()
Control-Z then press enter

IDLE: Pythons Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

The IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) tool is included in Pythons installation
package but you can choose to download more sophisticated third party IDEs.
The IDLE tool offers a more efficient platform to write your code and work interactively with Python. You
can access IDLE on the same folder where you found the command line icon or on the start menu. As soon
as you click on the IDLE icon, it will take you to the Python Shell window.
You can run a code in Python via the Python IDLE.
A quick way to find your Python IDLE on Windows is by clicking on the Start menu. You should then see the
IDLE under “Recently added”.

Recently added

|L IDLE (Python 3.9 64-bit)

|L Python 3.9 Module Docs (64-bit)

B? Python 3.9 Manuals (64-bit)

Once you click on the Python IDLE, you’ll see the Shell screen.

The Python Shell Window

The Python Shell Window has dropdown menus and a > > > prompt that you have seen earlier in the com­
mand line window. Here you can type and enter statements or expressions for evaluation in the same way
that you used the command line earlier. This time however, IDLES editing menu allows you to scroll back to
your previous commands, cut, copy, and paste previous statements and make modifications. IDLE is quite
a leap from the command line interaction.

The Python Shell window has the following menu items: File, Edit, Shell, Debug, Options, Windows, and
Help.
Python 3.9.0 Shell — □ X
File Edit Shell Debug Options Window Help
Pychon 3.9.0 (cags/v3.9.O:9cf6752, Oct 5 2020, 15:34:40) [MSC v.1927
64 bit (AMD64)] on Win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license()" for more informati
on .
»> I

Ln: 3 Col: 4
The Shell and Debug menus provide capabilities you would find useful when creating larger programs.

The Shell menu allows you to restart the shell or search the shells log to find the most recent reset.
The Debug Menu has useful menu items for tracing the source file of an exception and highlighting the
erring line. The Debugger option will usher in an interactive debugger window that will allow you to step
through the running program. The Stack Viewer option displays the current Python stack through a new
window.

The Options menu allows you to configure IDLE to suit your Python working preferences.

The Help menu opens Python Help and documentation.

The File Menu

The items on the File menu allows you to create a new file, open an old file, open a module, and/or save your
session. When you click on the New File option, you will be taken to a new window, a simple and standard
text editor where you can type or edit your code. Initially, this file window is named untitled but its name
will soon change as you save your code.

The windows menu bar varies only slightly with the Shell Window. It doesnt have the Shell and Debug
menu found in the Shell Window but it introduces two new menus: the Run and the Format menu. When
you choose to Run your code on the file window, you can see the output on the Shell Window.

The Script Mode

When working in script mode, you wont automatically see results the way you would in interactive mood.
To see an output from a script, youll have to run the script and/or invoke the print() function within your
code.
Python 3.9.0 Shell — □ X
File | Edit Shell Debug Options Window Help

New File Ctrl*N :9cf6752, Oct 5 2020, 15:34:40) [MSC v.1927

Open... Ctrl+O
_ .... ... .. "credits" or "license ()" for more informati
Open Module... Alt+M
Recent Files ►
Module Browser Alt*C
Path Browser

Save Ctrl+S
Save As... Ctrl*Shift*S
Save Copy As... Alt*Shift*S

Print Window Ctrl+P

Close Alt*F4
Exit Ctrl+Q

Click on File and then select New File (alternatively, you may use the keyboard shortcut of Ctrl+N):
You would now see the following “untitled” box, where you can type your Python code:
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
some instances has been—in this one county! I consider it inequitable for the
reason that the man who travels from mining camp to mining camp may reside
four or more years in any number of states, and at any number of camps in each
state; but, if he then removes to another state and resides in that state one year,
he may obtain citizenship. Yet the rancher who resides five years in one state, or
even in one county, but during the five years resides in two different localities of
the state, or even on two different ranches in one county, may be (and under the
present law frequently is) deprived of citizenship for the reason that two
witnesses, only two, and each of these two, must prove the continuous five years’
residence.
I some time ago became convinced that this provision of the law was not
equitable, and in January, 1919, wrote to our Congressman in the hope of
convincing him and getting a bill introduced to remedy it. He thought it too late in
the session to attempt it, and that it would be useless to attempt it without the
approval of the Department of Labor, which approval was withheld.

Nevertheless, it is to be presumed that the Bureau of

Naturalization did approve (since the proposal was embodied in the
same bill containing one of its attempts to secure a notable
extension of its powers)[80] a measure of concession in the matter of
witnesses.[81] A proposed amendment to Section 10 of the
Naturalization Law would provide:
That in case the petitioner has resided in two or more parts of the county in
which he resides at the time he files his petition, and for this cause is unable to
procure two witnesses, who are citizens of the United States, who are qualified
and competent to establish the entire period of his residence in such county, he
may establish his residence at each of the places in such county by the affidavits
and testimony of at least two witnesses, citizens of the United States, to each
place of residence, both in his petition and at the hearing.

The same bill would have mitigated and, so far as it went,

humanized the restriction upon substitution of witnesses by adding
to Section 4 a subdivision providing that
Where either or both of the original subscribing witnesses to a petition for
naturalization, or those giving evidence by deposition in support thereof, shall be
found to be incompetent or not qualified to establish the proof of residence, good
moral character, or other evidence required by law, the petitioner may substitute
other qualified and competent witnesses at, or prior to, the final hearing. The
hearing of the petition may be continued for this purpose and the names of the
substituted witnesses may be ordered publicly posted, in the discretion of the
court, if such posting shall be deemed necessary. Any petition for naturalization
may be amended to correct manifest errors appearing therein and made in good
faith.

DEPOSITIONS OF WITNESSES

Mr. Raymond F. Crist, then Deputy Commissioner of Naturalization, in

testimony before the House Committee on Immigration and
Naturalization, prior to the enactment of the Act of May 9, 1918,
stated that the Naturalization Service was habitually represented at
the taking of the depositions by which a petitioner is permitted to
prove his residence in states other than that in which the petition is
filed. This must have been a slip of the tongue, for it is very far from
being in accordance with the facts. Such a course would be a
physical impossibility, especially in the present and past short-
handed condition of the field service. As a rule the notaries public
who attest these depositions are designated by the several chief
examiners; but many of them are in small places, to which
examiners never go. In point of fact, in most cases, the depositions
are not viséd in any way whatever, so far as the naturalization
machinery is concerned, or examined at all until the judge reaches
the particular case. They go direct from the notary to the court in
which the petition is to be heard, in a sealed envelope which is not
expected to be opened until the day of the hearing—unless the court
has, by specific order, authorized the naturalization officer to open
and examine them. A very considerable number of them—one
person familiar with the practice estimated the percentage as high
as 75 per cent—are defective in some particular; the same authority
thought at least 40 per cent of them would be so defective as to
render them, under strict construction, inadmissible as evidence. For
example, they will fail to assert that the deposing person has known
the petitioner during the required period of time; or will not say,
categorically, that the affiant is himself a citizen of the United States.
As a rule, it is not until the affidavits are examined in open court by
the judge or examiner that their insufficiency is disclosed, for the
first time, to the petitioner. He may not be admitted until the papers
have gone back for correction, or a new set prepared. That
sometimes means a delay of six months, a year, or even longer—a
very serious matter to a petitioner upon whose naturalization may
depend his title to a homestead. There is nothing in the law
prescribing the method of handling this matter; it is subject to
regulation by the Bureau of Naturalization in its discretion; and
inasmuch as the Naturalization Service declares itself, and ought
indeed to be, the friend of the petitioner, guarding him against errors
which may invalidate his whole effort and lead to the cancellation of
his certificate even after he gets it, it ought to devise some
procedure for examining every deposition. No petitioner should be
allowed to come into court until his papers have been scrutinized, at
least for technical defects. In certain districts of the Naturalization
Service this has indeed been the practice in an informal way and to a
limited extent. It would seem that it ought to be invariable. The
Service has done excellent work in shutting out all manner of
runners, professional witnesses, and other kinds of pseudo-
assistants to the alien; this has left him in the matter of depositions,
as a general rule, without well-informed, disinterested, or intelligent
guidance, with the result that he has no adequate warning against
defects, either important or trivial, which may vitiate his application.
When he comes into court, all of his papers should be perfect, and
all the facts cleared of technicalities, so that the judge may pass
exclusively upon the merits of the case.
An applicant for naturalization must state in his petition whether
or not he ever has filed a previous petition, and if so, what became
of it. There have been instances in which a former petition was
granted, but for some reason the record of it cannot now be found.
In such a case the petitioner would have the greatest difficulty in
getting proofs of his citizenship. His new petition may be denied on
the ground that he is “already a citizen,” but it leaves the record in
an unsatisfactory condition; although his copy of the order of denial,
stating that he is a citizen, serves fairly well for most purposes to
certify his citizenship.
 “GOOD MORAL CHARACTER”

It is customary for naturalizing courts, in denying petitions, to add

some phrase governing a later renewal; such as “without prejudice
to renewal”; or “with prejudice to renewal before the expiration of
five years from the date of this order of denial.” In absence of such a
phrase the court passing upon the second petition—especially if the
former denial was on the ground of “immoral character”—requires
the lapse of at least five years and exceedingly good proof of reform.
The law requires that the petitioner must show affirmatively not only
that during the whole period of five years immediately preceding the
date of his petition he has behaved as a person of good moral
character, attached to the principles of the Constitution, etc., but
that he is at the time of the petition such a person. Courts have
been known to deny petitions for acts committed before the
beginning of the five-year period, on the ground that they involved
ineradicable moral turpitude. Judges have shown much liberality on
this point, however; there was a case of an old homesteader who
had spent several years in the penitentiary; but the judge inquired
far enough into the history of the matter to learn that the man was
convicted as the result of a conspiracy on the part of certain
neighbors who wished to get his homestead.
The latitude of the courts in this respect is very wide, and
interesting slants are to be found in the decisions. There was a
saloonkeeper in Chicago who participated in the then general
custom of keeping liquor saloons open on Sunday in violation of the
law, the policy of the city administration at that time being that of
non-enforcement. There came a time when public sentiment
required enforcement of the Sunday-closing law, and thereupon this
man promptly obeyed the orders of the police to that effect. When
his petition for naturalization came up, it was held that the consent
of the authorities to his disobedience of the law was no excuse; a
person who would accept the benefit of an evasion of the law could
not be of “good moral character.”
Said the court:
 If a rule were laid down that it is immoral to knowingly and willfully violate the
law in a community where public sentiment approves the law, but not immoral in a
community where public sentiment does not approve the law, it would be most
disastrous to the good order and well-being of society.... That public officers
charged with enforcement of the law do not do so cannot change the effect upon
the moral character of a man who willfully and habitually violates it.[82]

This was a case in which the government succeeded in canceling a

certificate already granted, and it shows, as do many others, what a
severe gantlet the petitioner must run, and how his past is combed
over before he can show that he is altogether qualified. Gerstein was
required to wait before filing a second petition; the court said:
The order and decree of naturalization of the Superior Court [of Cook County,
Illinois] is reversed and the application of appellee for citizenship denied, without
prejudice to his right to file another application when time has removed the
disqualification.

THE FINAL CEREMONY—OATH OF ALLEGIANCE

The law requires that the Oath of Allegiance shall be taken in open
court as the final act of the petitioner before being formally admitted
to citizenship; thereupon the decree is entered and certificate
issued; but the Naturalization Service is forbidden by its regulations
to issue the certificate until the judge’s signature is upon the order.
Sometimes the clerk rattles off or mumbles the oath very indistinctly,
and the petitioners, often a large number of them, hardly
understand a word of the solemn ritual. It is becoming more
common for the judge to require everyone in court to stand while he
delivers the text of the oath loudly and clearly. In some courts where
there are many applicants, and all concerned are pressed for time,
the persons to be naturalized are kept in one part of the room until
the docket is cleared, whereupon the oath is administered to them in
groups of nationality; each nationality group standing with upraised
right hands while the clerk or judge reads the words, and names the
particular “prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty,” allegiance to
whom, or to which, is to be abjured. Sometimes this ceremony is a
very hurried, perfunctory, and undignified performance; sometimes a
very solemn and impressive one. During the high-pressure process
of naturalizing great numbers of soldiers in the army encampments
during the war, it was sometimes the custom to have all nationalities
stand at once, the clerk naming all the sovereignties concerned in
one series, with the presumption that each individual would mentally
isolate the one which he was supposed to have in mind. There were
occasions when this helter-skelter method was pursued for the
benefit of as many as 1,200 petitioners together.

CEREMONIES OF INITIATION

There is a growing movement in favor of having public ceremonies

of “initiation,” in which the whole community is represented, to
welcome the new citizens; to impress upon both the newcomers and
the people to whose fellowship they are being welcomed, the
importance and solemnity of the occasion. An increasing number of
judges are carrying out this idea in their naturalization proceedings;
adding to the formalities required by the law a speech either by the
judge himself or by some representative citizen, or both, in which
the momentous significance of the act in which the alien and the
court have joined is emphasized. Some judges make a practice of
giving to each new citizen a small flag, a special certificate, a leaflet
or brochure setting forth the sentiments appropriate to the occasion.
Much more common is it becoming for public-spirited citizens to
organize a meeting of the same import. Here, for example, is the
program of such a meeting, held in the Music Hall at Fall River,
Massachusetts, on May 7, 1919, following a naturalization session of
the local court, designated as “Reception and Welcome to Fall River’s
Newly Naturalized Citizens”:

PROGRAM
Hon. Henry F. Nickerson, Presiding

Music Orchestra
 Singing—“America” Audience

Address of Welcome Hon. Henry F. Nickerson

Response by a naturalized citizen James B. Kerr

Selection Orchestra

Address Rev. Everett C. Herrick

Pledge of Allegiance—Led by Boy Scouts:

“I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the

country for which it stands; one nation,
indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
Presentation of Certificates of Naturalization
M. B. Irish, Sec. Fall River Immigrant Committee

Prayer Rev. Vincent Marchildon

Singing—“Star-spangled Banner” Audience

Informal Reception

Here is another program—of the “Americanization Meeting in

honor of those who were admitted to citizenship April 19, 21, 22,
1920,” held in the Union High School at Grand Rapids, Michigan,
April 30, 1920, under the auspices of the Grand Rapids Board of
Education and the Americanization Society:

PROGRAM
Henry E. Crow, President of the Board of Education,
Presiding
John W. Beattie, Supervisor of Music,
Song Leader
 Song—“America” Audience

Address Christian Gallmeyer, Mayor of Grand Rapids

Folk Games Pupils Sibley School

Directed by Miss Ila Krumheuer

Address Fred J. Schlotfeldt,

Chief Naturalization Examiner, Chicago, Ill.

Songs Audience

Presentation of Citizenship Certificates

Judge Willis B. Perkins, Circuit Court

Pledge of Allegiance to Flag—Audience, led by Boy Scouts:

“I pledge allegiance to my flag and to

the country for which it stands; one nation,
indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”

Address to New Citizens A. P. Johnson,

Publisher Grand Rapids “News”

Songs Audience

Address Raymond F. Crist,

Director of Citizenship, Bureau of Naturalization,
Washington, D. C.

“Star-Spangled Banner” Audience

Mrs. Henrietta Briggs-Wall of Washington, D. C., has presented

admirably the spirit of this movement in a pamphlet proposing a
general “New Patriot Plan,” to utilize the Fourth of July throughout
the country for the celebration of the “civic birthday,” alike of the
native born who, during the past year, have attained the voting age
of 21 years, and the newly naturalized foreign born. “In other
countries,” says Mrs. Briggs-Wall, “much ado is made over the
crowning of kings and queens who attempt to rule over others;
there is much more occasion for general rejoicing when newly
enfranchised citizens attain their share in the honors and duties of
self-government.” The plan proposes in general a Fourth-of-July
celebration in every community in America to which the newly
enfranchised shall be invited as guests of honor. The author says,
among other things:
The natural birthday is remembered by the family; the “civic birthday” should be
honored by the community.
Inauguration ceremonies should accompany this newly acquired power. These
exercises may consist of addresses to them [the newly enfranchised], music, a
variety of activities for their entertainment and instruction; all of which, as an
object lesson, will promote the patriotism of all the people.
Prizes may be offered to those who bring the greatest number to register in the
“Record Book of New Patriots”; also to those who may try, if they choose, to write
the best essays on “true patriotism.” ... The customs and convenience of different
localities will suggest varying methods.
It is appropriate that the birthday of freedom, the civic birthday of our country,
should be chosen to celebrate the civic birthday of the citizen. It is the best
possible holiday for patriotic purposes; the audience is already furnished, and the
minds of the people are in a receptive mood. It occurs at the time of year when
picnics, excursions, and out-of-door celebrations of all sorts can be easily arranged
in honor, and for the pleasure, of the new patriots.

Criticism, commendation and reform alike, to be either fair or

judicious, must bear in mind that the naturalization system which
has been built up—and such parts, absurdities, inhumanities, and
bureaucratic excrescences as have grown up—under the
Naturalization Act of 1906 represents when all is said an honest,
diligent, and wholly patriotic effort to make impossible the now
almost incredible scandals of former times; to establish and vigilantly
maintain proper standards of character and intelligence by which to
test those of other nativity who desire to join our fellowship and
participate in our sovereignty; and to fit and educate those who are
admitted for the better appreciation and performance of the unique
privileges and responsibilities of American citizenship. The
remediable evils, some of the more conspicuous of which have been
indicated, seem to be due in part to survival among us of general
race and anti-foreign prejudices, despite our historic professions and
democratic traditions; in part to the mere inertia of custom and habit
characterizing all governmental institutions; in part to the “personal
equation” of those upon whom, in various parts of the country, falls
the duty of administering the law.
The experience of these fifteen years has demonstrated that the
law, as it stands, is on the whole just and effective for its purposes.
Its defects can be remedied; its sound features strengthened and
clarified. It is time to modify it in some respects; to standardize the
tests and conditions enforced under its provisions, to the end of
removing, or anyway diminishing, the opportunity for the erratic
operation of “personal equation” and the theories, whims,
negligences, together with the illegal and extra-legal practices, in
both the executive departments and the courts, of which the
aspirant for citizenship is the hapless victim.
 VI

PERSONAL EQUATION IN NATURALIZATION

When we speak of the “personal equation” as an important factor in

the adoption or rejection of an alien applicant for citizenship, we are
likely to be thinking chiefly of the personality of the petitioner; of his
character, intelligence, education, social training and experience; of
his general fitness and capacity for assimilation of our language,
customs, traditions, institutional relations—what we are pleased to
call our “fundamental principles.” But this is only a part, and not
always or necessarily the most significant and controlling part, of the
situation. There are other “personal equations” to be considered. For
while it is true in one sense that the applicant does pass into the
maw of a machine, constructed “of law rather than of men,” and
governed by more or less precise and automatically operating
regulations from whose technic the individuals on either side of the
process may not materially depart, the fact is that there is hardly
any other legal process in our governmental system in which
personality—individual ideas, prejudices, idiosyncrasies—plays so
large a part. In no other activity of the courts is the individual
petitioner so entirely at the mercy of the court, so completely
without recourse in the event of a decision against him.
Strictly speaking, the proceeding is judicial; an ex-parte case in an
important court, in which a petition is filed with the clerk, comes in
due course before the judge in person; evidence is received for and
against the granting of the privilege requested, and the judge
decides in a formal order and decree, pro or contra; the petition is
granted or denied, as the case may be. For every petition is decided
and disposed of in some final way, even though it may be continued
or postponed once or more. It is doubtful, however, whether
anywhere in our judicial procedure—even in the minor courts where
so often farcically unjust “law” is inflicted upon defenseless persons
—may be found a class of cases departing so far in practice from the
apparent simplicity of the theory; where the petitioner is subject to
so heavy handicaps of technicality; to so great an extent at the
mercy of personal whims and mental limitations, of blunders and
negligences—and “red tape”—of persons over whose activities he
has not the slightest control, with very little right or opportunity to
have beside him anyone to protect him from encroachment upon his
rights.
The Constitution of the United States gave to Congress exclusive
authority “to establish a uniform rule of naturalization.”[83] It might
have been inferred that the intention was to make the process
strictly an affair of Federal administration; but Congress did not so
construe or utilize the authority. It established, by the original
statute and subsequent legislation, uniform standards of
requirement as to racial restriction, preliminary period of residence,
literacy, and moral qualifications; but in effect it gave the jurisdiction
and administration of the law back to the states—not in so many
words, to be sure, but by committing the naturalization function to
local as well as to Federal judges in every state and territory.
Nothing could have been devised more surely to subject the
operation of the law to the peculiarities of local conditions and
feeling, and to the warps and twists of personal notion.
From the beginning, in the first general naturalization law enacted
after the new republic got under way, the function of admitting new
members of the nation has been vested in the courts—a judicial
power and activity. So it remains to-day. And with the sole exception
of Canada, the United States is unique in respect of this method of
naturalization. England, France, and virtually all of the other nations
vest the power in some ministerial agency.[84]
 A FUNCTION OF LOCAL COURTS

At first glance it might seem fitting and wise to confine the function
(if to the courts at all) to the Federal tribunals, in the interest of
freedom from local political influence, uniformity of interpretation
and practice, and recognition of the fact that citizenship is chiefly a
relationship to the nation as a whole. Always, indeed, there has been
a considerable body of sentiment in favor of such a change in the
practice. Many of the state judges would favor it; some for reasons
of principle, but most because they would gladly get rid of a body of
duty which to many is irksome and a distasteful interference with
their ordinary matters of litigation by duties which they regard as
properly more administrative than judicial. No Federal judge will hear
of any such addition to their already great burden of work.
The reasons to the contrary are weighty and thus far have been
controlling. In the first place, after all is said, an individual, however
national his citizenship in the large sense, is politically a unit of the
state in which he resides. He does not vote for any strictly Federal
officer; the only civic relationships which he bears to the nation as
such are those of direct taxation and national military service—and
both of those are of comparatively recent establishment. He does
not vote for President of the United States, but for a group of
Presidential electors who will cast the vote of his state in the
Electoral College. When he votes for two Senators and one
Representative in Congress, he votes for them as representatives of
his own state and Congressional district. The states, as a rule, have
been very jealous of every effort to take the direct control of the
selection of their citizens out of the hands of officials amenable to
local sentiment.
There is another and even better reason, in the fact that the
United States courts are relatively few and far between, and the
expense of time and travel which would be imposed upon applicants,
living elsewhere than in large cities, for having to go (as they do
now twice and often more than twice) to the nearest Federal courts
would be prohibitive upon all aliens but the most prosperous or
those whom some one might have a motive, political or other, for
subsidizing in this way. In not a few sparsely settled regions, even as
it is now, a petitioner must travel, and take his two witnesses, a total
of many hundred miles before he can consummate the process of
naturalization and obtain the precious certificate without which he
cannot complete his title to his homestead.
The existing law, modified in its allusions to territories which since
have become states by the various kinds of legislation relative to
their statehood, thus describes the courts which are to have the
power to pass upon applications for citizenship:
United States Circuit and District Courts now existing, or which may hereafter be
established by Congress, in any State; United States District Courts for the
Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Hawaii, and Alaska; the Supreme
Court of the District of Columbia, and the United States Courts for the Indian
Territory; also all courts of record in any State or Territory now existing, or which
may hereafter be created, having a seal, a clerk, and jurisdiction in actions at law
or equity, or law and equity, in which the amount in controversy is unlimited.

“PERSONAL EQUATION” OF THE JUDGES

According to the report of the Commissioner of Naturalization for the

fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, a total of 2,306 courts of all these
kinds have exercised naturalization jurisdiction during that year, and
a list of judges, compiled by the Americanization Study from
information obtained from the Naturalization Service and from other
sources, shows that about 1,450 individual judges, Federal, state,
and local, preside in these courts. A grand total of approximately
100,000 cases a year—the figure roughly used in estimating the
naturalization business of recent years—would give to each judge an
average of about 70 cases a year; but since in the great majority of
rural districts this business is exceedingly small—in some cases not
more than two or three in a year—and since the bulk of it is in the
large cities and in particular regions, such as the mining districts of
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Illinois, etc., certain courts have a very
large number of cases, in some instances running into thousands.
 In the last analysis, the individual judge is, subject to certain
noteworthy restrictions and interferences, the final arbiter in every
case. Upon his “personal equation,” his opinions and prejudices, to a
great extent depends the reception which the petitioner experiences
when he comes into court for the final stage of his initiation as an
American citizen.
Obviously, then, it becomes important to ascertain the general
attitude of the naturalizing judges throughout the country toward
the law as it stands, toward the naturalization process in general,
toward the petitioner for citizenship. In the last analysis the judge is
a human being, moved by human motives, warped by human
prejudices, subject to the same personal, local, and general
influences that condition the emotions and actions of the rest of us
toward our fellow men.
With this in view, the Americanization Study addressed a
questionnaire to each of the approximately 1,400 judges throughout
the country entitled[85] to jurisdiction in naturalization proceedings in
the 2,300 courts over which from time to time they preside for this
purpose. Somewhat less than one-third (423, or about 31 per cent)
of the judges thus addressed replied or were accounted for in some
manner more or less complete. Any exact or conclusive tabulation of
the replies would be impracticable because the questions called for
expression of opinions rather than categorical or statistical answers;
a large proportion of the judges left one or more of the questions
unanswered or qualified their answers in such a way as to preclude
the possibility of precise classification. Nevertheless, the results as a
whole are highly significant and informing—almost as much so in
their negative aspects as in the definite replies evoked.
For example, it is interesting to observe the difference not only in
the ratio of replies received to the number of judges questioned, but
in the character of the replies as regards general strictness or
liberality of attitude, in the various parts of the country. The first
point is to be seen in the following list of naturalization districts, with
the approximate number of judges in each and the number of them
heard from:
TABLE IV
Number of Replies from Judges in Each District
Boston District.—Comprising the states of Maine, New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island.

State Judges Replies from

Maine 9 3
New Hampshire 6 1
Vermont 7 4
Massachusetts 29 3
Connecticut 18 4
Rhode Island 8 2
— —
Total 77 17

New York District.—Comprising Northern, Eastern, and Southern New

York, and Hudson County, New Jersey.

State Judges Replies from

New York 74 19
New Jersey 3 0
— —
Total 77 19

Philadelphia District.—Comprising the Eastern and Middle Districts,

Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey (except Hudson County).

State Judges Replies from

Pennsylvania 46 11
Delaware 4 2
New Jersey 24 10
 — —
Total 74 23

Pittsburgh District.--Comprising Western Pennsylvania, Western New

York, West Virginia, Ohio, Maryland (counties of Allegheny, Frederick,
Garrett, and Washington), Kentucky (counties of Campbell and
Kenton).

State Judges Replies from

Pennsylvania 29 7
Kentucky 1 0
Maryland 4 0
New York 22 6
Ohio 81 22
West Virginia 27 9
— —
Total 164 44

Washington District.--Comprising the District of Columbia, Alabama,

Florida, Georgia, Kentucky (except the counties of Campbell,
Jefferson, and Kenton), Louisiana, Maryland (except the counties of
Allegheny, Frederick, Garrett, and Washington), Mississippi, North
Carolina, Porto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee (except Shelby
County), Texas, and Virginia.

State Judges Replies from

District of Columbia 1 0
Alabama 7 2
Florida 12 3
Georgia 10 0
Kentucky 12 2
Louisiana 18 2
Maryland 14 2
Mississippi 13 1
North Carolina 10 1
Porto Rico 1 0
 South Carolina 6 0
Tennessee 9 3
Texas 25 8
Virginia 9 1
City of Baltimore 9 1
— —
Total 157 29

St. Louis District.--Comprising Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Iowa,

Nebraska, Kansas, Shelby County, Tennessee, and Southern Illinois.

State Judges Replies from

Arkansas 35 9
Illinois 20 6
Iowa 62 27
Kansas 39 14
Nebraska 34 11
Missouri 43 11
Oklahoma 34 11
— —
Total 267 89

Chicago District.--Comprising Northern Illinois, Indiana, Southern

Wisconsin, Jefferson County, Kentucky, Southern Peninsula of
Michigan, and Mackinac County, Michigan.

State Judges Replies from

Illinois 87 20
Indiana 70 20
Michigan 51 18
Wisconsin 15 5
— —
Total 223 63
St. Paul District.--Comprising Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Northern Wisconsin, Northern Peninsula of Michigan (except
Mackinac County).

State Judges Replies from

Minnesota 48 20
Michigan 4 3
North Dakota 13 6
South Dakota 13 5
Wisconsin 11 7
— —
Total 89 41

Denver District.—Comprising Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, and

the counties of Bannock, Bear Lake, Bingham, Bonneville, Custer,
Franklin, Fremont, Jefferson, Lemhi, Madison, Oneida, and Power,
Idaho.

State Judges Replies from

Colorado 17 7
New Mexico 9 5
Utah 9 3
Wyoming 8 2
Idaho 5 3
— —
Total 48 20

San Francisco District.—Comprising California, Arizona, and Nevada.

State Judges Replies from

California 95 34
Arizona 16 8
Nevada 12 2
—– —
Total 123 44
 Seattle District.—Comprising Washington, Oregon, Montana, and Idaho
(except as assigned to Denver).

State Judges Replies from

Washington 47 15
Oregon 27 11
Montana 26 7
Idaho 11 1
—– —
Total 111 34

Recapitulation

Total number of judges addressed 1,410

Replies received from 423

Percentage of Replies

St. Paul District 46.0

Denver District 41.7
San Francisco District 37.4
St. Louis District 33.3
Philadelphia District 31.0
Seattle District 30.6
Chicago District 28.2
Pittsburgh District 26.8
New York District 24.6
Boston District 22.0
Washington District 18.5
Average 30.9

It would be perilous to generalize from these figures as to the

interest of judges in various parts of the country in the study of the
problems involved in naturalization. Silence does not necessarily
imply indifference; moreover, the courts in large centers of
population are overburdened with ordinary litigation, and it is not
surprising that there should be procrastination or entire failure in
responding to a more or less elaborate questionnaire. Nevertheless,
there is food for reflection in the fact that the lowest percentages of
exhibited interest are in the East and South—the highest west of the
Mississippi River.
The judges who did reply to the questionnaire represent on the
whole both wide experience and substantial interest in the subject.
Of those who state the number of naturalization cases coming
before them in an average year, more than 100 passed upon 100
cases or more—not including the very large numbers passed by a
few in acceptance of soldiers under the “military naturalization law”;
at least as many more had from 50 to 100 cases a year (160
between 10 and 100); only 67 reported less than 10. Upward of 400
judges, each answering for himself, undoubtedly afford a reasonably
reliable cross-section of the opinion of the naturalizing agency of the
government.

BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questions which were asked, and the general nature of the
replies to each, give a bird’s-eye view of the principal phases of the
problem, and a fair notion of the degree to which the judges may be
regarded as liberal or conservative and alive to the situation. The
questions and the figures given after each speak for themselves:
Do you regard the present requirements for naturalization as too strict, or not
strict enough?
Answers: About right now 185
Too strict 26
Not strict enough 97
Noncommittal 20
—–
328
 What is your policy as to “continuous residence”—how long, if at all, do you
permit a petitioner to have been absent from this country during the five years
immediately preceding his petition?
The answers to this question may be roughly classified to show the general
attitude of the judge, as follows:
No absence whatever permitted 72
A fixed time limit (three to six months very
general) 32
“Entirely a question of intention” 210
Noncommittal 26
—–
340
How frequently do you require the petitioner’s witnesses actually to have seen
him during the five years’ period?
Very strict (“daily”; “constantly, as a neighbor”; “I
insist upon a real personal intimacy,” etc.) 53
Reasonable (“enough to satisfy me as to the
petitioner’s character and residence”; “a bona-
fide acquaintance,” etc.) 287
—–
340
Do you require applicants for naturalization to prove that they can read as well
as speak the English language? The law does not require ability to read.
Yes 179
No 155
—–
334
Would you favor amending the law so as to permit the substitution of a witness
where, in evident good faith, one of the original two appears, in the judgment of
the court, to be honestly mistaken in believing that he has adequately known the
petitioner for the whole five years? (Under the present practice the petition is
denied, and a new one must be filed and a new fee paid.)
Yes (“The present practice imposes a great
hardship and injustice”) 311
No 36
Noncommittal 6
—–
 353
Would you favor amendment of the law so as to mitigate the present
requirement that two, only two, and the same two, witnesses must swear to
personal knowledge of all of the petitioner’s residence up to five years, within the
state in which the petition was filed, and thus permit him to cover a part of this
residence by depositions, or additional witnesses, when witnesses possessing the
qualifications now required cannot be procured?
Yes 289
No 34
Noncommittal 11
—–
334
Would you write into the Naturalization Law a specific educational or intellectual
test for admission to citizenship?
Yes 167
No 157
Noncommittal 25
—–
359
Do you favor a uniform required course of instruction for applicants for
citizenship?
Yes 208
No 134
Noncommittal 33
—–
375
Would you favor acceptance, as prima-facie evidence of intellectual fitness, of a
suitable certificate from schools or class, of the successful completion of such a
course?
Yes (“I would”; “I do accept school certificates
now,” etc.) 209
No (“The judge must satisfy himself by his own
inquiry”; “it is character, not learning, that
counts”; “too many Socialists are teaching
school,” etc.) 110
Noncommittal 31
—–
 350
Would you favor the abolition of the present Declaration of Intention (first
papers)? If not, what good purpose do you think it serves?
Yes (“It serves no good purpose”) 82
No (“It is an essential of the proceeding”; “it
serves notice to all concerned”; “it tends to
keep the applicant in mind of his desire to be a
citizen,” etc.) 241
Noncommittal 33
—–
356
What have you observed to be the special difficulties in the way of desirable
foreigners, hindering them from seeking naturalization?
Know of none deterring desirable foreigners 107
Ignorance and indifference 104
Deterring attitude of natives 60
Technicalities in law and examinations 42
No opinions 58
—–
371
Would you favor legislation to permit the naturalization of a married woman in
her own name, if personally acceptable, regardless of the alienage of her husband,
or his failure to obtain or refusal to seek naturalization?
Yes 204
No 104
Noncommittal 25
—–
333
Would you favor reserving to a native-born American woman, if she desires it,
the American citizenship which under the present law she sacrifices by marriage to
a foreigner?
Yes 220
No 127
Noncommittal 17
—–
364
 Would you favor modification of the law so as to admit to citizenship any
individual personally fit, regardless of race or color?
Yes 100
No 225
Noncommittal 34
—–
359
Do you believe that the admission of large numbers of aliens under the Act of
May 9, 1918, solely on the ground of military or naval service, without the usual
requirements of residence, etc., operated on the whole to the advantage of the
United States?
Yes 111
No 113
Doubtful 28
No opinion 58
—–
310
Would you favor applying the same standards and tests to all prospective
voters, native and foreign born alike, before endowing them with the suffrage;
with suitable ceremonies of induction into “active voting membership,” so to
speak, in our society?
Yes 180
No 102
Noncommittal 44
—–
326
Would you favor removal of naturalization from all state courts, so as to make it
exclusively a function of the Federal courts?
Yes 112
No 208
—–
320
Would you favor placing naturalization in the hands of traveling naturalization
commissioners, appointed by and responsible to the courts?
Yes 76
No 202
 —–
278
Would you favor making naturalization a purely administrative function,
exercised by the Naturalization Bureau, or other appropriate organ of the
Department of Labor, or other department?
Yes 48
No 222
—–
270

GENERAL TREND OF JUDGES’ OPINIONS

The returns of this questionnaire, from a sufficiently representative

cross-section of the naturalizing agency of the government, self-
selected by the operation of substantial personal interest in the
problems embodied in the situation (as evidenced by taking the
pains to express opinion), make clear the opinion of the judges on
several important points, and may be summarized substantially as
follows:
(1) The judges on the whole believe that the present law requires
no drastic amendment in principle; they believe that the naturalizing
function should remain with the courts; should not be confined to
the Federal courts, and should be exercised in the open courtrooms
as it is at present. And this, notwithstanding the fact that the
function adds materially to the burden of ordinary litigation.
(2) In the matter of attitude toward both petitioners and their
witnesses, the judges are in the main liberal and humane, judging of
absence during the five years’ probationary period chiefly with
regard to the occasion for the absence and the continuing intention
to become an American citizen, and the witnesses’ knowledge of the
petitioner by the practical facts in the case.
(3) An overwhelming majority of the judges favor mitigation of the
technicalities now surrounding the proceeding by permitting the
substitution of witnesses and the supplying of evidence to convince
the court, by means of depositions covering portions of the period of
residence within the state in which the petition is filed. It may be
added that very many of the judges would accept testimony of the
same character as that which they would receive in any other sort of
proceeding before the court to establish any fact.
(4) A majority of the judges require of petitioners proof of ability
to read the English language; some require also ability to write it—
although the law requires only ability to speak it. There is a marked
weight of opinion in favor of requiring reading; some also advocate
writing—even among the judges who do not now require it because
the present law does not. The judges are about evenly divided as to
the desirability of a uniform educational test. Most of those who
oppose it emphasize the fact that, in the selection of citizens,
character and general reputation are more important than book
learning; that a bad man is made only the more dangerous by
education. A majority of the judges would favor a required course of
instruction, and would accept as prima-facie evidence of intellectual
fitness a school certificate of the successful completion of such a
course. Increasingly, such certificates are in fact accepted by courts
all over the country.
(5) The judges are emphatically opposed to the abolition of the
declaration of intention, the ratio of expressions in the negative
being approximately three to one. The declaration is regarded by the
judges of the widest experience as having a moral value of great
importance, and as affording indispensable notice to the government
and the public of the alien’s intention to apply for “active
membership.”
(6) With regard to married women, the judges are two to one in
favor of permitting their naturalization as individuals, regardless of
the action of their husbands, and nearly as much so in favor of
reserving to American-born women their citizenship, notwithstanding
their marriage to aliens. As regards the latter point, most of those
expressing themselves in the affirmative insert the proviso that the
woman must continue her domicile in this country.
 (7) Opinion is in the negative as regards naturalization of “any
individual personally fit, regardless of race or color.” Most of the
judges interpret the question as applying to Chinese and Japanese.
A Southern judge holds that “since citizenship has been granted to
the African race, there is no reason for withholding it from any
other.” Those who vote in the affirmative do so on the ground that
even membership in the Mongolian racial groups should not exclude
persons who can show personal fitness for citizenship; nevertheless,
the vote in the negative is more than two to one.
(8) The judges are not clear with regard to the suggestion of a
standard test for all prospective voters, native or foreign born, by
which even native Americans at the age of twenty-one years should
pass at least the same examination as an alien applicant before
being armed with the ballot. Nevertheless, nearly two to one of
those who spoke on that point favor the establishment of such a
test.
(9) Military naturalization is the subject of grave doubt. The vote is
about evenly divided—a shade toward the negative—but nearly as
many judges are doubtful or noncommittal as are either favorable or
opposed to the measure. It should be said, however, that those most
emphatically satisfied with what was done in this regard are those
who had the most experience with it.

THE CLERKS OF THE COURTS

The clerks of the courts in many ways are not less important in the
experience of the petitioning alien than either the judges or the
naturalization examiner. Upon the clerk, more than upon anyone
else, in the vast majority of cases, depends scrutiny of the
declaration of intention; usually he actually makes out the
declaration for the alien; if he is careful and familiar with the routine
of form and fact he makes it out, or sees that it is made out,
correctly; if he regards the whole business as a nuisance, has a
prejudice against immigrants as such or against the particular race
represented by this particular alien, or doesn’t like this individual, if
he has had a controversy with the Naturalization Service or is, for
some other reason, in an unfriendly mood, or if, as is more likely to
be the case, he is simply careless or unfamiliar with the technic of
the business—having very little of it to do—the interests of the alien
may suffer accordingly. The courts do not give the alien the benefit
of any allowance for clerical or other errors made or permitted by
the clerk if they relate in the slightest degree to any material fact;
the alien must guard himself against any such error, or bear the
consequences alone. In fact, the courts have repeatedly held, as it is
expressed in a brief in the case of Mulcrevy vs. San Francisco, in the
United States Supreme Court, that the duties in connection with
naturalization performed by clerks of courts “are not appurtenant to
the office of clerk of court.... All of their transactions with the Bureau
of Naturalization, and these include almost all of their service, are
performed without any reference to the court.”[86] In many
instances, the clerks are greatly annoyed by having this citizenship
work thrust upon them; they take no pleasure in having been “freely
designated by Congress to serve the purposes of the Federal
government,” or in being thus “instrumentalities or agencies of the
Federal government,” as the Mulcrevy brief puts it, and perform their
duties in a careless, grudging, and ill-natured spirit.
In most of the rural districts, naturalization business is very light;
sometimes there will be only two or three cases a year; there are
even courts in which a year or two might pass without any at all. In
such instances the labor is trivial; but for that very reason the clerk
is not alive to the importance of details, and the ratio of mistakes
may be the greater for that reason.
In the large cities, where the naturalization business is heavy,
there are usually deputy clerks devoting virtually all of their attention
to it; they keep in practice, and avoid errors. But it is to be
remembered that because this work is not “appurtenant to the office
of clerk of court,” neither the United States nor the state contributes
anything whatever to the remuneration of the clerk. The alien pays
for that, in a manner well calculated to create an undesirable
relationship all the way round. The clerk is put in this regard largely
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