Chemical Reactions and Equations

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 CHEMICAL REACTION
• A process in which new chemical (s) are formed
• Hydrogen gas react with oxygen gas to produce water
under some condition
 CHEMICAL EQUATION
• Simple representation of a chemical reaction with symbols and
formula.
• Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to produce water under
some conditions

H2 (g) + 02 (g) —--------> H2O (l)

Reactants Products
CHARACTERISTICS of a Chemical Reaction

F E C T S

State
Formation
of Evolution Colour Temperature change
precipitate of a gas change change
BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• Number of Atoms of each element in a chemical
equation Should be the same on LHS & RHS

A2 (g) + B2 (g) --------> AB (g)

• Why Balance ??
• Conservation of mass – total mass of reactants should be
equal to total mass of products
 Practice:
1. Zn + HCL —-----> Zncl2 + H2

Metals → Zn , Fe , Na , Al , Mg , Mn , Cu , Ca , Pb , Ba
Non - Metals → Cl , Br , S , N , C
O
H

2. Fe + H₂O —------> Fe₃O₄ + H₂

 3. Fe₂O₃ + Al —-------> Al₂O₃ + Fe

4. BaCl₂ + Al₂(SO₄) ₃ ---------> BaSO₄ +

AlCl₃

5. Pb(NO₃) ₂ -------> PbO + NO₂ +

O₂
Q. To balance the following chemical equation the values of x
and y should respectively be (CBSE 2020)
2NaOH + x Al2O3 y NaAlO2 + H2O

Q. To balance the chemical Equation find a,b,c,d

(CBSE 2024)
a Al2O3 + b HCl c AlCL3 + d H2O

Q. In order to balance the below chemical equation the value

of x, y and z respectively are (CBSE 2023)

MnO 2 + x HCl MnCl2 + y H20 + z Cl2

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
Combination Reaction
• Two or More reactant combine to form a single
product

A+B AB
P+Q+R X
 Mg(s) + O2(g) → MgO(s) + Heat
(White )

Imp Points
(i) Mg burns with Dazzling white flame ACTIVITY 1.1
Reaction
(Very bright light)

(ii) A white MgO powder in watch glass

(iii) Heat energy releases so

temperature increases

(iv) Combination & Exothermic

Reaction
Q.1 Why do we rub magnesium with sandpaper?
Ans. To remove any layer of magnesium oxide already present
on magnesium ribbon.

Q.2 Why to keep magnesium ribbon away from your eyes?

Ans. Because the reaction is exothermic & it emits dazzling
white light so bright that you cannot see for a short time after
looking at it.

Q. A metal ribbon X burns in oxygen with a dazzling white flame

forming a white ash Y. The correct description of X, Y and the
type of reaction are.
a) X = Ca ; Y = CaO, Type of reaction = Decomposition
(CBSE 2023)
b) X = Mg ; Y = MgO, Type of reaction = Combination
c) X = Al ; Y = Al2O, Type of reaction = Thermal decomposition
d) X = Zn ; Y = ZnO, Type of reaction = Endothermic
 CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)

Imp Points
(i) Rise in temperature (exothermic) ACTIVITY 1.4
(ii) Quick lime reacts vigorously
with water
(iii) Water added slowly because
reaction is exothermic
(iv) Combination & Exothermic Reaction
(v) Quicklime used in making cement
 Q. The balanced chemical equation showing reaction
between quicklime and water is (CBSE 2023)
A. (a) 2CaO + H2O ------------------> 2CaOH + H2 + Heat
B. (b) CaO + H2O ------------------> Ca(OH)2 + H2 + Heat
C. (c) CaO + H2O ------------------> Ca(OH)2 + Heat
D. (d) 2CaO + 3H2O ------------------> 2Ca(OH)3 + O2 + Heat

White Wash Wall

 OTHER EXAMPLES OF COMBINATION REACTION
1. Burning of Coal
C(s) + O2(g) --------> CO2(g)
2. Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g)

H2(g) + O2(g) --------> H2O(l)

 DECOMPOSITION REACTION
Reverse of combination ; one reactant breaks into 2 or more products

AB ------> A + B

DECOMPOSITION

HEAT ELECTRICITY LIGHT

(Thermal) (Electrochemical) (Photo chemical)

 Heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Quick Lime
(Limestone)

Used in making cement

THERMAL DECOMPOSITION - Thermolysis
Heat
FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Ferrous sulphate Ferric oxide

Imp Points
ACTIVITY 1.5

Green Dirty White Brown

& acidic in nature

Thermal Decomposition & Endothermic Reaction

FER
RA
RI
 Hea
Pb(NO3)2(s) t PbO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
Lead nitrate (white) Lead Oxide (yellow) Brown fumes

ACTIVITY 1.6 Imp Points

I. Cracking sound

A paris of
II. Brown fumes → NO2(g) – irritating
tongs
Heating of
lead
Boiling Tube smell
Lead
Nitrate and
emission of
nitrate
III. Yellow solid residue → PbO(s)
nitrogen
dioxide Burner
IV. NO2 gas is acidic in nature & turns
moist blue litimus red
Thermal Decomposition &
Endothermic Reaction
 Q. The emission of brown fumes in the given experimental setup is
due to: (CBSE 2023)

Q. The products obtained when lead nitrate is heated in a boiling

tube are: (CBSE 2024)
(a) PbO,N2O and O2 (b) NO, PbO and O2
(c) Pb(NO2)2 and O2 (d) NO2, PbO and O2
ELECTROLYTIC DECEMPOSITION / ELECTROLYSIS
Electric Current
H2O(l) H2(g) + O2(g)
ACTIVITY 1.7

P A O
Imp Points (i) Volume of gas H2 : O2 = 2 : 1
(ii) Burning candle near

H2(g) i) Pop sound & candle extinguish

ii) Combustible but not supporter of combustion

i) Candle burns more brightly

O2(g) ii) Not Combustible but supporter of combustion

(iii) Pure water is poor conductor of electricity so a few

drop of acids is added, which acts as electrolyte &
conducts electricity
PHOTOCHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION / Photolysis

ACTIVITY 1.8
Sunlight
AgCl(s) Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
(White) (Grey)

Sunlight
AgBr(s) Ag(s) + Br2(g)

This is why AgCl & AgBr are kept in Black

colour bottles to protect from sulight

(used in black and white Photography )

Q. Select the following a decomposition reaction in which source of
energy for decomposition is light: (CBSE 2024)
(a) 2FeSO 4 ------->Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
(b) 2H2O -------> 2H2 + O2
(C) 2AgBr -------> 2Ag + Br2
(d) CaCO3 -------> CaO +CO2

Q. What is observed when silver chloride is exposed to sunlight?

Give the type of reaction involved: (CBSE 2023)
Q. Silver chloride kept in a china dish turns grey in sunlight
A. Write the colour of silver when it was kept in the china dish (CBSE 2023)

B. Name the type of chemical reaction taking place and write the chemical
equation for the reaction

C. State one use of reaction . Name one more chemical which can be used for
the same purpose
 DISPLACEMENT REACTION:
More reactive element replaces a less reactive element from its compound

A + BC → AC + B

REACTIVITY
SERIES
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)

Pb(s) + CuSO 4(aq)

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)
Light green
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →

ACTIVITY 1.3
OBSERVATIONS
Cork
(i) H 2 gas is colorless & odorless, burn with
pop sand & extinguishes burning candle
Glass Tube
(ii) Temp increases, reaction is highly
exothermic

Conical Flask (iii) Dilute acid is used as reaction is highly

exothermic and conc acid can lead to
Dilute Sulphuric Acid more exothermic and dangerous
reaction
Zinc granules
 Q. Study the diagram given below and identify the gas formed in
the reaction (CBSE 2022)

A. Carbon dioxide which

extinguishes the burning
candle
B. Oxygen due to which the
candle burns more brightly
C. Sulphur dioxide which
produces a suffocating smell
D. Hydrogen which while burning
produces a popping sound
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION
Exchange of ions between reactants
AB
+ –
+ C D → AD + BC
+ –

Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)

Colourless Colourless white ppt
ACTIVITY 1.10 OBSERVATIONS
(i) White insoluble substance (precipitate) of
BaSO4 is formed.
Test tube
Containing solution (ii) Double Displacement & precipitation reaction.
of sodium sulphate

Precipitation Reaction – When two aqueous soluble

Test tube
Containing solution soluble solutions react to form a semi soluble /
of barium chloride
insoluble salt , the salt is called precipitate & such
reaction is called precipitation reaction
 Lead nitrate(aq) + Potassium iodide(aq)

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + KI(aq) → PbI2 ↓ + KNO3

Colourless Colourless Yellow ppt
( Insoluble in water)

(i) Yellow insoluble substance (precipitate) of PbI2 is

formed.
(ii) Double Displacement & precipitation reaction.
Q. When potassium iodide solution is added to a solution of lead
(II) nitrate in a test tube, a precipitate is formed
(CBSE 2019)
(i) What is the colour of this precipitate? Name the compound precipitated.
(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
(iii) List two types of reactions in which this reaction can be placed.
 HEAT in REACTIONS
A + B → C + Heat Exothermic

EXAMPLES:
1. Respiration

Carbohydrates
→
C6H12O6 Glucose

Glucose + Oxygen → CO2 (g) + H20(l) + Energy

C6H12O6
2. Burning Of Natural Gas :
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Heat

3. Decomposition of vegetable into compost

 Heat
A -----> B + C Endothermic

EXAMPLES:
Decomposition of:
Heat
FeSO4 Crystal FeSO4 ---->
Heat
CaCO3 (s) CaCO3 ---->
Heat
Pb(NO3)2(s) Pb(NO3)2 ---->
Heat
AgCl (s) AgCl ---->
Heat
AgBr (s) AgBr ---->
Heat
H2O(I) H2O ---->
 Q. Select endothermic reaction from the following:
(CBSE 2023)
A. Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost.
B. Decomposition of calcium carbonate to form quick lime and carbon dioxide.
C. Burning of a candle.
D. Process of respiration.
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION
Oxidation: If a chemical (A) Reduction: If a chemical (B)

→ Gains oxygen → Gains Hydrogen

→ Loses Hydrogen → Loses Oxygen
It is called oxidation of A. It is called reduction of B.
A is said to be oxidised. B is said to be reduced.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2 O

REDOX REACTIONS
Q. MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 (CBSE 2024)

A. MnO 2 is oxidised and HCL is reduced.

B. HCl is oxidised.
C. MnO 2 is reduced.
D. MnO 2 is reduced and HCl is oxidised
Q. Which of the following statements about the reaction given
below are correct? (CBSE 2022)
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
i) HCL is oxidised to Cl2
ii) MnO 2 is reduced to MnCl2
iii) MnCl2 , acts as an oxidizing agent
iv) HCl acts as an oxidizing agent

(a) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (b) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (ii) only (d) (iii) and (iv) only
 Oxidation Of Copper
Heat
Cu(s) + O2(g) CuO(s)
Reddish/Brownish Black colour

ACTIVITY 1.11
OBSERVATIONS
(i) Reddish/Brownish copper metal changes to black
colour CuO(s)

(ii) If H2(g) is passed over CuO, black colour changes

to brown.

Heat
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O
 Corrosion :
When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as
moisture ( water vapour + oxygen ) , acid etc., it is said to
corrode and this process is called corrosion.
Examples -

1) Rusting of Iron

Iron Hydrated (Reddish Brown)

Iron oxide (Rust)
.
2) Tarnishing of copper

3) Tarnishing of silver

NOTE : CORROSION is an example of Oxidation

PREVENTION OF CORROSION CHAPTER 3
Rancidity:
The taste or smell of food material containing fat/oil changes when it is left
exposed to air for a long time.

Oxidation Of Fat / Oil present in food material causes Rancidity

⇒ Prevention:

Antioxidants Air tight container Bag of chips

(Flushed with Nitrogen gas)
 CHEMICAL CHANGE
• A chemical reaction happened.
• Shape, size, color, etc. may also change.
• New chemicals are formed.

Burning Of Paper Fermentation of grapes Souring Of Milk Curd from milk is left in Rusting of iron
a room during summer

Food Digestion Food Cooking Respiration Chemical Battery Usage Baking a cake
 PHYSICAL CHANGE
• No chemical reaction happens.
• Shape, size, state, etc. may change.
• No new chemical is formed.

Boiling water from Melting of ice to Melting of wax Crushing a paper cup Crystallization
the evaporating dish give water
 1. Which of the following is a physical change? (CBSE 2020)
CBSE -2020
A. Formation of curd from milk
B. Ripening of fruits
C. Getting Salt from sea water
D. Burning of wood
 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

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ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

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TRICKS To Learn
Acid: A substance that gives H+(aq) as only +ve ion in
aqueous solution.

CH3COOH
Eg. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
acetic acid

i) Acids are sour (Khatte) in taste.

ii) Acid turns blue litmus red.

Base: A substance which is
i. Bitter (Kadwa) in taste
ii. Soapy in touch
iii. Turns red blue litmus
iv. increases Hydroxyl ions OH (aq) in aqueous solution

Eg. NaOH, KOH, NH4OH,

Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Ammoniom (Hydroxide

Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Mgo, zno, Cao

Magnesium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide
Indicators: Tells whether a substance is acid or base
LaBouR T R Y PoPCorn with MaYoR
Q. An aqueous solution turns blue litmus red. Which of the following
solutions when added in excess would reverse the change?

(1) Lemon juice (2) Magnesium hydroxide (CBSE 2023)

(3) Vinegar (4) Calcium sulphate
Olfactory Indicators: Substances whose smell (odour)
changes in acidic or basic medium.
Q. Select a pair of olfactory indicators from the following: (CBSE 2023)
(a) Clove oil and vanilla essence
(b) Onion and turmeric
(c) Clove oil and litmus paper
(d) Vanilla and methyl orange

Q. A visually challenged student, has to perform a lab test to detect

the presence of acid in a given solution. The acid-base indicator
preferred by him will be (CBSE 2020)
(a) Blue litmus (b) Clove oil
(c) Red cabbage extract (c) Hibiscus extract.
 Acid & Base in water

(1) Acids produce H+ ions in aqueous solution.

 H+ of acid combines with water (H2O) to form H3O+ (Hydronium ion)

H+ + H2O -→ H3O+
H+ of acid do not stay alone

H+ of acid combines with H2O to form hydronium ion

So , We say acid gives H3O+ (Hydronium ion) or H+ (aq) ion

Preparation Of HCl gas NaCl (aq) + H2SO4 (conc)

Na2SO4(aq) + HCl (g)

HCl (g)

HCl (g) + H2O

(i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the preparation of hydrogen chloride gas in
laboratory.
(i) Test the gas evolved first with dry and then with wet litmus paper. In which of the two
cases, does the litmus paper show change in colour?
(CBSE 2020)
(iii) State the reason of exhibiting acidic character by
dry HCl gas/HCl solution.
 (2) Bases increase OH– (Hydroxyl) ions in water
𝐇𝟐𝐎
NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH– (aq)

𝐇𝟐𝐎
KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH– (aq)

𝐇𝟐𝐎
Mg(OH)2 Mg2+(aq) + 2OH– (aq)

Alkalis: Some bases are water soluble, these are called alkalies

e.g., NaOH KOH NH4 (OH) Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2

Very Soluble Partially Soluble

Base but not alkali Zn(OH)2 Fe(OH)2 Cu(OH)2

 Q. Sodium hydroxide is termed as alkali while ferric hydroxide is
not because

(a) sodium hydroxide is a strong base, while ferric hydroxide is a weak base

(b) sodium hydroxide is a base which is soluble in water while ferric hydroxide is also a

base but it is not soluble in water

(c) sodium hydroxide is a strong base while ferric hydroxide is a strong acid

(d) sodium hydroxide and ferric hydroxide both are strong base but the solubility of

sodium hydroxide in water is comparatively higher than that of ferric hydroxide.

Acid + Water is a highly exothermic

Always Add Acid slowly to Water

with constant stirring.

If Water is added to a concentrated

acid, the heat generated may cause
the mixture to splash out and cause
burns. The glass container can also
break due to Heat given out.

AaThuW
Acids & Alkalis ~ Electric current?

Electric current through the solution is

carried by ions.

→ Solutions of acids: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 and

CH3COOH generates ions & hence they conduct

electricity
→ Alkalies also generate ions – NaOH, KOH,
Mg(OH)2 ,NH4OH & hence conduct electricity.
→ Glucose, Alcohol do not generate ions &
hence do not conduct electricity.
Reaction with Metal

Metal + Acid Salt + H2 ↑

Zn + HCl
(dil)

Al + HCl
(dil)

Cu + H2SO4
(dil)
1. Zn granules gives more surface area for reaction
2. ZnSO4 is white coloured salt called White vitriol
3. H2 gas burns with pop Sound & extinguishes a candle
Combustible but not supporter of Combustion
NaTuZanaTu
 Neutralisation

Acid + Base Salt + water

HCl + NaOH
(ag) (ag)

H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2
(dil)
 Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + water
Zno/Cuo/Mgo/Cao

Black Cop on OX doing Colgate Green Blue

colour

Generally Metal Oxide are Basic in nature because they

react with Acid to give Salt & water
Non-Metal Oxide + Base → Salt + Water
SO2/SO3/CO2/NO2

E.g. C02 + Ca(OH)2(aq)

Generally Non - Metal Oxide are Acidic in nature because they
react with Base to give Salt & water
Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + CO2 + H2O↑
CO32-
Metal Hydrogen Carbonate
HCO- (Bicarbonate)
3
CO2 turns lime water milky

on passing excess of CO2 , milkiness disappear

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2(ag)

Soluble in Water
Calcium hydrogen Carbonate/ Bicarbonate
Na2CO3 + HCL → NaCl + H20 + CO2
Q. When sodium bicarbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, the
gas evolved is
(CBSE 2023)
(a) Hydrogen; it gives pop sound with burning matchstick.
(b) Hydrogen; it turns lime water milky.
(c) Carbon dioxide; it turns lime water milky.
(d) Carbon dioxide; it blows off a burning match stick with a pop sound.

Q. In the experimental setup given below,

z it is observed that on passing
the gas produced in the reaction in the solution 'X', the solution 'X' first
turns milky and then colourless.Explain (CBSE 2023)
 Strength of Acid & Base
Strong Acid: H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 Strong Base: NaOH , KOH Ca(OH)2
Gives more Concentration of Gives more Concentration of OH -
H+(aq) ions Ions

weak Acid: CH3COOH (acetic acid) Weak Base: NH4OH , Zn(OH)2 ,

Citric Acid, Lactic acid, H2CO3 Cu(OH)2 Fe(OH)2
(generally organic acids-Natural sources)
Gives less Concentration of OH -
Ions
gives Less conc. of H+(aq) ions

Q. Out of the two hydrochloric acid and acetic acid, which one is
considered as strong acid and why? (CBSE 2021)
z
Write the name/molecular formula of one more
strong acid.
 pH : P(Potenz → Power) H → Hydrogen

(i) Measures H+(aq) ions concentration in a solution

(ii) pH ranges from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic)
(iii) pH↓→ H+(aq)↑ ⇒ Acidic ↑

pH < 7 Acidic
pH = 7 Neutral
pH > 7 Base
Q. Select from the following the statement which is true for bases.
(a) Bases are bitter and turn blue litmus red.
(CBSE 2021-2022 term 1)
(b) Bases have a pH less than 7.
(c) Bases are sour and change red litmus to blue.
(d) Bases turn pink when a drop of phenolph-thalein
is added to them.
Universal indicators - Substance which detect nature of chemical as
acid or base & also measures strength of it.
eg -pH paper

Mg(OH)2

R O Y G B I V
Acidic Neutral Basic
Q. The table below has information regarding pH and the nature
(acidic/basic) of four different solutions. Which one of the options in the
table is correct? (CBSE 2023)
Colour of pH Approximate pH
option Solution Nature of solution
paper Value
(a) Lemon juice Orange 3 Basic
Milk of
(b) Blue 10 Basic
magnesia
(c) Gastric juice Red z 6 Acidic

(d) Pure water Yellow 7 Neutral

 Importance of pH in everyday life
1) pH range for human body - 7.0 to 7.8
pH of rain water < 5.6 ⇒ Acid rain
Acid rain → river → pH of river↓
→ aquatic life survival difficult

2) Stomach produces HCl(aq) → helps in

digestion of food.
During Indigestion, stomach produces too
much acid
→ causes pain & irritation.
People use antacid (milk of magnesia
Mg(OH)2 mild base)
→ Antacid neutralise excess of acid.
 pH of Salts ? Acid + Base → Salt + water

Strong acid + Strong base → Neutral salt + water pH = 7

Weak Acid + Strong Base → Basic salt + water pH > 7
Strong acid + Weak base → Acidic salt + water pH < 7

1. NaCl 6. CH3COONa (Sodium acetate)

2. KNO3 7. Na2CO3
3. NH4Cl 8. NaHCO3
4. ZnSO4 9. CaSO4
5. CuSO4 10. K2SO4
 Strength of Acid & Base
Strong Acid: H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 Strong Base: NaOH , KOH ,Ca(OH)2
Mg(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
weak Acid: CH3COOH (acetic acid)

Citric Acid, Lactic acid, H2CO3

(generally organic acids-Natural sources)
Q. An aqueous solution of a salt turns blue litmus to red. The salt could
be the one obtained by the reaction of
(CBSE 2024)
(a) HNO3 and NaOH
(b) H2SO4 and KOH
(c) CH3COOH and NaOH
(d) HCl and NH4OH

Q. Study the following table and choose the correct option.

(CBSE 2021 - 2022 Term 1)

Naturally Ocuuring Acids
Q. Acid present in Tamato is
(a) Methanoic acid
(b) (acetic acid
(c) Lactic acid
(d) Oxalic acid

(CBSE 2021 - 2022 Term 1)

 Common salt (NaCl) [Rock salt]

Found in deposits in rock bed

Common salt (NaCl ) is raw material for various chemicals

NaOH Sodium hydroxide
CaOCl2 Bleaching powder
NaHCO3 Baking soda
Na2CO3.10H2O Washing soda
Sodium hydroxide / Caustic Soda NaOH : Chlor - Alkali process
Swimming Pool water cleaning
Uses Of Fuel ( car mai)
H2
Pesticides
Cl2 NaOH
Doggy susu (Ammonia)
Ped nikla ( fertilizers )

Nala Hot mai Soap &

Detergents
Paper bundle
Bleaching powder CaOCl2

2 Clown on OX pulling a Car

1.Bleaching cotton & linen, wood pulp in paper
factories , Bleaching washed clothes

2. Oxidising agent

3.Make drinking water free form germs

Baking Soda : NaHCO3
Bakri Soda Bhai on Car Bonut
 Uses.

1. For making tasty crispy pakora

2. For faster cooking

3. Neutralise acidity (mild base) Antacid

4.Soda-acid fire extinguisher

5.Delay curding of milk

Washing Soda Na2CO3.10H2O

• Glass, soap & paper industry

• Removing permanent hardness
 Water Of Crystallization
Fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of salt.

Sodium Carbonate decahydrate

Copper sulphate crystals Washing soda Gypsum

3
 Heat Heat
FeSO4.7H2O (Green) FeSO4 (White) Fe2O3 (Brown)

+
White
Green
Q. A few crystals of ferrous sulphate were taken in a dry boiling tube
and heated. Tiny water droplets were observed in the tube after some
time.
(CBSE 2024)
(i) From where did these water droplets appear? Explain.

(i) What colour change will be observed during heating ?

(iii) How many molecules of water are attached per molecule of FeSO,

crystal? Write the molecular formula of crystalline forms of (I) Copper

sulphate, and (I1) Sodium carbonate.

 Plaster Of Paris (POP)
(POP) [Caso4.1/2H2O] White Powder

373k
CaSO4.2H2O 3/2H2O + CaSO4.½ H2O
Gypsum POP

POP + Water → Gypsum

POP is used for making toys, making surfaces

smooth & materials
of decoration
Q. The chemical formula for plaster of Paris is
(a) CaSO4.2H2O (b) CaSO4.H2O (CBSE 2020)

1 H O)
(c) (CaSO4. 2 (d) 2CaSO4H2O
2

Q. A compound ‘X which is prepared from gypsum has the property of hardening

when mixed with proper quantity of water. Identify ‘X’ and write its chemical
formula.
(CBSE 2023)
Metals & Non Metals
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Metals & Non Metals
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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Metals Non-metals
1.Lustrous: have shining surface Non- Lustrous
(in pure state),
Metallic Lustre

1.Generally Hard Generally soft

7. Have High Melting Point Low Melting Point

8.Sonorous: Metals produce a Non-sonorous

sound on striking a hard surface.

9. Physical state: All metals except Solid → Carbon , Sulphur

mercury exist as solids at room Liquid → Bromine
temperature. Gases → Nitrogen Cl2 Oxygen F2

Q1
 Exceptions
Metals Non - Metals
1) Alkali Metals – Li Na K are so soft that they 1) Iodine & Graphite are Lustrous
can be cut with a Knife . (also Ga & Cs)
NaK Ce GaLi me Chaku chalaya Pencil me Iodex lagaya chamakne lagi

2) Gallium (Ga) & Cesium (Cs) very soft 1.Diamond (form of Carbon) is
& have very low Melting point. They melt if Hardest Natural Substance. It has
you keep them on your palm. high Melting & Boiling Point.
Chess Khelti Gal ko hath me Rakha , pighal gayi Majboot Heere ko hathode se toda tave pe
garam kiya , beasar rha
1.Mercury is Poor conductor
0f Heat (exist as liquid)
1.Graphite (form of Carbon) is
Mercury planet pe dhoop nahi aati Lustrous , Conducts Electricity
4) Lead (Pb) is a Poor Conductor of Electricity
Pub me light chali gayi
 Q2

1.Copper & Aluminium are used for making cooking Vessels They
are good conductor of heat and they do not melt
(have high melting point).

2) Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each

form
is called an allotrope. Eg : Graphite, Diamond, Coal.
Q3
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1) Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
( Generally basic in nature )

K and Na react so
vigorously
with oxygen that
they catch fire
They are kept inside kerosene oil to (Burns in air) even if
kept in the open.
i. Protect them from burning in air
ii.Prevents accidental fires.

Q4
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
 Text
Q. A student while burning a magnesium ribbon in air, collected the products in a wet
watch glass. The new product obtained was
(CBSE 2021-2022 term 1)
(a) magnesium oxide Q5
(b) magnesium carbonate
(c) magnesium hydroxide
(d) magnesium chloride.

Q6

Pplz
 Flame Test

YELLOW SUN
GREEN COP
LIQOUR
BLACK BIKE
CAR ORANGE
Metal Oxides are generally basic in nature . Turns Moist red litimus blue
eg- MgO, CuO, Na₂O, K₂O, Fe₂O₃
But ,Some metal oxides show both acidic and basic nature, called
Amphoteric oxide.
E.g.: Oxides of Al & Zn
 REACTION WITH WATER
Metal + Water Metal hydroxide / oxide + H2
Q. A metal ‘A’ reacts violently with cold water and the gas evolved
catches fire. Another metal ‘B' when dipped in water starts floating. The
metal ‘C’ does not react either with cold or hot water, but reacts with
steam. The metal ‘D’ does not react with water at all. Identify the metals
‘A’ ‘B, ‘C' and ‘D'.
(CBSE 2023)
Q10

Q11
 REACTION WITH ACIDS
Metal + Dil Acid → Salt + H₂ ↑
Mg + HCl →
dil
Al + HCl →
dil
• Bubbles of H₂(g) are formed . H₂(g)
Zn + HCl → Burns with a pop sound &
extinguishes a burning cand le.
dil • Rate of formation of bubble
• Mg > Al > Zn > Fe.
Cu + HCl → • Heat is evolved (Exothermic
Reaction) order is same.
dil
 Special Case of Nitric Acid
Metal + Dil Acid → Salt + H₂ ↑
H₂(g) not evolved when a metal reacts with dil HNO₃ (nitric acid).

HNO₃ is strong oxidising agent. It oxidises the H₂(g) produced to water.

& itself gets reduced to (NO, NO₂, N₂O)

Only Magnesium (Mg) & Manganese (Mn) reacts

with very dil HNO₃ to give H₂(g).
Q. Assertion (A) : Hydrogen gas is not evolved when (CBSE 2024)
zinc reacts with nitric acid. Q12
Reason (R) : Nitric acid oxidises the hydrogen gas
produced to water and itself gets reduced.

(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of the
Assertion (A).
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but
Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of the
Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.e
Q. Three metal samples of magnesium, aluminium and iron were taken
and rubbed with sand paper. These samples were then put separately in
test tube containing dilute hydrochloric acid. (CBSE 2024)
Q12

(a) which one of the test tubes was the rate of formation of bubbles the fastest and the thermometer
showed the highest temperature?
(b) Why is hydrogen gas not evolved when a metal reacts with dilute nitric acid? Name the ultimate
products formed in the reaction.
 Displacement Reaction
A + BC → AC + B A is more reactive than B

Zn + CuSO4 →

Fe + CuSO4 →

Cu + ZnSO4 →

Best way to check which metal is more reactive.

Q. Select the correct matching in the following table in connection with
the given chemical reaction. CuSO₄ +Fe FeSO₄+Cu
(CBSE 2021-2022 term 1)
Q13

H.W.
Q. The pair(s) which will show displacement reaction is/are

(i) NaCl solution and copper metal (CBSE 2021-2022 term 1)

(i) AgNO3 solution and copper metal Q14
(iii) Al2(SO4)3 solution and magnesium metal
(iv) ZnSO4 solution and iron metal.

Metals & Non-Metals React

Ionic Compound Electrovalent Compounds
Element Atomic No. Electronic Configuration
Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Na(11) 2 8 1

Cl (17) 2 8 7

Na Na+ + e- Cl + e- Cl-
2, 8, 1 2, 8 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Sodium chloride
Cation ion

▪ Na+ & Cl– ions (oppositely charged) attract each other.

▪ Na+ & Cl– are hold together by strong Electrostatic Forces of
attraction.
▪ Sodium chloride (NaCl) do not exist as molecule but as combination
of oppositely charged ions ⇒ Ionic Compound Electrolent Compound
Formation of Calcium Oxide (CaO)

2_
Ca O Ca2+ O
Formation of Magnesium chloride (MgCl 2)

Mg(12) 2 8 2
Mg

Cl (17) 2 8 7

Mg Mg+2 2e -
2, 8,2 2, 8 ( Cation)
Cl + e- Cl-
2, 8,7 2, 8, 8 (Anion)
Ionic / Electrovalent Compounds Properties
1. Hard, solid compounds because of strong force of attraction between +ve and –ve ions.
Brittle in nature, Breaks into pieces if pressure is applied

2.. Have High Melting & Boiling points because large amount of energy is required to break
strong inter-ionic attraction.

3. Generally soluble in water but insoluble in solvents like kerosene, petrol, alcohol etc.

4. In Solid State do not conduct electricity as ions cannot move because of strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.

In Molten State, Heat Energy weakens the strong electrostate forces of attraction and ions
can move freely, hence in molten state, conducts electricity.

In aqueous solution, conducts electricity as solution of ionic compound in water contains

ions. Ions move to opposite electrodes. (Water weakens the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between ions).
Q. Why do ionic compounds in the solid state not conduct electricity?

(CBSE 2023)
Q15
Q. (i)Show the electron transfer in the formation of magnesium chloride.

(ii) List two properties of ionic compounds other than their high melting
and boiling points.

(iii) (A) While forming an ionic compound say sodium chloride how does
sodium atom attain its stable configuration?
(CBSE 2023)
Q16
Q. Assertion (A) : The solution of ionic compounds are
good conductors of electricity.

Reason (R) : Movement of atoms of elements take

place in solution.

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation
of (A).
(b) Both(A)and(R)are true but (R)is not the correct
explanation of (A).
(c) (A)is true, but (R)is false.
(d) (A)is false, but (R)is true.
(CBSE 2021-2022 term 1)
Q17
Q. (i) By the transfer of electrons, illustrate the formation of bond in
magnesium chloride and identify the ions present in this compound.

(ii) lonic compounds are solids. Give reason. (CBSE 2020)

Q18

Q19
Q. When two compounds namely sodium chloride and calcium
chloride are heated directly, one by one on the flame of a burner, they
impart different colours to the flame.

(i) Name the colour imparted by (1) sodium chloride and (2) calcium chloride.
(i) Are these compounds soluble in organic solvents such as kerosene or
petrol? Justify your answer.
(CBSE 2023)
Q20
 Extraction of Metals
1. Minerals → elements or compounds which occur
naturally in earth's crust

2. Ores → Those minerals which contain a very high % of

a particular metal & metal can be profitably extracted
from it, are called ores.

Q. What is Gangue?
Ans. Impurities like soil, sand, etc present in metal Ore
 Top in Activity Series
K very reactive, so never found
Na in free state as free metal
5 Ca
Mg
Al
Middle of Activity Series
Zn moderately reactive. Found in
Fe COS
3 Earth's crust in form of Oxides,
Pb
H sulphides & Carbonates
Cu
Hg Least reactive, hence found in
5 Ag free state as free metals
Au Low in Activity Series
Pt

Free Comb ko Silver Cup

Note: Copper ,Silver, Mercury are found in me Mercury Liquid me
free state as well as in combined state as dubaya
oxides & sulphides
Q. Where is iron placed in the reactivity series of metals? Write the
form/forms in which its ores are found in nature.
(CBSE 2023)
Q21
Q. The metals which are found in both free state as well as combined
state are
(CBSE 2024)
(a) gold and platinum Q22

(b) platinum and silver

(c) copper and silver

(d) gold and silver.

 Extracting Metal → Middle of Activity Series

1. Present as oxides , sulphides or carbonates in nature.

2. Sulphides/Carbonates converted to oxide, as it's easy to extract

metal from oxide.

• Roasting: Heating sulphide ores strongly in presence of

excess air.
Heat
ZnS + O2 ZnO + SO2

• Calcination: Heating carbonate ores strongly in limited air .

Heat
ZnCO3 ZnO + CO2
Q. Assertion (A) : The extraction of metals from their sulphide ores
cannot take place without roasting of the ore.
Reason (R) : Roasting converts sulphide ores directly into metals.
(CBSE 2024)
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct
explanation of Assertion (A).
Q23

(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the
correct explanation of Assertion (A).

(c) Assertion (A)is true, but Reason (R) is false.

(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Q. Differentiate between roasting and calcination giving chemical
equation for each.
(CBSE 2023)
Q24

Q25
Extracting Metals Low in Activity Series

K
Na
Ca Cinnabar (Hgs)
Mg Heat
Al HgS + O2 HgO + SO2
Zn Heat
Fe HgO Hg + O2
Pb
H
Cu Cu2S
Hg } Heat
Ag Cu2S + O2 Cu2O + SO2
Au Heat
Pt Cu2O + Cu2S Cu + SO2
Q. Name the ore of mercury and state the form in which it is found in
nature. Write the chemical equations along with the condition required
for the reactions involved in the extraction of mercury from its ore.

(CBSE 2024)
Q26
Q. Write balanced chemical equations to explain what happens, when

(i) Mercuric oxide is heated. (CBSE 2020)

Q27
(ii) Mixture of cuprous oxide and cuprous sulphide is heated.
 Extracting Metals → Top of Activity Series

• Carbon cannot reduce their oxides, these metals are very reactive
& have More affinity (likeness) for oxygen than carbon.

• Such Metals are obtained by Electrolytic Reduction (Reduction

with help of electric current)

• Na, Ca, Mg → electrolysis of molten chlorides ; Al from Oxide

At Cathode: At Anode:
Q. Name the process of reduction used for a metal that gives vigorous
reaction with air and water both.

Carbon cannot be used as a reducing agent to obtain aluminium from

its oxide? Why?
(CBSE 2023)
Q28
 Refining of Metals
• Metal obtained after carbon reduction or electrolytic reduction is not
very pure.
• The most common method for refining metal is Electrolytic Refining.
Ex: electrolytic refining of Copper using CuSO4 Solution
 At Anode: Pure copper enters solution
At Cathode: equivalent amount of pure copper from solution deposits
at cathode.

Q. The metals produced by various reduction processes are not very

pure. They contain impurities, which must be removed to obtain pure
metals. The most widely used method for refining impure metals is
electrolytic refining. (CBSE 2024) Q29
(i) What is the cathode and anode made of in the refining of copper by
this process?

(i) Name the solution used in the above process and write its formula.

(iii) How copper gets refined when electric current is passed in the
electrolytic cell?
 Corrosion :

When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as

moisture ( water vapour + oxygen ) , acid etc., it is said to
corrode and this process is called corrosion .
Examples -

1) Rusting of Iron

Iron Hydrated (Reddish Brown)

4Fe + 3o2 +x.h2o----> 2fe2o3.xh2o Iron oxide (Rust)
.
2) Tarnishing of copper

3) Tarnishing of silver

NOTE : CORROSION is an example of Oxidation

2Cu(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+O2(g)→CuCO3(s)+Cu(OH)
 Prevention of Corrosion

Painting Oiling Greasing

Galvanising Anodising
 Galvanisation:
• Steel & Iron are coated with thin layer of Zinc.
• It is done through electrolysis.
• It does not change property of metal.
1 Pure Iron is very soft & stretches easily when hot
Pure Iron + Carbon (0.05%) → Hard & Strong Iron Carbon Alloy
2. Stainless steel → Iron + Nickel + Chromium
Hard & do not rust
3. Amalgam → Alloy in which one metal is mercury
4. Brass (BCoZ) → Alloy of Zn + Cu
5. Bronze ( CoaT) → Alloy of Copper & Tin (Cu + Sn)
6. Solder (SoTeLa)→ Alloy of Lead & Tin (Pb + Sn)
Brass (BCoZ) → Alloy of Zn + Cu
Bronze ( CoaT) → Alloy of Copper & Tin (Cu + Sn)

Solder (SoTeLa)→ Alloy of Lead & Tin (Pb + Sn)

Q. Assertion (A) : The metals and alloys are good conductors of
electricity.
Reason (R) : Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and it
is not a good conductor of electricity.
(CBSE 2020)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct Q31
explanation of the assertion (A).

(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
correct explanation of the assertion (A).

(c) (A)is true but (R) is false.

(d) (A)is false but (R) s true.

 Thermit Reaction/Welding:
Fe2O3 + Al → Al2O3 + Fe +Heat

• The above reaction is so highly exothermic, that heat given

out produces metal in molten state. This molten metal is used
to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. This reaction
is known as thermit reaction..

Q32
Carbon & Its Compounds

ONE SHOT
GUN SHOT
100% Paper yahi se bnega
Sab Samajh Me aaega !!
 Covalent Compounds
A compound formed by sharing of electrons
between two atoms. H O, CH
2 NH3, 4

Formation of Cl2 (Water) (Ammonia) (Methane)

Cl (17) →

e– dot structure
Formation of O2
To attain stability O needs 8e– in last/valence shell.
O(8) → 2, 6 Complete Octet.

e– dot structure

Formation of N2

N(7) → 2, 5

e– dot structure XX XX XX
X
X X
X Cl X X Cl X X Cl X
XX XX XX
Q. The correct representation of covalent bonding in an oxygen
molecule is
(CBSE 2023)

Q. The electron dot structure of chlorine molecule is

(CBSE 2023)
Covalent compound is formed between a
non-metal + non-metal
Eg: H2 , O2, N2, Cl2
(C, S, N, O, H, Cl, F, Br)

Formation of H2O (Water)

O(8) → 2, 6

H(1) → 1
Formation of CH4 (Methane)

C(6) → 2, 4

H(1) → 1

Formation of NH3 (Ammonia) → Comment Single ? Double ?

N(7) → 2, 5

H(1) → 1
Carbon :

Atomic No. →
6p+6n

C(6) →
To attain Noble gas configuration

So Carbon shares 4e– & always form covalent bonds & covalent compounds.
Q. Assertion (A) : Carbon has a strong tendency to either lose or gain
electrons to attain noble gas configuration.
Reason (R) : Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and has the
tendency to share electrons with carbon or other elements.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct (CBSE 2020)
explanation of the assertion (A).

(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
correct explanation of the assertion (A).

(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.

(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

 Properties of Covalent Compounds
1. Generally Poor Conductor of Electricity
• because e– are shared between atoms and no charged
NOTE: Covalent Bond is strong
particles are formed
• absence of ions
H-H H-H H-H

2. Generally Low Melting & Boiling Points

• because they have weak intermolecular forces
Q. Carbon compounds (CBSE 2024)
(i) are good conductors of electricity

(ii) are bad conductors of electricity

(iii) have strong forces of attraction between their molecules

(iv) have weak forces of attraction between their molecules.

The correct statements are

(a) (i)and (ii) (b) (ii)and (iii)

(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iii)

 Nomenclature - IUPAC

1. C → 4 valency 6C → Hex
1C →
7C → Hept
2C →
8C → Oct
3C → Prop
9C → Non
4C → But
10C → Dec
5C → Pent

2. Carbon ke sath kuch laga hai to

theek, varna H laga Ke valency
khatam karo. 'C' or 'H' bhai bhai.
 Carbon Carbon single bond – ane

C–C C–C–C

C–C–C–C–C
C–C–C–C

Homologous Series: (HS)

Q. Write the molecular formula of the following carbon compounds :

(i) Methane (CBSE term ll 2021-2022)

(i) Propane
 Carbon Carbon double bond = ene

C=C C–C=C C–C–C=C

Homologous Series: (HS)

 Carbon Carbon triple bond = yne

C=C C–C=C C–C–C=C

Homologous Series: (HS)

Homologous Series: (HS)

C=C C–C=C C–C–C=C

Q.Write the formula of first member of the homologous series
to which the carbon compound C4H6 belongs.
(CBSE term ll 2021-2022)
 Functional groups → gives chemical properties to a compound

Homologous Series (HS): Same functional group increasing CH2.

Homologous Series (HS): Same functional group increasing CH2.
Q. Assertion (A) : Following are the members of a homologous series :
CH30H, CH3CH2OH, CH3CH2CH2OH
Q. Reason (R) : A series of compounds with same functional group but
differing by —CH2 unit is called homologous series
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of the assertion (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of the assertion (A).
(c) (A)is true, but (R)is false.
(CBSE 2023)
(d) (A)is false, but (R)is true.
Homologous Series (HS): Same functional group increasing CH2.
Homologous Series (HS): Same functional group increasing CH2.
Q. Write the name and structures of (i) aldehyde and (ii) ketone with
molecular form C3H6O.
(CBSE 2024)
 o
-C-H C-COOH C-C-COOH
Q. Draw the structure of Butanoic acid : (CBSE 2023)
NAME IUPAC Structure Formula
(i) Draw the structures of propanol and propanone.
(CBSE 2023)
(ii) Name the third homologue of :
(a) alcohols
(b) aldehydes
 Homologous Series (HS)

A series of compound with same functional group , same general formula &
similar chemical properties where each consecutive member differs by –CH2.
E.g:
Alkane
CnH2n+2 CH4 C2H6
Alkene CnH2n C2H2 C3H6
1. Molecular Mass increase moving up homologous series
(C → 12amu H–lamu O–16amu)
–CH2 ⇒ 14amu ka difference

2. Melting and boiling point increase up the series

Reason: They increase with Molecular Mass Gradation in other physical properties like solubility.

3. Chemical properties are same for a homologous series

Reason: Chemical properties are because of functional groups which remains same in HS.
Q. Write the formula and the molecular mass of the third homologue of
alcohols. State how the boiling point of an alcohol changes as one moves
from lower to higher homologues.
(CBSE 2024)
Q. (i) Define a homologous series of carbon compounds.

(i) Why is the melting and boiling points of C4H8 higher than that of
C3H6 or C2H4?

(iii) Why do we not see any gradation in chemical of a homologous

series compounds?

(CBSE 2024)
 Isomers
C–C–C Practice
1)CButane
–C–C–C
C 3. C–C–C–C–C–C

O O
4. C–C–C–C–C C–C–C
2. C – C – C – C – C

2) Pentane C Molecular formula:

C–C–C
Isomers: Compounds with same
C molecular formula but different
structures, and this phenomenon is
called isomerism.
 C–C–C–C C–C–C Practice

C 3.

O
4.
2. C – C – C – C – C
C

C–C–C
Isomers: Compounds with same molecular formula but
C
different structures, and this phenomenon is called
isomerism.
Q. Draw two structural isomers of butane. (CBSE 2023)
 Saturated Compounds Unsaturated Compounds

Which has Carbon-Carbon Which has Carbon-Carbon

single bonds only. Double or triple bond

C-C C-C-C C=C C C

CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2

Q. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated carbon

compounds on the basis of their general formula.
(CBSE 2023)
 Electron Dot Structure

1. Methane

2. Ethane
3. Ethene
Rings of Carbon

Saturated or Unsaturated?
Benzene

Saturated or Unsaturated?
Q. The number of single and double bonds present in a molecule of
benzene (C6H6) respectively, are
(a) 6 and 6 (b) 9 and 3 (CBSE 2024)
(c) 3 and 9 (d) 3 and 3
 REACTIONS
PAR USSEY PEHLE
YE DO COMPOUND YAAD KARO

ETHANOL ETHANOIC ACID

 ETHANOL CH3-CH2-OH Ke Reactions

1) + Na →

2)

Conc H2SO4 Dehydrating agent hai (pani nikalne wala).

This Reaction is Called Dehydration of Ethanol

3)

1 & 2 are oxidizing agent. This is oxidation of Ethanol. Addition of oxygen

to ethanol happens. Purple colour of Alkaline KMNO4 Dissapears
 Activity 4.5:
drop wise alkaline KMnO4 (Potassium Permanganate)

Observation: Purple colour of Alkaline KMnO4 Disappears

Reason: Ethanol reacts with Alkaline KMnO4 to give
Ethanol
ethanoic acid (colourless)

On adding excess of Alk KMnO4 Now Purple colour doesn’t disappear

as there is no ethanol left now
CH3 - CH2 - OH CH3 - COOH
Heat (Colourless)

Step 3: Alk KMnO4

ethanoic acid
Q. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation
reaction? Name the oxidising agent used in this conversion. Write
chemical equation for this oxidation reaction.
(CBSE 2024)
(i) Write the name and structure of an organic compound ‘X’ having two
carbon atoms in its molecule and its name is suffixed with ‘-ol.

(ii) What happens when ‘X’ is heated with excess concentrated sulphuric
acid at 443 K? Write chemical equation for the reaction stating the
conditions for the reaction. Also state the role played by concentrated
sulphuric acid in the reaction.

(iii) Name and draw the electron dot structure of hydrocarbon produced
in the above reaction. (CBSE 2024)
 ETHANOIC ACID CH3-COOH Ke Reactions

Reactions of Acid → H+ ions release

1) + NaOH →

2) + Na2CO3 →

+ NaHCO3 →

• Test for gas → turns lime water milky & milkiness disappear
in passing excess of gas
3) Esterification - Ethanoic acid + Ethanol

Ester are sweet smelling substances , used in making perfumes & flavouring agents

4) Saponification – Ester + NaOH

Q. A spatula full of sodium carbonate is taken in a test tube and 2 mL of
dilute ethanoic acid is added to it.
(CBSE 2024)
(a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
(b) Suggest a method of testing the gas liberated in the reaction.
 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH
1. commonly called acetic acid
2. 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water →vinegar used as
preservative in pickles
3. Glacial acetic acid→Melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290k
(17℃) hence it often freezes in winter in cold climates
4. Carboxylic acids are weak acids compared to HCl

PH = 2.4 acetic acid PH = 1 HCl

Colour Red Yellow Colour Red
Universal Indicator Universal
Indicator
 Addition reaction Substitution reaction

1) Unsaturated Compounds – Alkene , Alkyne For Saturated Compounds – Alkane

Nickel Catalyst
Sunlight
CH2=CH2 + H2 CH4 + Cl2
Platinum Catalyst

Saturated Compounds are less reactive

Hydrogenation – Addition Of Hydrogen to
unsaturated Compounds to give saturated
compound
Reaction is used in Hydrogenation of
vegetable oil ( long unsaturated carbon
chains)
Q. (i) Write the name and general formula of a chain of hydrocarbons in
which anOH addition reaction with hydrogen can 443k
443k take place. Stating the
essential
C-C condition required
Excess ConC
2 H SO
4 for an
CH3addition
CH3OH reaction to occur,
Excess ConC H SO
2 4 write
CH2=CH2+H2O the
chemical equation giving the name of the reactant
Heat Heat
and product of such a
reaction. How is an addition reaction different from a substitution
ConCH2SO4 Dehydrating agent
reaction?
(CBSE 2023)
 Combustion

1) Complete Combustion ( in supply of air ) → CO2 + H2O + Heat

2) Saturated Hydrocarbons → Clean blue flame

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons → Yellow flame with lot of black smoke

3) Camphor & Napthalene → Yellow Flame ?? → Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Incomplete Combustion → Limited Supply of air → Yellow flame

products are H2O CO & C
 Chemical properties of Carbon Compounds
4. Incomplete Combustion → Limited Supply of air → Yellow flame

products are H2O CO & C (black Carbon soot)

{Saturated Hydrocarbons → Clean Flame

{Unsaturated Hydrocarbons → Yellow flame with black smoke

Incomplete Combustion → Limited Supply of air

products are H2O CO & C
(Carbon soot black)
 Allotropy
• The phenomenon of existence of an element in two or more forms
which have different physical properties but identical chemical
properties.

Carbon exists in different forms in nature.

• Like Diamond & Graphite

• This phenomenon is called allotropy & these different forms are called
allotropes.
Catenation - Property of carbon to self link and form long chains of
Carbon atoms , branched chains of Carbon atoms or
rings of carbon atoms
This is the biggest reason that carbon forms Millions of compounds. Food ,
paper , clothes , Human body all contains carbon compounds
Silicon also shows Catenation but to lower extent that Carbon.
SOAPS
Molecules of soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain
carboxylic acids
- - - C – C – C – C – C –COONa
15-17 Carbon की Chain

Representation of
Soap Molecule
- Most of the dirt is oil
- Oil does not dissolve in water

Micelles
Pronounced -> Maicell
Head – Towards Water Tail – Towards Oil

• The oil dirt is trapped

inside micelle
• Washed away with
water rinsing

Micelles
Pronounced -> Maicell
 Hard Water
Water that contains salts of calcium and magnesium--
bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates

FOAM WITH SOFT WATER

Foam Formed Easily

FOAM WITH SOFT WATER

Foam Formed Easily

FOAM WITH HARD WATER

Foam Not Formed

Scum

Soap reacts with salts of Ca and Mg to form insoluble

Ca and Mg salts ppt
Detergents (effective in hard water)
Sodium salts of sulphonic acid or
Ammonium salts with chlorides or bromides

→ Do not form insoluble precipitate with Ca and Mg salts of hard water

→ Used to make shampoo and cleaning clothes