ADVANCES IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS:

INNOVATIONS, MECHANICS AND APPLICATIONS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING, MECHANICS AND COMPUTATION, 2–4 SEPTEMBER 2019,
CAPE TOWN, SOUTH AFRICA

Advances in Engineering Materials,

Structures and Systems: Innovations,
Mechanics and Applications

Editor

Alphose Zingoni
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Cover photo: Customer Centre at Autostadt Wolfsburg, Germany
Courtesy of Tobias Hein

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 Advances in Engineering Materials, Structures and Systems:
Innovations, Mechanics and Applications – Zingoni (Ed.)
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-38696-9

Table of Contents

Preface XXVII
Committees of the SEMC 2019 International Conference XXXI

1. Keynotes
Recent developments in cold-formed steel structures 3
B. Young
Advancing frontiers in finite element procedures 11
K.J. Bathe
Using fabric to shape appropriate FRP-reinforced concrete structures 17
K.Z. Kostova, T.J. Ibell, A.P. Darby & M.C. Evernden
Application, behaviour and design of high performance steel-concrete composite structures 23
B. Uy

2. Dynamic analysis, vibration response, vibration control,

environmental vibrations, human-induced vibrations
A surrogate model for vibration transmission in layered soil 31
L.V. Andersen, P. Bucinskas, P. Nguyen, L. Manuel & P. Persson
An efficient semi-analytical procedure for assessing aeolian vibrations of overhead
transmission lines 37
C. Gazzola, F. Foti, L. Martinelli & F. Perotti
On the analysis of passive vibration mitigation of nose landing gears 43
M. Rahmani & K. Behdinan
An iterative linear matrix inequality controller-design strategy for H∞ structural
vibration control 49
F. Palacios-Quiñonero, J. Rubió-Massegú, J.M. Rossell & H.R. Karimi
Inhomogeneous beam-like models for the dynamic analysis of multistorey buildings 55
A. Greco, I. Fiore, S. Caddemi, I. Caliò & G. Occhipinti
Influence of damping effect on the dynamic response of plate 61
L. Borkowski
FEM modeling of different factors affecting the cross wind direction vibrations of a tall
building steel spire 67
M.D. Gajewski, R.B. Szczerba, M.A. Gizejowski, M. Siennicki & S. Wierzbicki
Dynamic analysis of unbalanced rotary machine support structures considering the effect
of loading on the geometric stiffness 75
R.M.L.R.F. Brasil
Hybrid approach for the assessment of vibrations and re-radiated noise in buildings due to
railway traffic: Concept and preliminary validation 79
P. Alves Costa, R. Arcos, P. Soares & A. Colaço
Evaluating the effect of vibration isolation mats on train-induced ground vibrations 85
J. Malmborg, K. Persson & P. Persson
Analysis of vibrations on the historical structures induced by technical seismicity 91
Sh. Urushadze, M. Pirner & J. Bayer

V
Ground-borne vibrations induced by pile driving: Prediction based on numerical approach 97
C. Mont’Alverne Parente, P. Alves Costa & A. Silva Cardoso
Offshore pile driving noise: Capability of numerical prediction models and ways to consider
new technologies 103
S. Lippert & O. von Estorff
Dynamic structure response using surrogate models 109
P. Bucinskas & L.V. Andersen
Surrogate models for the prediction of SFSI relevance in earthquake-induced vibrations of
buildings: A case study 115
L. de Sanctis, P. Franchin, M. Iovino & F. Noto
A surrogate model to describe uncertainties in wood floor modal frequencies 121
H.U. Lim, L. Manuel, P. Persson & L.V. Andersen
Influence of uncertain parameters on modal properties of wood floors 127
P. Persson, C. Frier, L. Pedersen, L.V. Andersen & L. Manuel
Human induced vibration of staircases: Measurements and analysis 133
I. Kraincanic & A. Sparkes
Dynamic analysis of a steel footbridge under running pedestrians 138
M.G. Mulas, M. Pisani, F. Beeckmans & P. Latteur
Serviceability assessment of a pedestrian bridge: Concrete vs. GFRP composite deck 144
I.J. Drygala, J.M. Dulinska & R. Ciura

3. Seismic response, seismic analysis, earthquake-resistant design

A new perspective on seismic Intensity Measures (IMs) 153
M. Grigoriu
Control of dynamic collapse mechanism of double layer truss walls by means of fuse type
connections subjected to earthquake motion 157
K. Ishikawa
A rational methodology for the design of linked compound shear walls in tall buildings
in high-seismic regions 162
G. Vannini, F. Bazzucchi, G.A. Ferro, D. Shook, N.J. Mathias & M. Sarkisian
A frame structure with elastically embedded diaphragms for regions with increased seismicity 168
J. Witzany, R. Zigler, T. Čejka, A. Polák & D. Makovička
The influence of spatial variations of mass eccentricities on the earthquake induced
torsion in buildings 174
G.K. Georgoussis, A. Mamou & M.T. Kyrkos
The effect of the rupture distance of the earthquake on the seismic response of wind
turbine support towers 180
J. Wang, A.J. Sadowski & A. Camara
Numerical prediction of out-of-plane instability in RC walls subject to in-plane cyclic loading 186
F. Dashti, R.P. Dhakal & S. Pampanin
Experimental evaluation of CFS braced-truss shear wall under cyclic loading 192
S. Shafaei, H.R. Ronagh & N. Usefi
Effect of shear modulus and shape factor on the performance of prototype un-bonded
fibre reinforced elastomeric isolators 197
T.V. Ngo, S.K. Deb & A. Dutta
Evaluation of FEMA P-58 overturning fragility curves for freestanding building components 203
A. Lucchini, O. AlShawa & L. Sorrentino
The ‘skeleton curve’ as a tool for seismic risk analyses of buildings 209
F. Braga & C. Picchi

VI
Seismic assessment of a U-beam composite material footbridge under earthquake sequence 212
I.J. Drygala & M.A. Polak
Benefits of submodeling in dynamic analysis of an integral bridge 218
P. Boron, J. Dulinska & D. Jasinska
The analysis of damage evolution in a gravity dam under a seismic shock 224
P. Boron, J. Dulinska, D. Jasinska & M. Torba
A case study for sloshing phenomenon in a cylindrical tank under seismic events:
Numerical modeling and comparison with current regulations 230
G. Buccino, C. Guerini & F. Perotti
Seismic behaviour of Gothic transversal arcades: A preliminary parametric investigation 236
G. De Matteis, D. Cacace, M. Zizi & J. Rouhi

4. Material modelling, multi-scale modelling, porous media,

composite materials, functionally graded materials
Modelling of nonlinear concrete behaviour – microplane and phase-field approaches 245
C. Steinke, I. Zreid & M. Kaliske
Two-scale modelling of reinforced concrete deep beams: Choice of unit cell and comparison
with single-scale modelling 251
A. Sciegaj & A. Mathern
A multiphase material model considering strain-induced crystallisation in polymers 257
K. Loos, A. Lion, M. Johlitz & J. Calipel
Bloch-based and homogenization procedures for investigating wave propagation periodic
poroelastic structures 263
V.-H. Nguyen, E. Rohan & S. Naili
On the simulation of fracking processes in porous media by use of a phase-field approach 269
W. Ehlers & C. Luo
Hydrogels – a macroscopic approach based on microscopic physics 274
K. Keller, T. Ricken & T. Wallmersperger
Modelling the flexoelectric effect in solids 278
A. McBride, D. Davydov & P. Steinmann
A finite element formulation for freezing and thawing processes of ice within the
framework of the TPM 280
A. Schwarz, J. Bluhm & J. Schröder
Comparative study on time-integrator schemes in a least-squares sea ice finite element formulation 286
C. Nisters, J. Schröder, R. Niekamp & T. Ricken
Development of a thermodynamically consistent model towards biogeochemical processes
within Antarctic sea ice microstructure within the extended Theory of Porous Media (eTPM) 292
A. Thom & T. Ricken
Transition of the variational sensitivity analysis to polymorphic uncertainty quantification
to soil investigations 297
C. Henning & T. Ricken
A multiscale and multiphase model for the description of function-perfusion processes
in the human liver 304
L. Lambers, T. Ricken & M. König
A hyperelastic biphasic fiber reinforced model of articular cartilage incorporating the
influences of osmotic pressure and damage 308
F. Egli, T. Ricken, X. Wang & D.M. Pierce
Nonlocal simulation of failure evolution with MD and MPM: A case study 314
Z. Chen, Y. Su, J. Tao & F.M. Pfeiffer

VII
3D truss model for large deformations and large strains: Nonlinear formulation and
continuum mechanical aspects 320
W. Guggenberger & B. Krenn
Invariant-free hyperelasticity using a fourth-order structural tensor approach 326
D.J. O’Shea, M.M. Attard & D.C. Kellermann
Vibration analysis of stochastic open-cell foam 331
K. Weinberg & L. Bogunia
Novel vistas on the foundations of peridynamics 337
P. Steinmann, A. McBride & A. Javili
A semi-analytical method of solution of contact problems on indentation of coated
elastic and electroelastic piezoelectric solids 339
A.S. Vasiliev, S.S. Volkov & S.M. Aizikovich
On nonlinear thermo-magneto-electro-elasticity and FE analysis of
magneto-electro-elastic structures 344
R. Schmidt, M.N. Rao & K.-U. Schröder
Computational modelling of the dynamics of sea ice in the Antarctic marginal ice zone 350
R. Marquart, A. Bogaers, M. Vichi, K. MacHutchon, J. Schröder & S. Skatulla
A review on modelling of brine transport mechanisms in sea ice 356
A.D. Cook, S. Skatulla, K. MacHutchon, T. Ricken & J. Schröder
A rational framework for dynamic homogenization at finite wavelengths and frequencies 362
B.B. Guzina, S. Meng & O. Oudghiri-Idrissi

5. Micromechanics of advanced materials and processes,

manufacturing processes, assembly processes
Deformation characteristics in 6H silicon carbide – effects of length scale and irradiation 371
D.Z. Zhang, L.G. Zhao, A. Roy & Y.-L. Chiu
Modelling the temperature and strain-rate effects of extruded magnesium alloy accounting
for deformation slip and twinning 375
R. Zhou, A. Roy & V.V. Silberschmidt
Plastic deformation micro-mechanisms in magnesium and its alloys 379
J. Wu, S. Si, U. Ghori & Y.L. Chiu
Mapping high temperature strain localisation in steel weldments using digital image correlation 383
R. Curry, R.D. Knutsen & K. Singh
Initiation and growth of short cracks in a nickel-based single crystal superalloy 388
L. Zhang, L.G. Zhao, A. Roy, V.V. Silberschmidt & G. McColvin
Optimising the performance of interference-fitted work rolls 392
J.D. Booker & M.D. McMillan
Improved structural mechanics simulation by considering residual stress and strain properties
from metal forming simulation 397
D. Ulrich, H. Binz, R. Meissner, M. Liewald & A. Dietrich
Stochastic modelling of the cold forming process 403
J.D. Booker & J. Woodhead
Vibration-assisted robotic machining in advanced materials 408
K.H. Pang, D. Wang, A. Roy, I. Redman, M. Castelli, J. Dunleavey, D. Dawson, L. Parkinson,
K. Lindsey & M. Lidgett
Relation between part curvature and warpage in injection molding process 410
M. Szostak, P. Poszwa, I. Gontariew & P. Brze˛k
Influence of material properties on spontaneous buckling of thin-walled injection molded parts 414
P. Poszwa, I. Gontariew, M. Szostak & P. Brze˛k

VIII
3-D-printing with steel: Additive manufacturing of connection elements 419
T. Feucht & J. Lange
The influence of material temperature on the in-print strength and stability of a 3D print mortar 425
F.P. Bos, R.J.M. Wolfs, Z.Y. Ahmed, L.J. Hermens & T.A.M. Salet
FEM modelling of digitally printed concrete structures using 3D extrusion 431
L. Jendele, J. Cervenka & M. Vaitova
Modelling crack-tip behaviour in a directionally solidified nickel alloy under
fatigue-oxidation conditions 437
R.J. Kashinga, L.G. Zhao & V.V. Silberschmidt
Evaluation of the adhesive bonding of aluminum alloys produced by Hot Form Quenching
for automotive applications 443
F. Sun, C.I. Pruncu, J. Jiang, B.R.K. Blackman & J. Lin

6. Composite structures, laminated structures, sandwich structures

Finite element modeling of CFRP fuselage panels under high velocity transverse impact loading 449
F. Fonseca, A.P.C. Duarte & N. Silvestre
From buckliphobes to buckliphiles: Recent developments in exploiting positive virtues of instability 455
M.A. Wadee, A.T.M. Phillips & A. Bekele
Optimal location of active piezoelectric sensors and actuators for noise reduction in
composite sandwich panels 462
A.L. Araújo, J.F.A. Madeira & A.J.M. Ferreira
Multiscale nanocomposites and laminates reinforced by carbon nanotubes and fibres 468
M. Zeeman & S. Adali
A similarity transformation leading to an exact transfer matrix for the composite
beam-column with refined zigzag kinematics: A benchmark example 474
K. Nachbagauer & H. Wimmer
Compressive behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic lattice structures 480
B. Aryal, H. Wang, K. Shankar, E.V. Morozov & P.J. Hazell
Axial and flexural behaviour of elastic nano-beams by stress-driven two-phase elasticity 486
R. Barretta & F. Marotti de Sciarra
Multilayer composite beam-column with refined zigzag kinematics resting on variable
two-parameter foundation 492
H. Wimmer & K. Nachbagauer
Design and multi-objective optimization of a composite impact attenuator for a Formula Student car 498
J.M.P.B.C. Castro, A.L. Araújo & J.F.A. Madeira
Isotropic and orthotropic parameter identification from full field bulge inflation tests
on PVC-coated polyester 504
C.F. Jekel, R.T. Haftka, M.P. Venter & G. Venter
Flexural response of composite fibre cement sheeting-cementitious polystyrene sandwich panels 510
D. Makweche & M. Dundu
Nonlinear static FE-analysis of smart piezolaminated FGM shells at finite rotations 516
R. Schmidt, M.N. Rao & K.-U. Schröder

7. Numerical schemes, numerical simulations, computing,

finite element modelling, finite element analysis
Simulation of buoyancy-driven fracture propagation using the displacement discontinuity
boundary element method 525
J.A.L. Napier & E. Detournay
Chances of real-time simulation in FE analyses with conventional hardware 531
M.W. Zehn & D. Marinkovic

IX
Evaluating artificial neural networks and quantum computing for solving mechanical
boundary value problems 537
A. Mielke & T. Ricken
An efficient Latin hypercube sampling for probabilistic nonlinear finite element analysis of
reinforced concrete structures 543
N.L. Tran, C.-A. Graubner & G. Rombach
Finite element analysis of concrete members reinforced with GFRP reinforcements 549
R. Barrage, G.J. Milligan & M.A. Polak
Numerical simulation of carbon reinforced concrete structures and uncertain data 555
W. Graf, F. Leichsenring, D. Konopka & M. Kaliske
A 3D beam element to study torsion of steel open sections exposed to fire 561
L. Possidente, N. Tondini & J.-M. Battini
Friction moments of ball joint supports used in structural test rigs subjected to cyclic loading 566
M. Rosemeier, T. Gebauer, C. Lester & M. Bätge

8. Damage mechanics, damage modelling, fracture, fatigue

Prediction of the initial fatigue crack location of automatically welded tubular joints for
jacket support structures 575
P. Schaumann, K. Schürmann, A. Pittner & M. Rethmeier
FE modeling of fracture in quasi-brittle material 581
M.A. Scamardo, A. Franchi & P.G. Crespi
Virtual testing of plasticity effects on fatigue crack initiation 587
M. Mlikota & S. Schmauder
Cyclic properties of P91 steel at variable temperatures 593
W. Egner, P. Sulich, H. Egner & S. Mroziński
The effects of aspect ratio and bi-axial loading on the initiation of plastic deformation
in three-dimensional semi-elliptical effects 598
S.O.S. bin Syed Kamil & N.O. Larrosa
A study on delamination onset and propagation in CFRP beam specimens with
mechanical coupling 602
S. Samborski, J. Rzeczkowski & J. Paśnik
Fatigue analysis of a vehicle using vibration modes 606
T.Y. Kim, Y.G. Hwang, W.S. Yoo, S.G. Yoon & Y.J. Shin
Modelling of discrete cracks in reinforced concrete plates with the Strong
Discontinuity Approach (SDA) 611
U. Häussler-Combe, A. Chihadeh & A. Shehni
Microstructural analysis of crack growth caused by static and dynamic loads in a carbon
fiber reinforced cement paste 617
M. Rutzen, D. Volkmer, U. Weiß, L. Reischmann, M.A. Peter, P. Lauff, O. Fischer,
M. Raith & C. Große
Effects of impactor mass on pultruded profiles subjected to low-velocity impacts 623
Z. Li, H. Wang, B. Aryal, P.J. Hazell, A. Khennane, K. Shankar & J.P. Escobedo-Diaz
Finite element modelling of tensile reinforcement laps in steel fibre reinforced concrete 628
P. Grassl & J. Middlemiss
Finite element modelling of steel/concrete bond for corroded reinforcement 632
Q. Du & B. Martín-Pérez
Theoretical fatigue response of plantain fiber based composites in structural applications 638
C.E. Okafor & C.S. Metu
Design of pressurised pipes subjected to mechanochemical corrosion 644
Y. Pronina

X
A phase field modeling of dynamic brittle fracture at finite strains 650
E. Omatuku & S. Skatulla
Strain-based approach to fatigue crack initiation on high-strength-steel welded joints under
multiaxial loading 656
M. Garcia, A. Nussbaumer & H. Remes
Experimental investigation of water leakages through a longitudinal crack due to expansion
of the pipe material under pressure 662
D.T. Ilunga, M.O. Dinka & D. Madyira

9. Renewable energy structures, fluid-structure interaction

Wind turbine structures – challenges and market needs 669
M. Rauch
Efficient time-domain hydrodynamic model for floating offshore wind turbines using rational
approximations 675
C.E. Høeg & Z. Zhang
Modal dynamics of a three-bladed tri-rotor wind turbine 681
O.T. Filsoof, M.H. Hansen, A. Yde, P. Bøttcher & X. Zhang
The influence of uncertain soil conditions on the dynamic response of offshore wind turbines
using an efficient time-domain model 687
Z. Zhang, C.E. Høeg & L.V. Andersen
On the design of monopile foundations for monotonic and cyclic loading 693
M. Achmus
Structural vibration considerations for the design of onshore piled wind turbine foundations 699
N.R. Featherston
Influence of geometry on the dynamic behaviour of steel tubular towers for onshore wind turbines 705
K. Folster & K. Mudenda
Experiment research of basin tuned and particle damper for wind turbine tower on shaker 711
J.L. Chen & Y.C. Wang
Dynamic response analysis of spar-type floating wind turbines against ship collision 717
Y.L. Ren, X.G. Hua, Z.Q. Chen & B. Chen
Effect of coupling with internal and external fluids on the mechanical behavior of aerostats 723
J.-S. Schotté, R. Le Mestre & O. Doaré
Nonlinear fluid-structure interaction of a restrained slender body of revolution at high
angles of attack 729
D. Degani, O. Gottlieb & M. Ishay
Vibration fatigue analysis of liquid-filled pipelines considering fluid-structure interaction 735
Y. Jiang, J. Tao & L. Zhu
Segment gate model testing of the Stajićevo Sluice 741
E. Popović

10. Blast, impact, shock and explosion loading

Near-field blast loading and transient target response: A collaboration between Sheffield
and Cape Town 749
S.E. Rigby, A. Tyas, R.J. Curry & G.S. Langdon
A dimensionless number for shock-structure interaction 755
T.J. Cloete & G.N. Nurick
Numerical evaluation of simple blast wall system to be used in developing countries 761
A.T. Hussein, H.N. Mahmoud & P.R. Heyliger
Numerical simulation of underwater subway tunnel subjected to internal blast loading 767
J. Mandal, M.D. Goel & A.K. Agarwal

XI
Response of a structural target to an explosive charge incorporating foreign objects 773
G. Kang & S. Chung Kim Yuen
Comparison of curved GFRE foam sandwich panels response to close-proximity air-blast
loading: Influence of curvature and load direction 779
C.J. von Klemperer, G.S. Langdon, G. Sinclair & I. Ghoor
Investigation into the effect of V-tip radius on the blast performance of steel V-plates 784
V.R. Shekhar, G.S. Langdon & C.J. von Klemperer
Simulation of ATD pelvic response of an under body blast 788
Z. Schutte, T. Pandelani, G.S. Langdon, R. Ahmed, C. Mahlase & D. Reinecke
Dynamic response of blast loaded metal plates with composite beam stiffeners 794
T.P. Masango, G.N. Nurick & G.S. Langdon
Crash analysis of foam and concrete filled automatic retractable bollard under vehicle impact 799
M.D. Goel
Assessment of deformation pattern and energy absorption capacity of a novel fourfold-tube
nested system under oblique impact loading 805
B. Xu, C. Wang, S. Chung Kim Yuen & W. Xu
Blast mitigation of reinforced concrete hollow core slabs using CFRP as externally bonded
reinforcement 810
A. Maazoun, S. Matthys, B. Belkassem, D. Lecompte & J. Vantomme
Experimental response of S2-glass fibre reinforced composites subjected to localised blast loading 816
A. Daliri, A. Orifici, R.J. Curry, G.S. Langdon, H. Bornstein & R. Odish

11. Stability of beams, columns and thin-walled sections

Complementary shear and transversal elongation modes in Generalized Beam Theory (GBT)
for thin-walled circular cross-sections 825
M.J. Bianco, A.K. Habtemariam, C. Könke, F. Tartaglione & V. Zabel
On stability and load-bearing capacity of thin-walled composite profiles subjected to
eccentric compression 831
H. Debski & S. Samborski
Stiffening strategies for perforated plate girders under shear loading 837
A. Jaramillo, N. Loaiza, C. Graciano & E. Casanova
Optical experimental investigations of thin-walled channel beams with non-standard flange 842
P. Paczos
Effects of large displacements on the flexural-torsional buckling resistance of steel
H-section beam-columns 848
M.A. Gizejowski, Z. Stachura, M.D. Gajewski & R.B. Szczerba
Stabilization effect on portal frames given by stressed skin action of sandwich panels 854
Zs. Nagy, M. Nedelcu & A. Dező
Common criterion for structures critical states 860
J.B. Obre˛bski
On the lateral-torsional buckling of non-uniform C-beams 866
I. Mascolo, M. Modano, A. Amendola & F. Fraternali
Main influences on the shape of failure of large-scale buckling tests under biaxial stresses 870
N. Maier, M. Mensinger & J. Ndogmo
On LTB predictions using equivalent geometric imperfection modeling 873
M.A. Gizejowski, Z. Stachura, M.D. Gajewski & R.B. Szczerba
Buckling of the flexible rod under shock loads 879
A.V. Egorov & V.N. Egorov

XII
Experimental investigation of distortional-lateral torsional buckling interaction of single
channels restrained by angle cleats 884
G.M. Bukasa & M. Dundu

12. Plates, shells, membranes, cables, cable-stayed structures,

lightweight structures, space structures
Structural system design of spatial and shell structures by means of
Album of Spatial Structures (ALOSS) 891
K. Ishikawa
Details and assembly of two cladded double curved cable net roofs 896
H. Pasternak & T. Krausche
Sandwich panels in buildings: Core, structure and design 902
J. Lange, A. von der Heyden & S. Grimm
Frequencies of vibrations of a spherical shell with all-around pressure 908
S. Shrivastava
Buckling of rectangular nanoplates 914
Y. Sapsathiarn & R.K.N.D. Rajapakse
Thermal post-buckling behavior of functionally graded plates with nonlinear
temperature distribution 918
W. Xia, H.T. Yang, J.M. Wu & S.P. Shen
Some results in the theory of chiral Cosserat elastic plates 923
S. De Cicco
Stresses in a pressurised parabolic ogival toroidal vessel 928
N. Enoma & A. Zingoni
Buckling of parabolic ogival toroidal vessels under external pressure 934
N. Enoma & A. Zingoni
Validation of a numerically inflated polyethylene bag 940
B. Bezuidenhout, G. Venter & M.P. Venter
The human body: An instantaneously and dynamically self-equilibrating tensegrity structure 946
N. Mathias, J. Li & M. Sarkisian
Paper-based water tower for post-disaster emergency scenarios 952
M. Morales-Beltran, P. Eigenraam & J. Latka
Non-linear analysis of tall telecommunication towers in South Africa 957
N.R. Featherston
A new mechanical model for metallic wire ropes 963
F. Foti, C. Guerini, A. Marengo & L. Martinelli
High-strength composite materials in design process of tensegrity structures 969
D. Zaja˛c

13. Adaptive structures, smart structures

Concentric joint connectors for form-changing space frames 977
P. Harkin, R. Vaidyanathan & S. Morad
Manufacturing, optimization and design of electroactive CNT-actuators for adaptive
building envelopes 983
R. Neuhaus, C. Glanz, I. Kolaric, J. Siegert & T. Bauernhansl
Integrating structure and control design using tensegrity paradigm 989
R. Goyal & R.E. Skelton
Optimal prestress design of the band gap dynamics in tensegrity metamaterials 995
A. Amendola, A. Krushynska, R. Miranda & F. Fraternali

XIII
Adaptive structures of resilient cyclic knots 1000
D. Kozlov
Actuation of structural concrete elements under bending stress with integrated fluidic actuators 1005
C. Kelleter, W. Sobek, T. Burghardt & H. Binz
Structures that adapt to loads through large shape changes: Design and optimization 1010
A.P. Reksowardojo, G. Senatore & I.F.C. Smith
Design of thermally deformable laminates using machine learning 1016
A. Abdel-Rahman, M. Kosicki, P. Michalatos & M. Tsigkari
The integration of actuation concepts and adaptive elements into an experimental
high-rise building 1022
S. Weidner, S. Steffen, W. Haase, W. Sobek, C. Honold, T. Burghardt, H. Binz, M. Böhm,
J. Wagner & O. Sawodny
Design and control of adaptive tensegrity sunscreens 1027
R. Miranda, A. Amendola, I. Mascolo, F. Fraternali & E. Babilio
Design and development of a morphing wing utilising flexible materials 1033
E.J. van Zyl & M.P. Venter
Synthesis of shape-adaptive plain bearings 1039
S. Kirmse, B. Prase & A. Hasse
Characterization of variable stiffness joints for adaptive structures 1045
Q. Wang, A. Habraken, P. Teuffel, G. Senatore & K. Jansen
Design and optimization of pre-tension forces in cable-stayed bridges 1051
M. Modano, I. Mascolo & F. Fraternali

14. Cold-formed steel structures, stainless steel structures,

aluminium structures
Testing and analysis of shear connectors between cold-formed steel members and
wood-based panels 1059
P. Kyvelou, L. Gardner & D.A. Nethercot
Numerical modelling of prestressed composite cold-formed steel flooring systems 1065
N. Hadjipantelis, P. Kyvelou, L. Gardner & M.A. Wadee
Elastic buckling analysis of asymmetrically braced steel storage racks 1071
Z. Huang & X. Zhao
Tests of cold-formed steel built-up open section beam-columns 1077
Q.Y. Li & B. Young
Material property characterization of advanced high strength cold-formed steel 1083
Y. Xia, Z. Li, B.W. Schafer & H.B. Blum
Parametric study of cold formed steel joints using the component method 1089
Zs. Nagy, A. Dező & A.A. Mureşan
Load capacity of cold-formed column members of lipped channel cross-section with
perforations subjected to compression loading – results of more detailed parametric study
and proposals of design code modifications 1095
M.P. Kulatunga & M. Macdonald
Behaviour factor evaluation of CFS shear walls with gypsum board sheathing according
to FEMA P695 1101
S. Shakeel, A. Campiche & R. Landolfo
Structural stainless steel design by advanced analysis with CSM strain limits 1107
F. Walport, L. Gardner & D.A. Nethercot
Stainless steel beams of slender I-section 1113
M. Šorf & M. Jandera

XIV
An assessment of rolled stainless steel angles under compression 1118
A. da S. Sirqueira, P.C.G. da S. Vellasco, L.R.O. de Lima, A.T. da Silva,
M.C. Rodrigues & M.M.B.R. Vellasco
Fatigue design of aluminum structures 1124
C. Radlbeck, M. Rengstl & M. Mensinger
Numerical study of distortional-lateral torsional buckling interaction of single channels
restrained by angle cleats 1130
G.M. Bukasa & M. Dundu
Lipped cold-formed starred angles in compression 1135
J.D.T. Nhokwara & M. Dundu

15. Steel structures, steel connections, steel-concrete

composite construction
Development of a new method for the direct numerical consideration of welding effects in the
component design of welded plate girders 1143
B. Launert, Z. Li & H. Pasternak
Behavior of RHS X-joints having high brace to chord width ratio under axial compression 1148
C.H. Lee, S.H. Kim & J.H. Kim
Finite element modeling of steel tubes filled with rubberized concrete under cyclic loading 1154
A.P.C. Duarte, N. Silvestre, J. de Brito & E. Júlio
On elastic buckling of bisymmetric H-section steel elements under bending and compression 1160
M.A. Gizejowski & J. Uziak
An investigation on residual stress re-distribution and deformation of H-rolled beam end under
partial volume loss process 1168
T. Miyoshi
Influence of steel brackets supporting crane runway girders structure on the stress distribution
in the brackets 1173
N. Korcz-Konkol, P. Iwicki & E. Urbańska-Galewska
Performance of welded flange plate joints between steel beams and box columns without
continuity plates 1179
M.A. Mahdavipour, S. Ding & D. Vysochinskiy
Estimation of rotation capacity of monosymmetric I-beams 1184
I. Nanayakkara, C. Mallikarachchi & P. Dias
Adaptation or adoption of Eurocode steel design: A comparison with South African standard 1189
J. Mahachi
Assessing the ultimate load capacity of plate-shaped and hollow section steel components
under tension using damage mechanics 1195
S. Schaffrath & M. Feldmann
A hygro-thermo-chemical-mechanical model for the service response of composite
steel-concrete floor systems 1201
G. Ranzi & M. Bocciarelli
The study on structural characteristics for the steel concrete composite slab using
Deformed Flange T-shapes 1207
T. Takasuka, T. Kumano & K. Sugiura
Column base connections subjected to axial compression and biaxial moments 1213
R. Cloete & C. Roth
Artificial neural network prediction of bearing capacity of welded columns based on
simplified welding simulations 1219
Z. Li, B. Launert, H. Pasternak & Y. Ciupack
Numerical validation of LRPH behaviour by FEM analysis 1224
L. Palizzolo, S. Benfratello, P. Tabbuso & S. Vazzano

XV
Bending and shear response of bonded steel sections 1230
L.T. Chikore & M. Dundu
Concrete-filled double-skin circular tubes with high strength concrete 1235
Y. Essopjee, M. Dundu & C. Maluleke
Cost optimization of structures and connections using the Virtual Work Optimization Method 1239
J.H. Strydom & A.A. Elvin

16. High strength steel, high performance steel

Testing of hot-finished high strength steel SHS and RHS utilising advanced experimental techniques 1247
X. Meng & L. Gardner
Experimental investigation on the fatigue strength assessment of welded joints made of
S1100 ultra-high-strength steel in as-welded and post-weld treated condition 1254
A. Ahola, T. Skriko & T. Björk
Effects of residual stresses on fatigue crack initiation of butt-welded plates made of high
strength steel 1260
H. Xin & M. Veljkovic
Behavior of double-shear high strength steel bolted connections at elevated temperatures 1266
Y.H. Cho, L.H. Teh & B. Young
Design and execution of welded connections at high-strength steels 1271
R. Stroetmann & T. Kästner
Stability design of high strength steel members 1277
T. Tankova, L. Simões da Silva & T.Y. Tun
Experimental and numerical investigation on HSS stiffened curved plates 1283
S. Piculin, D. Grigillo & P. Može
Welded connections in innovative high strength steel constructions 1289
J. Spiegler & U. Kuhlmann
Fatigue strength of high strength steel butt-welded connections 1295
L.W. Tong, L.C. Niu, K. Si, L.W. Ai, M.L. Liu & X.L. Zhao
Experimental and numerical analyses of high-strength steel welds 1300
R. Stroetmann & T. Kästner
Bearing behavior of bolted connections in high strength steel 1306
Y.B. Wang, Y.F. Lyu & G.Q. Li
Influence of residual stresses on the behaviour of flat and curved steel plates 1312
J. Gomboši, S. Piculin & P. Može
Pre-tensioned UHS steel bracing system for CFS structures: Planning of research project 1318
A. Campiche, S. Shakeel & R. Landolfo

17. Reinforced concrete structures, prestressed concrete

Control of shrinkage cracking in reinforced concrete members with end restraint 1327
R.I. Gilbert
Modelling of reinforced concrete structures subjected to cyclic loading 1333
A.C. Ferche & F.J. Vecchio
Probabilistic and semi-probabilistic design of large concrete beams failing in shear 1339
L. Novák, D. Novák & R. Pukl
Resistance to diagonal tension cracking of single span prestressed girders 1345
M.A. Roosen, C. van der Veen, D.A. Hordijk & M.A.N. Hendriks
Shear design of concrete bridge decks without shear reinforcement 1350
G. Rombach, M. Harter & L. Henze

XVI
Comparing Eurocode 2 prestress loss estimations to strains measured on a pretensioned
bridge beam 1354
T. Bosman, E.P. Kearsley, S.A. Skorpen, L.J. Butler & M.Z.E.B. Elshafie
Non-linear analysis of prestressed concrete T-beams 1360
S.W.H. Ensink, C. van der Veen & M.A.N. Hendriks
Evaluation of shear capacity of prestressed concrete beams using the Softened Membrane
Model for Prestressed Concrete (SMM-PC) 1366
Y.R. Holebagilu, V.K. Polimeru & A. Laskar
Flexural behavior of concrete beams with PET reinforcement 1372
J.O. Akinyele, C.M. Ogwumeh & U.T. Igba
Mechanical analysis of prestressed concrete curved bridges 1377
H. Felix, J.Q. Lei & W.Q. Wang

18. High strength concrete, high performance concrete,

fibre-reinforced concrete
Innovative applications of steel fibre reinforced concrete 1385
M. Empelmann & J.-P. Lanwer
Numerical calibration of elasto-plastic phase-field modeling of fracture for experimental
pullout tests of single steel fibers embedded in high-performance concrete 1391
M. Pise, D. Brands, M. Sarhil, J. Schröder, G. Gebuhr & S. Anders
Analysis of load-induced temperature development in UHPC under cyclic compressive loading 1397
N.L. Tran, M. Deutscher & S. Scheerer
Numerical investigation on effects of steel fibers content on flexural behavior of UHPCC 1403
M. Halimi, M. Kioumarsi, H. Bakhshi & H. Sarkardeh
Modelling of fibre-reinforced concrete by a fibre super-element overlay mesh 1409
J. Storm, M. Kaliske, M. Ranjbarian & V. Mechtcherine
A multi-scale finite element analysis and sectional design approach for the creep
of polymeric FRC 1415
R. Vrijdaghs, L. Vandewalle & M. di Prisco
Numerical investigations on grouted segment joints for UHPC-structures 1421
H. Matz, M. Wichert & M. Empelmann
DEM simulation and electron microscopy analysis of the fatigue behavior of ultra-high
performance concrete 1427
S. Rybczyński, M. Dosta, G. Schaan, M. Ritter & F. Schmidt-Döhl
Influence of fibre orientation on pull-out behaviour of PVA microfibre embedded in
cement-based matrix under monotonic and cyclic loading 1433
M. Ranjbarian, V. Mechtcherine, J. Storm & M. Kaliske
Experimental characterization of effective mechanical properties of (micro-) fractured high
performance concrete 1439
J. Sauer, J. Musialak, H. Steeb, M. Markert, V. Birtel & H. Garrecht
Deterioration development of steel fibre reinforced high performance concrete
in low-cycle fatigue 1444
G. Gebuhr, S. Anders, M. Pise, M. Sahril, D. Brands & J. Schröder
Experimental investigation of load-induced increase of temperature in UHPC 1450
M. Deutscher, S. Scheerer & N.L. Tran
Implementing image analysis to assess the variability in flexural response of SFRC 1456
T. Bosman & E.P. Kearsley
Pull-out behaviour of smooth steel microfibres embedded in UHPC 1462
S. Höper, U. Kowalsky, D. Dinkler, J.-P. Lanwer, V. Oettel & M. Empelmann

XVII
Influence of aggregate morphological characteristics on the fracture resistance of high
performance concrete 1468
G. Basutkar, T. Leusmann & D. Lowke
Cracking behaviour of carbon textile reinforced concrete members 1474
R. El Ghadioui, N.L. Tran, T. Proske & C.-A. Graubner
Influence of water in the microstructure on the fatigue deterioration of high-strength concrete 1480
C. Tomann & L. Lohaus
Flexural behavior of polymer-based textile-reinforced concrete using basalt fibers 1486
B. Çomak, E. Soliman, R. Chennareddy & M. Reda Taha
Acoustic emission due to fatigue damage mechanisms in high-strength concrete with
different aggregates 1491
T. Scheiden, N. Oneschkow, S. Löhnert & R. Patel
Steel fibre orientation by means of magnetic field 1497
R. Lovichova, K. Takacova, J. Fornusek & M. Mara
The influence of fibre orientation on the mechanical properties of cement composites 1501
M. Mara, R. Lovichova & J. Fornusek

19. Structural applications of FRP composites

Computational simulation of shear behavior of scaled GFRP-reinforced concrete beams 1509
F. Matta, S. Khodaie & M. Alnaggar
Bond between FRP bars and fine-grain high-performance concrete with CFRP
mesh confinement 1515
K. Holschemacher & H. Zhong
Structural analysis of FRP parts from waste wind turbine blades for building reuse applications 1520
L.C. Bank, F.R. Arias, T.R. Gentry, T. Al-Haddad, B. Tasistro-Hart & J.F. Chen
Influence of adhesive thickness on stress transfer between steel and CFRP plates 1525
M. Takemura & K. Sugiura
Shear capacity of BFRP reinforced concrete beams without shear reinforcement 1531
S. Hofmann, N.L. Tran, T. Proske & C.-A. Graubner
Flexural performance of extremely damaged reinforced concrete beams after SRP repair 1537
H.H. Alghazali, Z.K. Al-Jaberi, Z.R. Aljazaeri & J.J. Myers
Recycling and reuse of carbon fiber reinforcement 1543
F. Kopf, J. Kortmann & P. Jehle
Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams with GFRP needles as coarse aggregate
partial replacement: Full-scale experiments 1548
X.F. Nie, B. Fu, J.G. Teng, L.C. Bank & Y. Tian
F-RCM bundle as connection in multiple leaf masonry: Experimental investigation 1554
L. Anania
Effect of different temperatures on epoxy adhesive used in near surface mounted FRP bars
strengthened concrete masonry unit under direct shear test 1560
Z.K. Al-Jaberi & J.J. Myers
Durability assessment of non-steel reinforcement after more than ten years of service 1566
A.F. Al-Khafaji & J.J. Myers
Towards rational design approaches for FRP reinforced concrete structures in fire 1570
M.F. Green, H. Hajiloo & A. Mousavi
Seismic response of pultruded GFRP frame using Multi-Continuum Theory 1576
L. Wang, E. Soliman & M. Reda Taha

XVIII
Review and assessment of various theories for modeling durability of GFRP reinforcement
for concrete structures 1582
B. Benmokrane & A.H. Ali

20. Mechanics of concrete, properties of concrete, construction materials,

construction technology, pavement design
Recycling of cement stabilised gravel base material in a highway into aggregates for concrete 1591
H. Fan, D. Shang, D. Han, B. Chen, Y. Wu, G. Liu, Q. Zhang, H. Li, Z. Sierens,
B. Vandevyvere & J. Li
Study of finite element model on skid resistance for pavement made of engineered
cementitious composite 1595
A.A. Bawono, N. NguyenDinh, B. Lechner & Y. En-Hua
Thermo-mechanical material properties of concrete in the cooling phase 1601
J. Lyzwa & J. Zehfuss
Study of the impact of cement type used on selected physical and mechanical properties
of aerated SCC concrete 1607
K. Zieliński & P. Witkowski
Mechanical strength and freeze-thaw resistance of fly ash alkaline-based mortars containing
recycled aggregates submitted to accelerated carbonation 1612
M. Mastali, Z. Abdollahnejad & F. Pacheco-Torgal
Effect of silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles on 3D printability of cement-based materials 1616
M. van den Heever, F.A. Bester, P.J. Kruger & G.P.A.G. van Zijl
Using existing models and finite element analysis to predict the long term deformation of
lightweight foamed concrete 1622
D.R. Do Amaral & A.S. van Rooyen
Mechanical properties of fly ash alkaline-based mortars containing recycled aggregates and
reinforced by hemp fibres submitted to accelerated carbonation 1627
M. Mastali, Z. Abdollahnejad & F. Pacheco-Torgal
The use of PET pellets in cement stabilized compressed earth bricks 1631
J.O. Akinyele, O.M. Akinwande & U.T. Igba
Ground granulated blast-furnace and corex slag – comparative study 1636
S. Alaud
Multi criteria analysis for the functional performance of surface pavement 1641
A.A. Bawono, E. Caliskan, B. Lechner & Y. En-Hua
Cost and environmental performance of waste based alkali-activated mortars 1647
Z. Abdollahnejad, M. Mastali & F. Pacheco-Torgal
Effect on concrete properties of mixing and curing with seawater: Compression and tension tests 1652
P. van Tonder, N. Selepe, Z. Kunene, B. Lefifi, P. Munyai, A. Shumba & P.K. Mlangeni

21. Masonry structures, glass structures, timber structures,

properties of wood
A semi-analytical approach to the evaluation of the local collapse mechanisms of
masonry domes subject to seismic loads 1661
F. Foti, A. Manzo & C. Chesi
Research into the effect of grouting on physical-mechanical properties of historic masonry 1667
J. Witzany, R. Zigler, T. Čejka, A. Maroušková & J. Kubát
Limiting structural damage on masonry structures due to foundation movement 1673
J. Mahachi
Stiffness of unreinforced masonry walls subjected to static-cyclic shear 1679
N. Mojsilović

XIX
Performance of confined masonry of 1953 during the 2014 Cephalonia Earthquake 1685
F.V. Karantoni & S.J. Pantazopoulou
Form-finding for arches and vaults using the moment-step method 1691
R.A. Bradley
Strength of materials and masonry structures in Malawi 1697
P. Kloukinas, I. Kafodya, I. Ngoma, V. Novelli, J. Macdonald & K. Goda
The effect of manufacturing flaws in the meso-structure of cast glass on the
structural performance 1703
T. Bristogianni, R. Nijsse, F. Oikonomopoulou & F. Veer
Dry interlayers out of cast polyurethane rubber for interlocking cast glass structures:
Experimental exploration and validation 1709
F. Oikonomopoulou, F. Veer, T. Bristogianni & L. Barou
The glass swing; a vector active glass structure 1715
A.H. Snijder, C. Louter, L. van der Linden & R. Nijsse
Performance of above ground floor CLT wall systems and connections under
monotonic loading 1719
C. Hughes, D. McPolin, P. McGetrick & D. McCrum
Experimental investigation and numerical modelling of mechanical properties of CLTs 1725
X. Li, M. Ashraf, M. Subhani & P. Kremer
Design and testing of pre-engineered prefabricated Casuarina wooden truss 1731
A. Mahmoud, J. Said, S. Bader, M. Sayed, M. Fayez, O. Yacoub, P. Youssef, M. Darwish,
K. Nassar, E.Y. Sayed-Ahmed & M.N. AbouZeid
Toward a quantitative evaluation of timber strength through on-site tests 1737
A. Benedetti & M. Tarozzi
Comparative studies of three tropical wood species under compressive cyclic loading
and various moisture content levels 1743
A.C. Engonga Edzang, C.F. Pambou Nziengui, S. Ikogou & R. Moutou Pitti
Thermo-hygro-mechanical behaviour of notched beams of European species under creep
loadings in outdoor conditions 1748
M. Asseko Ella, C.F. Pambou Nziengui, S. Ikogou & R. Moutou Pitti
Mechanical characterization of tropical glued solid timber beams 1752
C.H. Ndong Bidzo, R. Moutou Pitti, S. Ikogou & B. Kaiser
The effect of the moisture content on some mechanical properties of Casuarina wood 1757
M. Hussein, K. Nassar & M. Darwish
A database for spatial variability assessment of mechanical parameters for Ozigo specie under
long-term bending tests in Gabon 1762
V. Nsouami, E. Bastidas-Arteaga, R. Moutou Pitti & N. Manfoumbi
Simulation and analysis of adhesive failure in Glued-in Rod (GiR) connections for
timber structures 1768
S.R. Atashipour, K. Lundgren, P. Feldt & A. Thelin

22. Railway bridges, railway infrastructure, highway bridges

Railway vehicle dynamics interaction with a flexible track 1777
J. Ambrosio, J. Costa, P. Antunes, H. Magalhaes & J. Pombo
Running safety assessment of a high-speed train moving over the new Volga River Bridge
subjected to crosswinds 1785
P.A. Montenegro, R. Calçada, A. Bolkovoy & I. Chebykin
Pantograph-catenary interaction in curved railway tracks 1791
J. Ambrosio, P. Antunes, J. Pombo & A. Facchinetti

XX
Investigation of track-bridge interaction in railway cable-stayed bridges under train braking 1799
Y.H. Yan, D.J. Wu, Q. Li, A. O’Connor & M. Nogal
Assessment of the dynamic behavior of the railway bridge over the Sado River based
on a monitoring system 1805
A. Meixedo, R. Calçada, D. Ribeiro & J. Santos
Real-time hybrid simulation of a bridge-damper system 1810
S. Tell, A. Andersson, R. Karoumi, A. Najafi & B.F. Spencer Jr.
Dynamic analysis of high-speed precast railway bridges 1814
D. Nunes, C. Gomes, J. Terra, D. Ribeiro & R. Calçada
Application of the SPS-technology in short span railway bridges 1819
P. Händler & J. Lange
Investigating heavy haul train loading spectra through weigh-in-motion big data analysis 1825
F. Busatta
Maintenance and recovery of bridges and tunnels in a freight traffic railway line 1831
A.M. Bonatto, F.A.F. Furtado & C.V. Schlögel
Study on behavior due to creep of cables in short and medium size unstiffened suspension bridges 1837
K. Ueno, T. Yamaguchi & H. Kaido
Modeling of permit trucks for bridge loading along German highways 1842
M. Nowak & O. Fischer
Multilane reduction factors based on WIM data 1848
P.F. van der Spuy, R. Lenner, T. de Wet & C.C. Caprani
The development of a vehicle-bridge interaction model for South African traffic 1853
M.W. Meyer, R. Lenner & P.F. van der Spuy
Dynamic amplification factor for South African bridges 1859
P.F. van der Spuy, R. Lenner & M.W. Meyer
Reliability verification of bridges designed according to TMH-7 1865
S.E. Basson & R. Lenner
Design of the new Olifants river arch bridge in the Western Cape province of South Africa 1871
P.F. van der Spuy & H.J. Niehaus
Implication of constructing the New Mhloti river deck monolithically with the existing deck 1876
A.J. Faure & W.J. Martin

23. Performance of structures in fire, design for fire resistance

Probability-based approach to structural fire resistance evaluation 1885
M. Maslak
Steel-timber connections and structures in normal and fire conditions 1891
A. Bouchaïr, S. Durif, M. Audebert & D. Dhima
Thermal coupling in hybrid fire simulation 1897
F. Faghihi & M. Knobloch
Studies on fire resistance of self-drilling screws and those connections 1903
Y. Liu & F. Ozaki
Estimating time to structural collapse of informal settlement dwellings based on structural
fire engineering principles 1909
A. Cicione & R. Walls
Non-linear finite element analysis of a fire protected steel connection 1915
I. Singh, G.A. Drosopoulos & G.E. Stavroulakis
Numerical simulation of fire-following-earthquake at urban scale 1921
G.P. Cimellaro, M. Domaneschi, V. Villa & M. De Iuliis

XXI
Thermal and axial compression behaviour of full-scale concrete-filled steel-tube columns
(RCFST) exposed to fire: Experimental study 1926
M. Acito
Effects that change in strain ratio causes to structural fire resistance of a steel member –
formulation of stress-strain relationships considering effects of strain ratio and verification
based on in-plane analyses 1932
F. Ozaki & T. Umemura
Elevated temperature resistance of welded tubular joints 1938
Y.C. Wang & E. Ozyurt
Stiffness decrease for steel end-plate beam-to-column joint when exposed to fire 1944
M. Maslak, M. Pazdanowski & M. Snela
RCFST columns exposed to fire: Standard thermal test results discussion 1950
M. Acito & V. Lavermicocca
RCFST columns exposed to fire: Residual compression test results discussion 1956
M. Acito & A. Jain
RCFST columns exposed to fire: Non-standard thermal test and “hot” compression
test results discussion 1962
M. Acito & C. Chesi

24. Structural health monitoring, damage detection, system identification,

maintenance, durability, long-term performance
Structural health monitoring as a tool for smart maintenance of wind turbines 1971
M. Botz, M. Raith, A. Emiroglu, B. Wondra & C.U. Grosse
A numerical study of vibration-based scour detection in offshore monopile foundations 1976
M. Samusev, M.D. Ulriksen & L. Damkilde
Remote scour detection of a railway bridge utilizing ambient vibrations 1982
S. Kitagawa, M. Shinoda, H. Yao, K. Yoshitome & C.W. Kim
Impact of environmental based effects on SHM strategies 1988
M. Baeßler, D. Bhuyan, F. Hille, E. Viefhues, M. Döhler & L. Mevel
Adaptive training of neural networks by a particle filter for prognosis of damaged structures 1994
F. Cadini, C. Sbarufatti, M. Corbetta & M. Giglio
Vibration-based structural health monitoring: Challenges and opportunities 1999
M.P. Limongelli
Damage detection in hyperbolic cooling towers using vibration based damage
detection techniques 2005
S.M.C.M. Randiligama, D.P. Thambiratnam & T.H.T. Chan
Preliminary analysis of the dynamic behavior of two strategic buildings subjected to the
2016 Central Italy earthquake 2011
C. Iacovino, R. Ditommaso, F.C. Ponzo & M.P. Limongelli
On the use of kernel PCA for compensation of environmental effects on natural
frequency estimates 2017
C. Rainieri & E. Reynders
A concept for an integrated risk-based operation and maintenance strategy for wind turbines 2023
C.T. Geiss & C.U. Grosse
Damage experiment on a steel plate girder bridge and vibration based damage detection 2029
C.W. Kim, Y. Goi, T. Mimasu & M. Kawatani
Earth mass movements monitoring by means of fiber optics inclinometers and pattern
recognition techniques 2035
J. Sierra-Pérez, J. Alvarez-Montoya, J. Álvarez-Guerrero,
J.S. Parra-Sánchez & F. Amaya-Fernández

XXII
Vibration monitoring and damage experiment on a prestressed concrete bridge 2041
O.S. Luna Vera, Y. Kondo, C.W. Kim & Y. Oshima
Analysis, visualization and monitoring of traffic-induced low frequency sound
radiated from bridges 2047
S. Kimura, K. Ono, R. Chen & C.W. Kim
Initial curing monitoring of composite civil-engineering repairs and life-time embedded
wave-based surveillance network 2053
O.A. Bareille, M. Salvia, M. Ichchou & M. Zhang
Influence of damage and boundary conditions on the modal properties of unreinforced masonry
infill walls in reinforced concrete frames 2057
C. Rainieri, M. Di Domenico, P. Ricci, G. Fabbrocino & G.M. Verderame
On dependencies in value of information analysis for structural integrity management 2063
K. Ali, J. Qin & M.H. Faber
Investigations on relationship between the soundness of superstructure and the measured
acceleration given by FWD system 2068
H. Onishi
Conception of an interface for rotor blade inspections to semantic database for wind turbines 2074
S. Obermeier, C. Geiss & C. Grosse
Structural damage identification based on parameter identification using Monte Carlo
method and likelihood estimation 2078
T. Sato, L. Zhao & C. Wan
Embedded fiber-optic sensors in reinforced concrete beams 2084
G.P. Cimellaro, M. Domaneschi, M. Morgese, F. Ansari & D. Inaudi
Building information modelling in whole life management of reinforced concrete structures 2090
Q. Jiang, J. Douglas & S.T. Yang
Structural identification of bridges using computer vision techniques 2096
C.Z. Dong & F.N. Catbas
Corrosion resistance of carbon steel reinforcing bars: Cold gas spray treatment vs oil
based solvent sprays 2101
P. van Tonder, Z. Ndodana & N.W. Ngcobo

25. Structural assessment, historic structures, collapse behaviour,

failure analysis, repair, strengthening, retrofitting
Assessment of existing structures 2109
M. Holicky, C. Viljoen & J.V. Retief
Progressive collapse of structures – review and outlook 2115
U. Starossek
Standardized basis for assessment of existing structures 2120
J.V. Retief, C. Viljoen & M. Holicky
Damage assessment of concrete structures based on fractal dimension using nonlinear
fracture mechanics cracks simulation 2126
L.X. Pan, M.S. Cao, D. Novák & D. Lehký
The anatomy of a collapse: Forensic analyses, monitoring and restoration attempts
of the Fossano Bridge 2131
F. Bazzucchi & G.A. Ferro
Historical reinforced concrete arch bridges of Songavazzo and Brivio (Italy):
Dynamic identification and seismic vulnerability assessment 2136
M. Acito, C. Chesi & A. Jain
Seismic vulnerability assessment of Italian masonry churches at territorial scale 2142
G. De Matteis & V. Corlito

XXIII
Application of carbon fibre composite materials for the rehabilitation of fatigue
damaged steel structures 2148
Y. Kasper, M. Albiez, T. Ummenhofer, Y. Ciupack, L. Ledecky, H. Pasternak,
A. Geßler & M. Feldmann
A numerical study on the collapse of a precast industrial building 2154
P. Bamonte, M.G. Mulas, E. Nuzzi & D. Siciliano
Large-scale contact analysis for the stability estimation of the Mnajdra monuments 2160
S.M. Motsa, G.A. Drosopoulos, M. Stavroulaki, G. Stavroulakis, R.P. Borg, P. Galea &
S. d’Amico
Evaluating the influence of daily truck traffic flow on load effects using Monte Carlo simulations 2165
S. Pérez Sifre & R. Lenner
Rehabilitation of a historic building in Egypt: King Farouk Rest House 2170
R. Abdelmaksoud, S. Abdellatif, A. Aboulela, M. El Tawil, O. Rizk, A. Sefein, O. El Kadi,
M.N. AbouZeid, S. Khedr & E.Y. Sayed-Ahmed
Assessment of historical steel bridges 2176
P. Ryjáček
Influence of no longer permitted stirrup types on the shear capacity – experimental
investigations on prestressed continuous beam subsystems 2181
N. Schramm & O. Fischer
Shear tension resistance of prestressed girders with a low stirrup ratio 2186
M.A. Roosen, C. van der Veen, D.A. Hordijk & M.A.N. Hendriks
Safety of infrastructures: A case study 2192
M. Domaneschi, G.P. Cimellaro, F. Ansari, A. Zona & M. Morgese
Seismic behavior of irregular RC-frames damaged by corrosion 2197
S. Imperatore & M. Kioumarsi
BIM-based approach for seismic vulnerability analysis: A case study 2203
G.P. Cimellaro, M. Domaneschi, V. Villa, A. Zamani Noori, M.V. Pietropinto,
A. Cardoni & S. Marasco
Demolition engineering: Determination of the axial load capacity of steel columns weakened
by horizontal and diagonal cuts 2209
T.P.A. Dunn & R.S. Walls
Demolition engineering: Lateral load carrying capacity of weakened steel beams 2215
D. Mitchell & R.S. Walls
Steel contribution effect of pre-cracked RC beams bonded with steel plates 2221
S.D. Ngidi & M. Dundu
Dynamic performance of steel plate-strengthened reinforced concrete slabs in bending 2226
A.M. Olajumoke & M. Dundu
Structural failure analysis and proposed remedies for underground mining tunnels in
third world countries: The case of structural collapses of Merelani Small Scale Tanzanite
Mining tunnels, Tanzania 2232
H.J. Mtyana
Comparison between strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using steel plates and
double FRCM layers 2238
D. Khouzam, A. El-Nemr, E.A. Khattab & N. Hanna

26. Soil-structure interaction, foundations, underground structures,

geotechnical engineering, rock mechanics
A contribution to a new bearing capacity equation in cohesionless soil 2247
S. Krabbenhoft, L. Damkilde & K. Krabbenhoft

XXIV
Decreasing computational cost of a slope stability analysis by differential evolution
accelerated particle swarm optimization 2253
R. van der Meij & J.P. Kwekkeboom
Investigation of the soil structure interaction of integral bridges 2258
J. Grabe, P. Vogel & G. Rombach
Cyclic tensile response of suction bucket foundations in sand 2263
P. Gütz & M. Achmus
The behavior during construction of an existing tunnel that lies between two large
vertically parallel shield tunnels adjacent to each other 2269
N. Horichi, L.F. Boswell, S. Chang & Y. Oku
Case study of a rock slope failure and remediation 2274
Z. Cabarkapa
Porous concrete in secant pile walls 2280
M. Pulsfort, M. Herten & C. Fierenkothen
Analytical investigations regarding critical suction and skirt friction for bucket
installations in sand 2286
C. Schröder & M. Achmus
Design of railway embankment using the Mohr Coulomb criterion and GSK Model for
cohesionless soil 2292
S. Krabbenhoft & R. Christensen

27. Safety and reliability, structural design, architectural

considerations, building technology, structural engineering education
Advances in the reliability basis of structural design 2299
J.V. Retief & C. Viljoen
Flexibility and variability of industrial buildings 2305
A. Harzdorf
Tall diagrid structures: Unique behavior and design considerations of an unusual
structure type 2311
M. Sarkisian, N. Mathias, J. Gordon & R. Garai
Challenging expansions of major conference and convention centres in California, USA:
Two case studies 2316
M. Sarkisian, N. Mathias, J. Zhang & L. Hu
Architectonic forms and engineering systems designed by application of method of superposition 2322
J. Re˛bielak
Generalized parametric structural design: Framework and perspectives 2328
X. Lai & Z. He
Perspectives of experimentally based design strategies in steel engineering 2334
I. Wudtke & M. Kraus
Building cost implications of tsunami design per ASCE 7-16 2340
I.N. Robertson & J. McKamey
The effect of labor and material cost on the optimization of structures using the
Virtual Work Optimization Method and empirical formula 2346
J.H. Strydom & A.A. Elvin
An analysis of South African wind gust data in the context of the built environment 2352
F.P. Bakker & C. Viljoen
Development of an innovative composite mullion 2358
S. Jiao, S. Gunalan, B.P. Gilbert, B. Baleshan & H. Bailleres
Testing and strengthening of funicular arched steel truss false-work 2364
A.Y.A.A. El Sayed, M. Darwish, K. Nassar, O. Elkady & M. Hussein

XXV
Perspectives of moss species in urban ecosystems and vertical living-architecture: A review 2370
P. Julinova & D. Beckovsky
Incorporating the particularities of soil and water bioengineering works into a design
methodology with monitoring feedback loops 2376
G. Tardio, S.B. Mickovski & P. Sangalli
How much law education a civil or structural engineering graduate needs 2382
U. Quapp & K. Holschemacher
Engineering education in Egypt: Past, present and future 2387
E.Y. Sayed-Ahmed
Author index 2393

XXVI
 Advances in Engineering Materials, Structures and Systems:
Innovations, Mechanics and Applications – Zingoni (Ed.)
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-38696-9

Preface

The Seventh International Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation (SEMC 2019)
was held in Cape Town (South Africa) from 2 to 4 September 2019. This followed six previous conferences
successfully held in the same city since 2001, all with the original aim of “bringing together from around the
world academics, researchers and practitioners in the broad fields of structural mechanics, associated computation
and structural engineering, to review recent achievements in the advancement of knowledge and understanding
in these areas, share the latest developments, and address the challenges that the present and the future pose”.
More than 400 participants representing 62 countries worldwide attended the conference. It is remarkable that
the conference continues to attract many of the leading researchers in the field, despite the remoteness of the
location from the research hubs of Europe, Asia, America and Australia, and the competition from related events
taking place elsewhere around the same time.
Advances in Engineering Materials, Structures and Systems: Innovations, Mechanics and Applications are
the official Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and
Computation. These feature 411 contributions grouped into 27 sections. Some contributions report on the latest
findings aimed at enhancing our understanding of the behaviour of materials, structures and systems, while
others propose innovative solutions to challenging engineering problems. The subject matter of the Proceedings
is wide, covering new theoretical formulations, the mechanics of materials and structures, developments in
modelling, simulation and computational techniques, as well as the analysis, design, construction, maintenance,
monitoring, repair, strengthening and retrofitting of engineering structures and systems. While the majority of
the contributions were submitted independently, a third of all the papers in the Proceedings have been submitted
as contributions to special sessions of the conference.
The four keynote papers appear first, followed by the rest of the papers classified in accordance with the subject
matter. In these subsequent sections, and as much as possible, related topics have been clustered together. As has
been the case with previous SEMC Proceedings, the task of classifying papers into the most appropriate category
is not always straightforward, given the multi-theme nature of many papers. For instance, a paper dealing with
the strengthening of a steel connection to better resist earthquake loading might be found in either the section on
seismic design, or the section on steel connections, or the section on strengthening and retroffiting, depending
on where the main thrust or originality of the contribution lies. Thus, in viewing the contents of any particular
section, readers should be aware that other related papers may lie elsewhere in the Proceedings. The electronic
version of the Proceedings features a search tool, which should help in locating all papers on a particular theme or
topic, or by a particular author. While most sections feature topics that share some common aspects, occasionally
some unrelated topics have been placed in the same section, in order to avoid an excessive number of sections.
The Proceedings have been published in the form of a printed book containing short papers of length 2 pages,
and an e-book containing full papers of length 6 pages. It should be pointed out that the short paper is more
than just an extended abstract; it is a self-contained article that is structured in the same way as a normal paper
(i.e. with its own abstract, and generally featuring an introduction, a description of the research method, some
selected results, a brief discussion and main conclusions), but shorter in length. The idea is to allow the reader
to appreciate the essence of the paper from this short article in the printed book, and if interested in the details,
to then consult the full-length paper in the e-book.
The first keynote paper reports on the findings of research on cold-formed steel structures, and design impli-
cations of these. Finite element analysis is an area of research that has grown in maturity over the years, but as
the second keynote paper shows, there are still new frontiers to be broken. The third keynote paper proposes an
innovative approach to creating more efficient structural forms in concrete, a concept very much in line with
the broader theme of sustainable construction. Interest in high-performance materials and structures has grown
rapidly in the last few years. It is appropriate that the fourth of the keynote papers tackles this important theme, by
focussing on a type of construction that lies at the intersection of steel and concrete as the top two constructional
materials.
The next two sections both concern dynamic effects. Section 2 covers general dynamic analysis, the response
of structures to vibrations caused by wind, human motion, machinery, moving vehicles, trains, the driving of piles
into the ground, mining activities and other environmental effects. Section 3 specifically focusses on the response
of structures to earthquakes, and how to design buildings and other structures for earthquake resistance. The five
sections that follow concern the mechanics and computational modelling of advanced materials and structures,
which include nanomaterials, porous media, composite materials, metal alloys, functionally-graded materials,

XXVII
composite structures, laminated and sandwich structures. The modelling of damage, fracture and fatigue is also
featured.
With the world moving increasingly towards less reliance on fossil fuels and greater use of wind and solar
energy, a challenge has arisen to design bigger, more efficient, reliable and economical structures for harvesting
renewable energy. Section 9 features a number of contributions dealing with various aspects of wind-turbine
structures (both offshore and on dry land), from the design of special foundations to the dynamic response
and vibration control of wind-turbine towers. While not related to renewable energy, papers on fluid-structure
interaction are also included at the end of this section. Section 10 comprises mostly papers submitted for a special
session on blast and explosion loading. This features the latest research on the effects of blast and explosions on
structural components.
The theme of structural stability remains a major one at SEMC conferences. Section 11 is a collection of papers
dealing with the stability of beams, columns, plates, panels and thin-walled structures in general. Research and
development of space structures and other forms of lightweight construction, including shells, membranes,
tension structures, tensegrity structures and cable-stayed structures, is reported in Section 12. Structures that
adapt to changes in loads and the environment, by changing their shape or the way they resist the loading, have
become a subject of intense study in recent years. Section 13 is devoted to adaptive structures and related smart
structures, with the majority of the contributions having been submitted for a special session on this topic.
The eight sections that follow (Sections 14 to 21) deal with the analysis, design and construction of structures in
traditional engineering materials: steel, concrete, masonry, timber, aluminium and glass. As expected, the topics
of steel design and concrete design continue to dominate construction-related research worldwide. The papers in
Sections 14 to 16 are concerned with the latest developments in metal construction (hot-rolled and cold-formed
steel structures, stainless steel structures, aluminium structures, steel-concrete composite construction), with
Section 16 specifically focussing on high-performance steel, including high-strength steel. The papers in Sections
17 and 18 report on advances in structural concrete and related technologies, with the latter section focussing
on the increasingly important topics of high-strength concrete, high-performance concrete and fibre-reinforced
concrete.
Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, in the context of engineering construction and concrete structures
in particular, continue to attract much attention worldwide, as may be seen from the issues dealt with in Section
19. Papers on properties of concrete, construction materials and construction technology are featured in Section
20. Masonry, glass and timber are, of course, distinct engineering materials in their own right, each with its
own type of behaviour, and requiring its own design approach. However, and for the reason stated earlier, all the
papers concerned with masonry structures, glass structures and timber structures appear in one section (Section
21), the cluster on timber structures also featuring a good number of papers on the mechanical properties of
wood.
As is evident from Section 22, problems related to railway infrastructure have now entered mainstream
structural-engineering research, with the mechanics of train-track interaction, the dynamic effect of high-speed
trains, and associated design considerations being some of the topics covered by the various contributions. It is
clear that these topics will see further growth in future. Also included in this section are the related topics of
railway bridges and highway bridges, including loading considerations. From a safety point of view, performance
of materials and structures in fire is an issue of paramount importance, particularly in design considerations
for inhabited buildings. The papers in Section 23 deal with the behaviour of structures in fire and the design of
structures for fire resistance.
Particularly for large civil-engineering structures, the thinking nowadays is to reduce the overall costs of
the project over its lifespan, and prolong the service life of the structure, through careful monitoring, regular
maintenance and effective repair strategies. Sections 24 and 25 are devoted to the long-term performance of
structures. Papers in these sections report on the latest developments in structural health monitoring, more
effective techniques for detecting damage and assessing structures for damage or remaining life, new approaches
to failure analysis, preservation of historic buildings, and new techniques for the repair, strengthening and
retrofitting of existing structures. Section 26 contains papers related to soil mechanics, geotechnology and
foundation engineering, which include the topics of soil-structure interaction, underground structures, special
foundations, slope stability and rock mechanics. The last section features contributions concerned with structural
design in general, covering issues of safety and reliability, design principles and code provisions. Also included
are papers on building technology, architectural considerations and structural engineering education.
The editor is thankful to all authors for contributing to these Proceedings. It is hoped the wealth of information
contained in this book will serve as a valuable resource to both researchers and practitioners alike. The editor
is particularly indebted to the organisers of the special sessions of the conference, who invited contributions
on certain specialised topics, and played an important role in the assessment of papers submitted for these
sessions. In general, the review of all papers was undertaken by members of the International Advisory Board
and other identified experts acting independently, and only those papers that were accepted have been included
in the Proceedings. The editor is deeply indebted to all reviewers for their input in enhancing the quality of the
Proceedings.

XXVIII
 In his capacity as conference chair, and on behalf of the Organising Committee, the editor is most grateful
to all those who served as session chairs. Without their commitment, the conference would not have been the
success it was. Postgraduate students of the University of Cape Town also assisted in ensuring that everything
ran smoothly in the sessions. Their input is gratefully acknowledged.
The support received from government agencies and industry is acknowledged with thanks. The main sponsors
of SEMC 2019 included the National Research Foundation of South Africa (NRF), the South African National
Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) and ADINA R & D Inc. (USA engineering software company).
Last but not least, the editor wishes to acknowledge the support and encouragement of his family throughout
the two years of preparations for this conference. Without this support, it would have been impossible to withstand
the intense pressure of the final 6 months leading into the conference.
A. Zingoni
Editor

XXIX
 Advances in Engineering Materials, Structures and Systems:
Innovations, Mechanics and Applications – Zingoni (Ed.)
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-38696-9

Committees of the SEMC 2019 International Conference

LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE

A. Zingoni, University of Cape Town (Chairman) S. Skatulla, University of Cape Town

M. Latimer, Joint Struct. Div. of SAICE & IStructE D. Kalumba, University of Cape Town
K. Mudenda, University of Cape Town L. Zingoni, University of Cape Town

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY BOARD

Professor M. Achmus Professor N. Banthia

Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany University of British Columbia, Canada
Professor S. Adali Professor R.C. Barros
University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa University of Porto, Portugal
Professor H. Adeli Dr. C. Basaglia
Ohio State University, USA University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Professor S. Adriaenssens Professor K.J. Bathe
Princeton University, USA Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
Professor M.G. Alexander
University of Cape Town, South Africa Professor Z.P. Bazant
Northwestern University, USA
Professor J. Ambrosio
University of Lisbon, Portugal Professor J.L.I.F. Belis
Professor L.V. Andersen Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Aarhus University, Denmark Professor K. Bergmeister
Professor C.J. Anumba University of Natural Resources & Life Sciences, Austria
Pennsylvania State University, USA Professor D. Beskos
Professor A. Araujo University of Patras, Greece
University of Lisbon, Portugal Professor F.S.K. Bijlaard
Professor F. Armero Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
University of California at Berkeley, USA
Professor L. Bisby
Professor H. Askes University of Edinburgh, UK
University of Sheffield, UK
Professor Z. Bittnar
Professor A. Asteneh-Asl Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
University of California at Berkeley, USA
Professor J. Blachut
Dr. M. Baessler University of Liverpool, UK
Federal Institute for Material Research &
Testing, Germany Professor F. Bontempi
University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Professor B. Baier
Professor G. Borino
University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
University of Palermo, Italy
Professor C. Bailey Professor C. Borri
University of Manchester, UK University of Florence, Italy
Professor T. Balendra Professor L.F. Boswell
National University of Singapore, Singapore City University, London, UK
Professor Y. Ballim Professor H. Bouchair
Sol Plaatje University, South Africa Clermont Auvergne University, France
Professor J.R. Banerjee Professor M. Bradford
City University London, UK University of New South Wales, Australia
Professor L.C. Bank Professor E. Bruehwiler
Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Switzerland

XXXI
Professor R. Burgueno Professor W. Ehlers
Michigan State University, USA University of Stuttgart, Germany
Professor O. Buyukozturk Professor A.A. El Damatty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA University of Western Ontario, Canada
Professor A.Y. Elghazouli
Professor S. Caddemi
Imperial College London, UK
University of Catania, Italy
Professor A. Elnashai
Professor D. Camotim University of Houston, USA
University of Lisbon, Portugal
Professor M. Engelhardt
Professor W. Cantwell University of Texas at Austin, USA
University of Liverpool, UK
Professor E. Erdogmus
Dr. C. Caprani University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Monash University, Australia
Professor M. Fontana
Professor R. Cerny Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland
Czech Technical University in Prague, Professor D.M. Frangopol
Czech Republic Lehigh University, USA
Professor J.F. Chen Professor E. Fehling
Queen’s University of Belfast, UK University of Kassel, Germany
Professor R.L. Chen Professor J. Feix
Xiang Tan University, China University of Innsbruck, Austria
Professor C.K. Choi Professor F.C. Filippou
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and University of California at Berkeley, USA
Technology, Korea Professor Y. Fujino
Professor A.K. Chopra Yokohama National University, Japan
University of California at Berkeley, USA Professor L. Gardner
Professor K.F. Chung Imperial College London, UK
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China Professor A. Ghobarah
Professor J.G.A. Croll McMaster University, Canada
University College London, UK Professor A. Ghorbanpoor
Professor A. d’Ambrisi University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA
University of Florence, Italy Professor R.I. Gilbert
Professor R. de Borst University of New South Wales, Australia
University of Sheffield, UK Professor L. Giuliani
Professor G. De Matteis Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Italy Professor M. Gizejowski
Professor V. Denoel Warsaw University of Technology, Poland
University of Liege, Belgium Professor L.A. Godoy
Professor G. De Roeck Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, Argentina
Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium Professor M. Gohnert
Professor A. De Stefano University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
Politecnico di Torino, Italy Professor P. Gosling
Professor E. Detournay University of Newcastle, UK
University of Minnesota, USA Professor P.L. Gould
Professor J.E. Dolbow Washington University, USA
Duke University, USA Professor A. Gresnigt
Professor G. Domokos Technical University of Delft, The Netherlands
Budapest University of Technology and Professor A.A. Groenwold
Economics, Hungary University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
Professor D. Dubina Professor S. Guest
University of Timisoara, Romania University of Cambridge, UK
Professor J. Dulinska Professor W. Guggenberger
Cracow University of Technology, Poland Technical University of Graz, Austria
Professor M. Dundu Professor G. Hancock
University of Johannesburg, South Africa University of Sydney, Australia

XXXII
Professor R. Harte Professor H.N. Li
Bergische University Wuppertal, Germany Dalian University of Technology, China
Professor N.M. Hawkins Professor M.P. Limongelli
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Professor S. Heyns Professor A. Long
University of Pretoria, South Africa Queen’s University of Belfast, UK
Professor M. Holicky Professor J. Loughlan
Czech Technical University in Prague, Loughborough University, UK
Czech Republic Professor Y. Lu
Professor K. Holschemacher University of Edinburgh, UK
Leipzig University of Applied Sciences, Germany Dr. J. Macdonald
Prof T. Ibell University of Bristol, UK
University of Bath, UK Professor J.F.A. Madeira
Professor A. Ibrahimbegovic University of Lisbon, Portugal
Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, France Professor K. Magnucki
Professor A. Ilki Institute of Rail Vehicles TABOR, Poland
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Professor J. Mahachi
Professor K. Jarmai University of Johannesburg, South Africa
University of Miskolc, Hungary Professor J. Maljaars
Professor D. Jun Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Hochschule Ruhr West, Germany Professor H.A. Mang
Professor H.J. Jung Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Professor M. Maslak
Technology, Korea Cracow University of Technology, Poland
Professor A. Kappos Professor H. Matsunaga
City University London, UK Setsunan University, Japan
Professor M. Karmazinova Professor F.M. Mazzolani
Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Professor R. Karoumi Professor J. Melcher
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic
Professor J. Katsikadelis Professor B. Middendorf
National Technical University of Athens, Greece University of Kassel, Germany
Professor A. Kaveh Professor F.J. Montans
Iran University of Science and Technology, Iran Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain
Professor K. Kayvani Professor G. Morgenthal
Aurecon Group, Australia Bauhaus Universität Weimar, Germany
Professor H.K. Kim Professor C.A. Mota Soares
Seoul National University, Korea University of Lisbon, Portugal
Professor S. Kitipornchai Professor M. Motavalli
University of Queensland, Australia EMPA, Switzerland
Professor J.M. Ko Professor A.L. Mrema
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Professor J.G. Korvink Professor A. Mufti
University of Freiburg, Germany University of Manitoba, Canada
Professor U. Kuhlmann Professor A. Muttoni
University of Stuttgart, Germany Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne,
Professor G. Langdon Switzerland
University of Cape Town, South Africa Professor J. Naprstek
Professor J. Lange Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic,
Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany Czech Republic
Professor D.T. Lau Professor R.S. Narayanan
Carleton Ottawa University, Canada Consultant to Clark Smith Partnership, UK
Professor R.W. Lewis Professor D.A. Nethercot
University of Wales at Swansea, UK Imperial College London, UK

XXXIII
Professor V.T. Nguyen Professor C.A. Rogers
Graz University of Technology, Austria McGill University, Canada
Professor Y.Q. Ni Professor G. Rombach
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China Technical University of Hamburg, Germany
Professor H.J. Niemann Professor B. Rossi
Ruhr University Bochum, Germany Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
Professor D. Novak Professor J.G. Rots
Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic Technical University of Delft, The Netherlands
Professor A. Nowak Professor J.M. Rotter
University of Michigan, USA University of Edinburg, UK
Professor G.N. Nurick Professor C. Sansour
University of Cape Town, South Africa University of Nottingham, UK
Professor J.B. Obrebski Professor B.W. Schafer
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland Johns Hopkins University, USA
Professor R. Ohayon Professor S. Schmauder
Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, France University of Stuttgart, Germany
Professor J.P. Ou Professor R. Schmidt
Harbin Institute of Technology, China RWTH Aachen, Germany
Professor D.R.J. Owen Professor J. Schroeder
University of Wales at Swansea, UK University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
Professor M. Papadrakakis Professor S.A. Sheikh
National Technical University of Athens, Greece University of Toronto, Canada
Professor G. Parke Professor S. Shrivastava
University of Surrey, UK McGill University, Canada
Professor H. Pasternak Professor N. Silvestre
BTU Cottbus, Germany University of Lisbon, Portugal
Professor A. Pavic Professor I.F.C. Smith
University of Exeter, UK Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne,
Professor D. Peric Switzerland
University of Swansea, UK Professor R.A. Smith
Professor F. Perotti Imperial College London, UK
Politecnico di Milano, Italy Professor H.H. Snijder
Professor M. Pulsfort Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Bergische University of Wuppertal, Germany Professor W. Sobek
Professor O. Rabinovitch University of Stuttgart, Germany
Technion Israeli Institute of Technology, Israel Professor M.A. Sozen
Professor E. Ramm Purdue University, USA
University of Stuttgart, Germany Professor U. Starossek
Professor G. Ranzi Hamburg University of Technology, Germany
University of Sydney, Australia Professor R. Stroetmann
Professor K. Rasmussen Technical University of Dresden, Germany
University of Sydney, Australia Professor C. Szymczak
Professor E. Real Technical University of Gdansk, Poland
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain Professor T. Tarnai
Professor B.D. Reddy Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
University of Cape Town, South Africa Hungary
Professor J.V. Retief Professor J.G. Teng
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Professor P. Reynolds Professor D. Thambiratnam
University of Exeter, UK Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Professor T. Ricken Professor S. Timashev
University of Stuttgart, Germany Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
Professor I. Robertson Professor J. Torero
University of Hawaii, USA University of Maryland, USA

XXXIV
Professor V. Tvergaard Professor Y. Wang
Technical University of Denmark, Denmark University of Manchester, UK
Professor B. Uy Professor M.J. Whelan
University of Sydney, Australia University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Professor M. Wiercigroch
Professor P. Van Bogaert
University of Aberdeen, UK
University of Ghent, Belgium
Professor A.C. Wijeyewickrema
Professor B.W.J. van Rensburg Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
University of Pretoria, South Africa
Professor W. Witkowski
Professor G.P.A.G. Van Zijl Gdansk University of Technology, Poland
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Professor W. Wunderlich
Professor R. Vaziri Technical University of Munich, Germany
University of British Columbia, Canada Professor Y.B. Yang
Professor P. Vellasco National Taiwan University, China
State University of Rio De Janeiro, Brazil Professor D. Yankelevsky
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
Professor O. Vilnay
Technicon Israel Institute of Technology, Israel Professor B. Young
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Professor F. Virtuoso
University of Lisbon, Portugal Professor R. Zandonini
University of Trento, Italy
Professor M.A. Wadee Professor M.W. Zehn
Imperial College London, UK Technische Universität Berlin, Germany
Professor F. Wald Professor R.R. Zhang
Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic Colorado School of Mines, USA
Professor J.C. Walraven Professor A. Zingoni
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands University of Cape Town, South Africa

XXXV
1. Keynotes
 Advances in Engineering Materials, Structures and Systems:
Innovations, Mechanics and Applications – Zingoni (Ed.)
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-38696-9

Recent developments in cold-formed steel structures

Ben Young
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Formerly, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

ABSTRACT: The paper presents the recent research and development of cold-formed steel structures
performed by the author. The topics that are summarised here include materials behaviour, sections with stiff-
eners, sections strengthened by fibre-reinforced polymers, built-up sections, oval hollow sections, high strength
steel sections and modular integrated construction using cold-formed steel sections. Cold-formed steel sections
with steel grades ranging from 350 to 1100 MPa were used. It should be noted that the current design rules for
cold-formed steel structures are limited to steel grades up to 700 MPa. Design rules for cold-formed high strength
steel members with steel grades higher than 700 MPa have been proposed by the author. The material properties
of cold-formed high strength steel have been examined in the research summarised in the paper, specifically a
series of coupon tests at ambient and elevated temperatures as well as post-fire condition. A stress-strain model
for cold-formed high strength steel has been proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION performed by the author. The investigations include

cold-formed steel material behaviour at ambient and
The development and use of cold-formed steel sec- elevated temperatures, sections with stiffeners, sec-
tions in building construction began in the 1850s. The tions strengthened by fibre-reinforced polymer, built-
first edition of the American Iron and Steel Institute up sections, oval hollow sections, high strength steel
Specification for the design of cold-formed steel struc- sections and modular integrated construction using
tural members was published in 1946 (AISI 1946), and cold-formed steel sections. The findings and results
since then cold-formed steel structural members have of these investigations have been published in inter-
been used widely by structural engineers. Generally, national journals. Further details of the investigations
cold-formed steel sections are more economical than can be found in these publications.
hot-rolled. This is due to the manufacturing process,
with cold-formed steel sections fabricated at ambi-
ent rather than high temperatures. Furthermore, the
strength enhancements in cold-formed steel sections 2 MATERIALS
are due to the cold-working effects, especially at the
corner regions of sections The manufacturing process The tensile coupon test method is used commonly
of fabricating cold-formed sections usually involves to determine the material properties of cold-formed
brake-pressing and roll-forming of steel sheets and steel materials in research and industry. The material
strips to produce a wide range of cross-sectional properties lay a crucial foundation for research and
shapes, such as sections with flange and web stiffeners. structural design. Different researchers may interpret
The rapid development of the cold-formed steel coupon test results differently. Inconsistent coupon test
manufacturing industry in recent years has allowed procedures and data analysis lead to inaccurate results.
the rise of more stringent requirements for the design Therefore, standard coupon testing procedures and the
of steel structures with regard to both structural interpretation of test results are important. Huang &
efficiency and architectural appearance. The major Young (2014) conducted a series of tensile coupon tests
challenges that structural engineers face are not only on metallic materials, including cold-formed carbon
restricted to structural performance, but also related to steel, cold-formed stainless steel and aluminium alloy,
architectural perspectives (Chen & Young 2018). The using different test and data analysis procedures. In
metallurgical industry has addressed the needs of the this study, tensile coupon test and data analysis pro-
market and developed high strength steel materials. In cedures have been proposed for both flat and curved
the context of this paper, high strength steel material coupons. The proposed procedures enabled the elimi-
is defined as that with a nominal yield stress (0.2% nation of possible errors and provided clear guidelines
proof stress) of 700 MPa or higher. for tensile coupon tests. It has been also recommended
The purpose of this paper is to describe briefly the that static stress-strain curve should be used for the
recent investigations of cold-formed steel structures determination of material properties.

3
 An experimental investigation of the material prop-
erties of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures
was presented by Chen & Young (2007). Both steady
and transient tensile coupon tests were conducted at
different temperatures ranging approximately from
20 to 1000◦ C. The test program included cold-formed
steel grades G500 and G550 with nominal yield
stresses of 500 and 550 MPa, respectively. Curves of
elastic modulus, yield stress obtained at different strain
levels, ultimate strength, ultimate strain and thermal
elongation versus different temperatures were plotted
and compared with the results obtained from the Aus-
tralian, British and European standards and the test
results predicted by other researchers. A unified equa-
tion for yield stress, elastic modulus, ultimate strength
and ultimate strain of cold-formed steel at elevated
temperatures has been proposed. Equation (1) shows
the proposed unified equation for yield stress.

where f0.2,normal is the yield stress at normal room

(ambient) temperature, T is the temperature in degrees
Celsius (◦ C), and a, b, c and n are the coefficients as
detailed in Chen & Young (2007). A full strain range
expression up to the ultimate tensile strain for the
stress-strain curves of cold-formed carbon steel at ele-
vated temperatures has been also proposed. It has been
shown that the proposed equation accurately predicted
the test results.
Figure 1. A typical tensile coupon test of cold-formed high
A test program was conducted by Li & Young
strength steel at elevated temperatures.
(2017a) to investigate the material properties of cold-
formed high strength steel at elevated temperatures.
Eighty-three tensile coupon specimens were extracted
from cold-formed high strength steel square and rect- tubular sections with nominal yield stresses of 700
angular hollow sections with nominal yield stresses and 900 MPa. The specimens were exposed to vari-
of 700 and 900 MPa. The coupon tests were carried ous elevated temperatures ranging from 200 to 1000◦ C
out using a steady state test method for temperatures and then cooled down to ambient temperature before
ranging from ambient to 1000◦ C. A typical test setup testing. Stress-strain curves were obtained and the
is shown in Fig. 1. In addition, the coupon tests were material properties of Young’s modulus, yield stress,
conducted using the transient state test method at vari- ultimate strength, ultimate strain and fracture strain
ous stress levels ranging from 0 to 1000 MPa. Material of the cold-formed high strength steel materials after
properties, including thermal elongation, elastic mod- exposure to high temperatures were obtained. The
ulus, yield stress, ultimate strength, ultimate strain post-fire retention factors obtained from the tests
and fracture strain, were obtained from the tests. The were compared with existing predictive equations in
test results were compared with the design values in the literature. The influence of heating rate on post-
the European, American, Australian and British stan- fire mechanical properties was also investigated. New
dards. The comparison results revealed the necessity to predictive curves for the determination of residual
propose design rules for material properties of cold- mechanical properties of high strength steel after expo-
formed high strength steel at elevated temperatures. sure to fire have been proposed. It has been demon-
New design curves for the determination of the dete- strated that the proposed predictive curves are suitable
rioration of material properties of cold-formed high for both cold-formed and hot-rolled high strength steel
strength steel at elevated temperatures have been pro- with nominal yield stress ranged from 690 to 960 MPa.
posed. It has been shown that the proposed design
curves are suitable for high strength steel materials.
Li & Young (2018) conducted a series of coupon 3 SECTIONS WITH STIFFENERS
tests to investigate residual mechanical properties of
high strength steel after exposure to fire. The tensile An experimental and numerical investigation of the
coupon specimens were extracted from cold-formed buckling behaviour of fixed-ended cold-formed steel

4
web-stiffened lipped channel columns was reported
by Dinis et al. (2014). The cold-formed steel test
specimens had nominal lengths ranging from 2100
to 3000 mm and were brake-pressed from zinc-coated
grades G500 and G550 structural steel sheets with
nominal thicknesses of 1.2 mm and 1.0 mm, respec-
tively. The initial imperfection measurements of the
cold-formed steel sections with web stiffener, fail-
ure loads and failure modes were presented. The
test results showed the occurrence of flange-triggered
local-distortional interaction.
The structural behaviour of cold-formed steel stiff-
ened cross-sections subjected to bending has been
examined by Wang & Young (2014). The stiffeners
were employed to the web of plain channel and lipped
channel sections to improve the flexural strength of
cold-formed steel sections that are prone to local
buckling and distortional buckling. An experimental
investigation of simply supported beams with different
stiffened channel sections was conducted. The stiff-
ened channel sections had the measured 0.2% proof
stress ranging from 572 to 689 MPa, and the thickness
ranged from 0.45 to 1.22 mm. The moment capaci-
ties and observed failure modes at ultimate loads were
reported. A nonlinear finite element model was devel-
oped and verified against the test results in terms
of strengths, failure modes and moment-curvature
Figure 2. A typical cold-formed steel stub column test.
curves. The calibrated model was then adopted for an
extensive parametric study to investigate the moment
capacities and buckling modes of cold-formed steel
beams with various geometries of stiffened sections. strengths and observed failure modes were compared
The appropriateness of the direct strength method for with the design strengths and failure modes predicted
beams that considered inelastic reserve capacities for by the direct strength method, as specified in the North
local buckling and distortional buckling in the North American Specification (AISI 2016). Reliability anal-
American Specification (AISI 2012) was evaluated. yses were also performed to examine the reliability of
The strengths and failure modes of specimens obtained the direct strength method for the cold-formed steel
from experimental and numerical results were com- C- and Z-sections with different stiffeners. The com-
pared with design strengths predicted using the direct parison showed that the direct strength method pro-
strength method specified in the North American vided accurate and reliable design strength predictions
Specification for cold-formed steel structures. The for the C- and Z-sections with different edge stiffen-
comparison showed that the design strengths predicted ers, but less accurate design strength predictions for
by the direct strength method were conservative for the C-sections with intermediate web stiffeners.
both local buckling and distortional buckling. There-
fore, the direct strength method was modified. It has
been shown that the modified direct strength method 4 FRP-STRENGTHENED SECTIONS
provided better predictions than the existing direct
strength method. In recent years, FRP (fibre-reinforced polymer) com-
Chen et al. (2019) conducted a test program on cold- posite materials have been used increasingly in
formed steel C- and Z-sections with different stiffen- the construction industry, and mainly for structural
ers. The test program consisted of thirty fixed-ended strengthening and repair. The FRP composite mate-
stub column specimens on six series of C-sections rials have several advantages, namely very high
and four series of Z-sections. A typical stub column stiffness-to-weight and strength-to-weight ratios as
test is shown in Fig. 2. The configurations of stiffen- well as excellent durability in aggressive environ-
ers were comprised of simple edge stiffeners, simple ments. It has been shown, both analytically and
lips with inward or outward return lips and intermedi- experimentally, that the addition of externally bonded
ate web stiffeners. The specimens were brake-pressed FRP composites significantly improves the perfor-
from zinc-coated grades G450 and G550 structural mance of a structural member with regard to its
steel sheets. The material properties were measured stiffness, load-carrying capacity, durability and fatigue
through tensile coupon tests. The load-carrying capac- behaviour under cyclic loadings (Teng et al. 2002). A
ities, load-end shortening responses and failure modes test program on the non-linear behaviour and load-
of the column specimens were presented. The test carrying capacity of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer

5
 screws, which are also convenient for industrialized
production. Cold-formed steel built-up open sections
(Zhang & Young 2012) and closed sections (Zhang &
Young 2018) subjected to axial compression were
investigated. A series of column tests was conducted.
The test specimens were first brake-pressed from zinc-
coated grades G500 and G550 structural steel sheets,
and then two of the same members connected together
either back-to-back or face-to-face by self-tapping
screws to form the built-up open sections or closed
sections. The members had the nominal thicknesses
of 0.48, 1.0, and 1.2 mm. The column length of the
test specimens varied from 300 to 3200 mm. The col-
umn specimens were compressed between fixed ends.
Initial local and overall geometric imperfections of
the test specimens were measured. The columns were
failed by local, distortional, flexural buckling and the
interaction of these buckling modes. The appropriate-
ness of the direct strength method for built-up sections
was evaluated. The ultimate strengths of the specimens
were compared with the column strengths predicted
using the direct strength method in the North Ameri-
can Specification for cold-formed steel structures. In
addition, the reliability of the direct strength method
for the built-up sections was evaluated. The results
showed that the direct strength method is applicable for
the design of cold-formed steel built-up open section
Figure 3. Carbon fibre-reinforced polymer strengthened and closed section columns.
cold-formed steel lipped channel long column test. An experimental investigation of simply supported
cold-formed steel built-up section beams with differ-
ent sectional configurations was conducted by Wang &
(CFRP) strengthened cold-formed steel lipped chan- Young (2016). Intermediate stiffeners were employed
nel fixed-ended columns was presented by Silvestre to the webs of built-up sections to improve the buckling
et al. (2008). The columns were strengthened with strength susceptible to local buckling and/or distor-
carbon fibre sheets bonded at different outer surface tional buckling. In this study, the built-up sections were
locations (web, flanges or lips) and having the fibres assembled by self-tapping screws from two channels
oriented either longitudinally or transversally, as the with web stiffeners, which were brake-pressed from
aim of the study was to assess the influence of car- zinc-coated grades G500 and G550 structural steel
bon fibre sheets strengthening on the column structural sheets. The screws were located either at the flanges
response. A carbon fibre-reinforced polymer strength- or webs, and the built-up sections include both open
ened cold-formed steel lipped channel long column sections and closed sections. The moment capacities
test is shown in Fig. 3. The experimental results con- and observed failure modes of the beam tests were
sisted of non-linear equilibrium paths (applied load presented, and no failure was found in the screws. The
vs. axial shortening) and ultimate strengths were used local and distortional buckling behaviour of the built-
to calibrate and validate numerical analyses based on up section beam specimens were found to be different
shell finite element models. It has been shown that from the single profiles. Finite element models were
columns with and without CFRP-strengthening may developed. The numerical and experimental results
increase the load-carrying capacity by up to 15% for were found in good agreement in terms of ultimate
the short columns and 20% for the long columns. moments and failure modes.
Wang & Young (2018) also investigated cold-
formed steel built-up beams with different screw
5 BUILT-UP SECTIONS arrangements. The investigation included both exper-
iments and finite element analysis. In total, thirty-five
Cold-formed steel built-up sections are gaining beams were tested under four-point bending with dif-
increasing interest from both researchers and in the ferent screw arrangements in the moment span. The
construction industry. This is because built-up sec- built-up sections were assembled using self-tapping
tions have larger torsional rigidity compared to the screws from either two lipped channels connected
traditional cold-formed steel singly symmetric open back-to-back at the web to form an open section
sections. The doubly symmetric built-up open sec- or two plain channels connected face-to-face at the
tions or built-up closed sections can be made by flanges to form a closed section. Finite element mod-
connecting two channel sections using self-tapping els were developed and validated against the test

6
results. A parametric study of built-up beams with web plates. This integrated the architectural elegance
larger spans and various screw spacings was carried of the circular hollow section with the structural advan-
out using the verified finite element models. The test tages of the rectangular hollow section associated with
and numerical results were compared with the design different flexural rigidities about the two principal
strengths predicted by the direct strength method for axes. The material properties, residual stress distribu-
cold-formed steel structures, with contingent consid- tions and cross-sectional behaviour of the cold-formed
erations of the screws when determining the elastic steel semi-oval hollow sections were presented. Four
buckling moments in the finite strip analysis. The cross-section series were included in the test pro-
existing direct strength method equations predicted the gram. The test specimens were cold-formed from
design strengths of built-up open section beams well hot-extruded seamless steel circular sections. Tensile
in this study. The design equations for local buckling coupon tests were conducted on coupon specimens
strength were generally conservative for the built- extracted from three critical locations, namely the flat,
up closed section beams. The maximum longitudinal curved and corner portions, of each cross-section.
screw spacing for cold-formed steel built-up closed Membrane and bending residual stresses distributions
section beams has been recommended. were measured in both longitudinal and transverse
directions. Initial geometric imperfections were mea-
sured for each cross-section series, and stub column
6 OVAL HOLLOW SECTIONS tests were conducted to determine the average stress-
strain relationship over the complete cross-section
Elliptical hollow section (EHS) is a type of oval hol- in the cold-worked state and to examine the cross-
low section with an aesthetic appearance and good sectional behaviour of cold-formed steel semi-oval
structural efficiency that include different major and hollow sections. Furthermore, a finite element model
minor geometric properties from those of circular hol- was developed and validated against the test results.
low sections (CHS). The mechanical properties of both An extensive parametric study over a wide range of
cold-formed and hot-finished elliptical hollow sec- cross-section geometries was performed. The load-
tions were investigated by Quach & Young (2015). carrying capacities of stub columns obtained from
The material properties of the elliptical hollow sec- experimental and numerical investigation were com-
tions caused by different formation processes were pared with the design strengths predicted by the direct
examined. Tensile coupon specimens extracted from strength method using the design equations originally
different locations across the cross-sections of EHS developed for open sections. The comparison showed
were tested. The study obtained the mechanical prop- that the direct strength method provided conservative
erties of the cold-formed and hot-finished elliptical design strength predictions.
hollow sections, such as the initial Young’s modulus, Concrete-filled steel tubular columns are used
yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, strains at ulti- increasingly in construction. The oval hollow sec-
mate strength and fracture, and the Ramberg-Osgood tion (OHS) is one of the new sections in the family
parameter that describe the shape of the stress-strain of structural steel hollow sections. Zhou & Young
curve. The mechanical properties of the cold-formed (2019) experimentally investigated both concrete-
EHS obtained from the coupon tests were compared filled single-skin and double-skin steel oval hollow
with those of the hot-finished EHS. The material section stub columns. The skin of the composite
strengths of the cold-formed elliptical hollow section columns was fabricated using cold-formed steel oval
were shown to be enhanced by the cold-forming pro- hollow section (OHS) tubes, where the cross-section
cess. The heat treatment significantly reduced resid- was composed of two semi-circular flanges and two
ual stresses in hot-finished sections and caused the flat web plates. A series of tests was performed to
mechanical properties of hot-finished steel sections investigate the effects of the geometric dimension
generally restored to a stage close to that of the virgin of the steel OHS tube and concrete strength on the
material. Furthermore, residual strains in the cold- behaviour and strength of composite columns. The
formed and hot-finished elliptical hollow sections structural performance of the composite columns was
were also measured.The strain measurements involved investigated using different nominal concrete cylinder
both the longitudinal and transverse directions across strengths of 40, 70 and 100 MPa. The composite col-
the cross-sections, and the residual strain distributions umn lengths were chosen so that the length-to-width
in the cold-formed and hot-finished elliptical hollow ratio generally remained at a constant value of 3 to
sections were presented. The magnitudes of residual prevent overall column buckling. The concrete-filled
strains in cold-formed elliptical hollow sections are OHS tube specimens were subjected to uniform axial
much greater than those in the hot-finished elliptical compression. The test strengths, load-axial shorten-
hollow sections as a result of the heat treatment for ing relationship and failure modes of the compos-
hot-finished sections. ite columns were presented. The test strengths were
An innovative cross-section profile, semi-oval hol- compared with the design strengths calculated using
low section, has been developed recently by cold- the American Specification and European Code for
forming. The semi-oval hollow section investigated by composite steel and concrete structures. The design
Chen & Young (2018) had the cross-section composed strengths generally did not agree well with the exper-
of one semi-circular flange, one flat flange, and two flat imental results.

7
7 HIGH STRENGTH STEEL SECTIONS

Cold-formed high strength steel tubular sections have

great potential in structural engineering due to their
high strength-to-weight ratios, low material costs
and strong resistance against torsional buckling. An
experimental investigation of the material properties
and residual stress distributions of cold-formed high
strength steel hollow sections was presented by Ma
et al. (2015). The nominal yield stresses of the hol-
low sections were 700, 900 and 1100 MPa. A total of
66 tensile coupons was tested to determine the modu-
lus of elasticity, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength
and elongation at fracture of the material. The results
were also compared with the American, Australian
and European, standards. Based on the Ramberg-
Osgood expression, a new constitutive model has been
proposed for high strength steel and good correla-
tions between the stress-strain model and the test
results. Residual stresses were also investigated in lon-
gitudinal and transverse directions on three hollow
sections. Overall, eighty-two longitudinal strips and
3 transverse rings were cut from the original sections.
An experimental investigation of cold-formed high
strength steel tubular sections undergoing web crip-
pling was conducted by Li & Young (2017b). The
tests were conducted on square and rectangular hol-
low sections of high strength steel with nominal yield Figure 4. Cold-formed high strength steel hollow section
stresses of 700 and 900 MPa. Figure 4 shows a web crippling test under End-Two-Flange loading condition.
cold-formed high strength steel hollow section web
crippling test. The measured web slenderness values bending-to-compression ratios. The compression and
of the tubular sections ranged from 8.3 to 35.8. Ten- bending capacities, load-deformation histories and
sile and compression coupon tests were conducted failure modes of the test specimens were reported. Fur-
to obtain the material properties of the test speci- thermore, a finite element model was developed and
mens. The web crippling tests were conducted under verified against the test results.
the four loading conditions as specified in the North Additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D
American Specification (AISI 2016) and Australian/ printing, is a generic term that encompasses a group
New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS 2005) for cold- of different technologies based on layer adding fab-
formed steel structures, namely, the End-One-Flange, rication. The technology has already been embraced
Interior-One-Flange, End-Two-Flange and Interior- by different industries, such as aerospace and biomed-
Two-Flange loading conditions. It should be noted ical engineering, and the recent advancement in this
that the web crippling design provisions in these two technology has generated a vast of societal excitement
specifications were mainly developed based on sec- for its future. Additive manufacturing technology is
tions with web slenderness values greater than 40 and still at an early stage for the construction industry.
yield stress less than 500 MPa. The test strengths were Yan et al. (2019) presented the mechanical proper-
compared with the nominal strengths calculated from ties and structural performances of additively man-
the North American Specification, Australian/New ufactured high strength steel tubular sections at the
Zealand Standard and European Code (EC3 2006) for cross-sectional level through experimental investiga-
cold-formed steel structures. Generally, the nominal tion. The test specimens were additively manufactured
strengths predicted by these specifications were either from H13 steel powder by selective laser melting with
unconservative or very conservative. Therefore, the three different scanning patterns, where the typical
existing web crippling design provisions are not appro- yield stress of the conventionally manufactured H13
priate for cold-formed high strength steel square and steel was around 1650 MPa. It should be noted that the
rectangular hollow sections. topic of additively manufactured high strength steel
Ma et al. (2019) presented a test program on cold- tubular sections does not fall within the scope of this
formed high strength steel square and rectangular paper on the recent developments in cold-formed steel
hollow sections under combined compression and structures. However, it is worth mentioning this inter-
bending. The nominal yield stresses of the test spec- esting topic on additively manufactured high strength
imens were 700 and 900 MPa. A total of 51 short steel sections herein. The test program conducted by
beam-columns was tested. Different initial loading Yan et al. (2019) comprised tensile coupon tests, com-
eccentricities were adopted to attain a wide range of pression coupon tests, hardness tests, microstructural

8
characterization as well as geometric imperfection steel sections have also been described. The design
measurements and stub column tests. The anisotropy rules in the current North American Specification,
on the mechanical properties was examined through Australian/New Zealand Standard and European Code
tensile coupon tests in both longitudinal and trans- for cold-formed steel structures do not cover steel
verse directions. Compression coupon tests were also grades higher than 700 MPa. Design rules for cold-
conducted to investigate the differential strengths of formed high strength steel members with steel grades
the material in tension and compression. The influ- higher than 700 MPa have been proposed by the author.
ences of scanning patterns on mechanical properties The details of the investigations and the proposed
and structural behaviour of as-printed high strength design rules can be found in the publications as cited
steel tubular sections stub columns were investigated. in this paper.
The test results were used to assess the applicability
of existing design provisions in the American Specifi-
cation (ANSI/AISC 2016), Australian/New Zealand
Standard (AS/NZS 2005) as well as the European
Code (EC3 2005) that was originally developed for
conventionally produced hot-rolled and cold-formed
steel tubular sections to the additively manufactured
high strength steel tubular non-slender sections. These
specifications generally provided very conservative
and scattered design strength predictions for additively
manufactured high strength steel tubular section stub
columns.

8 MODULAR INTEGRATED CONSTRUCTION

USING COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS

Modular construction can be adopted as a new form

of construction to enhance quality and productivity.
Shan et al. (2019) explored the feasibility of engineer-
ing modular integrated construction (MiC) systems for
high-rise buildings, where wind action can be a major
dominant from the structural engineering point-of-
view. Three-dimensional finite element models were
developed to investigate the structural behaviour under
gravity, wind and seismic actions. The serviceability
drift performance, ultimate member strength, con-
nection details, overall stability and robustness were
examined. Steel modules were used in the MiC sys-
tems. Cold-formed steel square and rectangular hollow
sections of 200 × 200 × 12 · 5 mm, 200 × 150 × 6 mm
and 100 × 100 × 6 mm were used for the columns,
beams and bracings of the modular units, respectively.
It was demonstrated that steel grade S355 with the
nominal yield stress of 355 MPa square and rectan-
gular hollow sections could be used effectively for
the modular steel columns, beams and bracing. In
addition, steel connections were used.

9 SUMMARY

The recent research and development of cold-formed

steel structures conducted by the author have been
summarised here. The investigations of cold-formed
steel materials behaviour at ambient and elevated tem-
peratures, sections with stiffeners, sections strength-
ened by fibre-reinforced polymer, built-up sections,
oval hollow sections, high strength steel sections and
modular integrated construction using cold-formed

9
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