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INTRODUCTION
0.1. IMPORTANCE OF THE COURSE

The learning of English by computer sciences students is of a very great

importance as English is one of the most important languages in the world. It is
a language of wide communication. It has been appointed the first business
language in the world. It is one of the languages the most used in sciences, in
technologies, in professioSnal and cultural settings in the world. It is spoken by
people and countries which have great impact in the world politics and the world
affairs. Besides, it has to be noticed that most scientific, technical and
professional information, is nowadays designed, edited, printed, published or
delivered in English. To this extend the mastery of scientific information and of
computer sciences related knowledge require in the parts of computer science
students a real mastery of English.

0.2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this course a skilled student is expected to be able:
a. To read and understand written documents in his study field in English.
b. To design and write documents in his study field in English and be able to make
himself understood through his writing.
c. To speak and interact orally with partners in his study field in English.

0.3. TEACHING METHODOLOGY

The teaching methodology adopted in this course has to allow learners
developing their reading, writing and speaking skills. It is namely referred to as
“task oriented approach”. In this teaching methodology students are trained to
develop their reading and writing skills through reading and writing activities.
These learning activities are organized around tasks where the student is the
active performer and the teacher is acting as the helper and the facilitator.
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PART I: SPOKEN LANGUAGE

UNIT I: PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH
1.1. ENGLISH ALPHABET
English language uses the International Phonetic Alphabet with 26 alphabetic
letters labeled as follows:

A B C D E F G H I J
ei bi si di i: ef dζi etƒ ai djei
K L M N O P Q R S T
ke el em en eu pi kju a: es ti
U V W X Y Z
ju vi dлblju eks wai zed/zi

PRACTICE
Task1:
a) Read the following utterances aloud;
 English is a language.
 Computer is devise.
 Computing is a technology.

b) Spell each of the following words:

 English: e-n-g-l-i-s-h (English)
 Language:…………… (Language)
 Computer :………….. (Computer)
 Technology:…………. (Technology)

c) Find out at least five other English words and spell them properly.
N.B: Reading aloud and spelling words orally are some of the ways to
practice pronunciation. To spell English words, one just needs to master
the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
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1.3. SPELLING VERSUS PRONUNCIATION

One of the most frustrating characteristics of English; is the lack of

connection between spelling and pronunciation of (phonetic) sounds.

The following letters and combination of letters have different pronunciations

when occurring in different environments.

1.3.1. PRONUNCIATION OF “a”

a can be pronounced:
 [ α :] as in after
 [ eɪ:] as in name,
 [ ɒ: ] as in wash,
 [ ә: ] as in the article a,
 [ ᴂ:] as in manage,
 [ eә:] as in care.
1.3.2. PRONUNCIATION OF “e”
e can be pronounced:
 [e] as in ten, or
 [ ɪ: ] as in she.
 or cannot be pronounced as in finished [ 'fɪnɪʃt ].
1.3.3. PRONUNCIATION OF “ɡ”
ɡ can be pronounced:
 [ ɡ] as in ɡive, ou
 [ dȝ ] as in paɡe.
 or cannot be pronounced as in niɡht [naɪt]
1.3.4. PRONUNCIATION OF “h”
h is aspirated in most of the words as in hat [hᴂt ]. It can be non-aspirated
as in hour [ 'aƱәr ].
1.3.5. PRONUNCIATION OF “i”
i can be pronounced:
 [ ɪ ] as in pig,
 [ aɪ ] as in nice,
 [ ɜ: ] as in bird,
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1.3.6. PRONUNCIATION OF “j”

j is pronounced [dȝ] as in John

1.3.7. PRONUNCIATION OF “L”

L can be pronounced:
 [ I ] as in leg,
 or cannot be pronounced as in haIf [ hα:f ].
1.3.8!. PRONUNCIATION OF “O”
o can be pronounced:
 [ ɒ ] as in coffee,
 [әƱ] as in no,
 [ u: ] as in move,
 [ Λ ] as in love,
 [ ә ] as in tomato,
1.3.9. PRONUNCIATION OF “q”
q can be pronounced:
 [kw] as in question, or
 [k] as in technique.

1.3.10. PRONUNCIATION OF “R”

r can be pronounced:
 [r] as in rich,
 or can not be pronounced as in farm [fα:m].
1.3.11. PRONUNCIATION OF “S”
 s can be pronounced:
 [s] as in miss, or
 [z] as in rose.
 The inflection s of plural nouns and the inflection s of third person
singular of verb forms can be pronounced:
 [s] as in cats. works,
 [z] as in dogs, lives ou
 [ɪz] as in houses, rises.
1.3.12. PRONUNCIATION OF “U”
u can be pronounced:
 [ ju:] as in music.
 [ Λ ] as in but.
 [ ә ] as in surprise.
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1.3.13. PRONUNCIATION OF “W”

w can be pronounced:
 [w] as in wet or
 or cannot be pronounced as in two [tu: ].

1.3.14. PRONUNCIATION OF “Y”

y can be pronounced:
 [ j ] as in yes.
 [ aɪ ] as in cry.
 [ ɪ ] as in fifty.

1.3.15. PRONUNCIATION OF “ai”

The combination ai can be pronounced:
 [eә] as in chair or
 [eɪ] as in wait.

1.3.16. PRONUNCIATION OF “au”

The combination au can be pronounced:
 [ɒ] as in because or
 [ɔ:] as in daughter.

1.3.17. PRONUNCIATION OF “aw”

The combination aw can be pronounced:
 [ɒ] as in saw or
 [ɔ:] as in law.

1.3.18. PRONUNCIATION OF “ee”

The combination ee can be pronounced:
 [i:] as in three or
 [ɪә] as in deer.
1.3.19. PRONUNCIATION OF “ea”
The combination ea can be pronounced:
 [i:] as in tea or
 [ɪә] as in ear.
1.3.20. PRONUNCIATION OF “ow”
The combination ow can be pronounced:
 [әƱ] as in blow or
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 [aƱ] as in cow.
1.3.21. PRONUNCIATION OF “oo”
The combination oo can be pronounced:
 [u:] as in food,
 [ɔ:] as in door or
 [Λ] as in blood.
1.3.22. PRONUNCIATION OF “oy”
The combination oy is pronounced [ɔɪ] as in boy.
1.3.23. PRONUNCIATION OF “ou »
The combination ou can be pronounced:
 [aƱ] as in mouse,
 [ɔ:] as in of course,
 [Λ] as in enough, or
 [u:] as in through.

1.3.24. Some English sounds do not have equivalent or are rare in

English. This is:
 The case of th which is pronounced:
 [ð] as in the, this, mother or
 [Ѳ] as in three, think, thank you.
 The case of the final ng pronounced:
[η] as in song et morning.

1.4. Why to practice English pronunciation?

The reasons for practicing pronunciation are numerous and significant:

 Improving our pronunciation helps with reading, writing and

communication
 A better understanding of pronunciation leads to less confusion,
especially during conversations.
 Most importantly, it’s a sign of progress and it makes you feel
more comfortable and confident with communicating in English.
 One of the most important additional reasons for studying
pronunciation is to have accurate expectations of how real people
speak and therefore, to better understand other people.

So, actively studying pronunciation for a few minutes a day can help you
make the important step from understanding and being understood in the
classroom, to communicate effectively in the real world.
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The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) will tell you exactly how to
pronounce words. This is going to be challenging but once you master IPA
no English word will be too difficult.

English, indeed, uses many diverse sounds. It has seven short vowel
sounds, five long vowel sounds, eight diphthongs, and twenty four consonant
sounds as illustrated in the following charts.

1.5. ENGLISH SOUNDS

ENGLISH SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS

Sit / dig Let / get Hat/manage Tomorrow Love/must

Got/dog Book/foot
ENGLISH LONG VOWEL SOUNDS

Car / park Girl / bird see / lead Door / lord Move / food
ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS

Fine Name Boy Dear Hair

How NO Poor
ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS

Pen Ten Cook Chair Shirt

Beer Dear Give John Leisure

Fan Thin Soon Leg Yes

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Van Then Zoom Rich Wine

Noon Moon Morning Heat

1.6. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

The pronunciation of English can vary dramatically from one region to the
next. There are two major varieties of English: British English (spoken in
Great Britain/United Kingdom) and American English (spoken in The United
States of America). The difference between these two varieties can be
noticed through some words, expressions, and in pronunciation.
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UNIT II: EVERY DAY SPOKEN LANGUAGE

English People use different expressions in different communicative
situations to achieve different communicative purposes. Here below are
some common expressions to be used in every day communicative
situations.

2.1. GREETING PEOPLE

English People use different expressions to greet members of the
communities. Among these expressions, a distinction is generally made
between formal greetings and informal/casual greetings.
Formal greetings
 Good morning........in the morning
 Good afternoon...…in the afternoon
 Good evening……….in the evening
 Hello!
 Hi!
 How do you do?
 Nice to see / meet you.

Informal/Casual greetings

2.2. INTRODUCING ONESELF AND OTHERS

Whenever people introduce themselves or introduce others, they
generally may use a language such as the following:

 Hello, I’m Bertin Kombenongo.

 Hi, my first name’s Bertin, my name’s Kombenongo and my family
name’s Onema.
 Hello, my name is Dowo and my first name is James.
 Hi, I’m Kotosoke Onema, but you can call me konem.
 Hello, I’m James. This is felix Mubenga, my teacher.
 Hello, I’m David Kongo. Nice to meet you James and Felix.
 10

 Hello, Ann. These are christoph Diwoko my father, Clarice Nsimba

my mother, Alex Ekofo my brother and Jannet Kavira my sister.
 This is Allison.
 Let me introduce you to Mr. Marius.
 Have you met Marius ?
 Do you know Ben ?
 Pleased to/Nice to meet you.
 I’d like you meet our new manager.

2.3. LEAVE TAKING

When English people leave one another, they use polite expressions such
as:
 Goodbye  Later, please
 Bye  So long
 See you (soon…)  Next time, please
 Tomorrow, please  Cheerio
 Later  Goodnight

2.4. REQUESTING
A) Requests for health
When people who know each other meet, they very often request for
health.
e.g : A: How are you?
B: I’m fine, thank you.
Here are some of the most frequent requests for health:
 How are you?  How are things?
 How are doing?  How is business?
 How are you getting on?  How is life?
 How are managing?  How is it?
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Optional replies to each of these requests for health are:

 Fine, thank you.  I’m just OK.
 Fine, thanks.  Just, fine.
 I’m fine, thank you.  Just, Ok
 I’m fine, and you?  Pretty nice
 I’m fine, thanks.  Wonderful
 I’m very well, thank you  I’m sorry, not very fine.
 I’m just fine.

B) Requests for information

Very often WH questions are used to request for information. For example:
 What is this/that?  What’s your address?
 What are these/Those?  What time is it?
 What is it /are they?  What’s the time?
 What’s your occupation?  How old are you?
 What’s your job?  How much is it?
 What’s your like?  Where can we send it?
 What’s your status?  Who is the manager?
 Where are you from?  What for?
 What’s your name?  Why did you refuse the
 Where do you work? order?
 Where do you study?  Whose order is it?
 Where do you live?

N.B.: Requests are very helpful to increase people’s competence in the

language. So, ask questions such as:

 What is the spelling of (computer)?

 What is the pronunciation of (c-o-m-p-u-t-e-r)?
 What is the meaning of (computer)?
 What is the French for (computer)?
 What is the English for (écran)?
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C) REQUESTING FOR MORE DETAILLS

 What is it like?
 What is the necklace made of?
 What size is it?
 What shape is it?
 How wide is it?
 How long is it?
 How thick is it?
 How heavy is it?
 How does it work?
 What brand is the watch?

2.5. ASKING FOR FAVOUR AND PERMISSION

More polite requests are generally used to ask for favour or permission. They
mainly use modal auxiliaries. Modal verbs are also used to give favour and
permission as illustrated in the followings:

 Can/Could I taste the grapes?

 Do you mind if I stand here?
 Would you mind if I used your phone?
 May I use your phone?
 May I go to the toilet?
 Would you tell me your name?
 Would you lend me your pen?
 Would you mind giving me some money?
 Would you allow me using your dictionary?
 I wonder if you would tell me the boss’s phone number.
 Shall I meet you this evening?
 You may attend the meeting.
 You can use my work book.
 You can go back home.
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2.6. ATTRACTING PEOPLE’S ATTENTION AND ADDRESSING THEM.

 Excuse me.
 Can I help you?
 May I help you?
 What can I do for you?

2.7. GIVING INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions are generally given with verbs in imperative. e.g.:

 Stand up.
 Go to the window.
 Open the window.
 Go to the door.
 Close the door.
 Come back at your place.
 Sit down
 Respect the road signs!
 Drive on the right.
 Don’t turn left.
 Would you please fasten your seat belts.
 Please be kind enough to return the car by Sunday.

N.B: imperatives can be softened by using please at the end as in:

 Stand up, please.

 Open the door, please.
 Close the window, please.
 Sit down, please.
2.8. MAKING SUGGESTIONS
 What/How about a glass of wine?
 What/How about tasting it?
 Would you like some coffee?
 Shall l open it for you?
 l suggest you taste this wine.
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2.9. EXPRESSING WISHES AND NEEDS

 I Want……, I would like……
 I would like to go to the hairdresser.
 I want to go there before five.
 I’d love to meet the manager.
 I feel like buying the suit.
 If only I had the time.
 I can’t wait to see it.
 I look forward to seeing you soon.

2.10. EXPRESSING LIKES AND DISLIKES

 I like this fabric.
 I find this colour absolutely beautiful.
 I love this silk scarf.
 I enjoy going shopping in Paris.
 It looks beautiful.
 I don’t like this jacket on you.
 I can’t stand waiting.
 It looks awful!

2.11. APOLOGIZING

When you have hearted people, use the following expression to beg for
pardon or to apologize.

 I’m sorry.
 Sorry.
 I’m very sorry.
 I’m really very sorry.
 I’m terribly sorry.
 I’m disappointed.
 I beg your pardon, please.
 Will you excuse me, please?
 I apologize.
 Please accept my apologies.
 I do beg your pardon.
 Do apologize, please.
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 I feel bad about that.

2.12. EXPRESSING CAPACITY

 He can help you.
 Can you come now ?
 John could get an appointment.
 Diana will be able to come earlier.
 The clients managed to understand us.
 Tim knows how to use this new device.

2.13. EXPRESSING OBLIGATION

 You must bring it to the after – sales service.
 You have to come back later.
 You’ve got to tell them what happened.
 You are requested to…

2.14. GIVING OPINIONS

 I think/I believe/I feel this is the best solution.
 In my opinion/In my view, Italy is a good destination.
 I have the feeling (that) a cruise is what you are looking for.
 Actually (= in fact), August is a high season.
 From my point of view, this hotel is more convenient with young
children.
 If you ask me, this hotel is the cheapest.
 This is how I see things.

2.15. EXPRESSING AGREEMENT

 I agree.
 I agree with you/him/her/them.
 That’s the best solution.
 I’m in favour of that.
 Excellent! Great! Sounds fine!
 Good idea!
 You are right.
 That’s true.
2.16. EXPRESSING GRATITUDE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 Thank you. Thanks
 Thank you so much.
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 Thank you for coming.

 I appreciate.
 You shouldn’t have.
 It’s kind/nice of you.

REPPLIES
 You’re welcome !
 Don’t mention it !
 It’s a pleasure.
 It was a pleasure.

2.17. EXPRESSING INTENTION

 We intend to buy a house in the South.
 I’m thinking of investing.
 I plan to take a farm.
 We want to buy it soon.

2.18. EXPRESSING CONDITION

 If I have time, I’ll (will) fix it this afternoon.
 If I had time, I would do it.
 If you had called me earlier, I would have done it.
 You’d better repair it. If not/otherwise, you’ll break down.

2.19. EXPRESSING PROHIBITION

 You are not allowed to go in.
 It is forbidden to walk on the rails.
 You mustn’t smoke in the station.
 You can’t do that.
 I won’t let you go.
 No smoking !

2.20. EXPRESSING LACK OF INTEREST OR INDIFFERENCE

 We don’t mind.
 lt doesn’t matter.
 We are not interested in painting.
 As you like.
 lt’s all the same to me.
 lt doesn’t change things.
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 It’s a matter of complete indifference to me whether you go or stay.

2.21. EXPRESSING ANGER OR FURIOUSNESS

This what an annoyed or unhappy customer can say:
 l can’t believe it !
 This is too much !
 You’ve gone beyond the limit.
 Enough is enough !
 That’s all we needed.
 That’s the last straw. « The last straw that breaks the camel’s
back » : « C’est la goutte qui a fait déborder le vase. »)

2.22. GIVING ADVICES

 You should stop smoking.
 You shouldn’t drink so much coffee.
 I advise you to go to hospital.
 Take my advice and have an X-ray.
 If you follow my advice, you’ll stay in bed.
 You’d better see a specialist.

2.23. EXPRESSING PREFERENCE

 I prefer the blue frame.
 I like these sunglasses better.
 I like it best.
 I’d rather try them on.
 I prefer to try them on.
 Blue is my favourite colour.

2.24. EXPRESSING REFUSAL

 I’m afraid it is impossible.
 I’m sorry we can’t accept.
 I wish l could say yes but…
 He won’t sign.
 It’s out of the question!
 You’re not serious !
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2.25. EXPRESSING DOUBT

 You never know.
 I’m not quite sure but I think…
 I have doubts about…
 It is not at all certain that…
 It’s difficult to say for certain…
 There is an element of doubt about…
 There’s no real evidence.
 He may/might be innocent.

2.26. EXPRESSING FUTURE

 It is going to rain.
 We will/we’ll meet you outside.
 I’m leaving tomorrow morning.
 The bus leaves in 5 minutes.
 We’ll go for a walk when it stops raining.
 If it rains we’ll stay in our room.

2.27. TELLING TIME

 Days of the week are: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,

Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
 Months of the year are: January, February, March, April, May, June,
July, August, September, October, November, and December.
 Seasons are: dry season, rainy season, summer, winter, fall, autumn.
 Cardinal numbers: One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight,
Nine, Ten, Eleven, Twelve, Thirteen, Fourteen, Fifteen, Sixteen,
Seventeen, Eighteen, Nineteen, Twenty, Twenty one, Twenty two,…
Thirty, Forty, Fifty, Sixty, Seventy, Eighty, Ninety, One hundred, One
hundred and one, One hundred and two,… One thousand, Three
thousand, One hundred thousand, One million…

 Ordinal numbers: First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh,

Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth,
Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth, Twentieth, Twenty-first,
Twenty-second… Thirtieth, Fortieth, Fiftieth, Sixtieth, Seventieth,
Eightieth, Ninetieth, One hundredth, One thousandth, One millionth,
One million and first…
 19

PLEASE USE:
On + day/date
 I’ll see you on Monday.
 We’ll see the show on July 23rd.
In + month/season/year
 We’ll go to the theatre in July.
 I usually travel in summer.
 I met Lioyd in 2002.
At + hour
 The performance starts at 8.
 I never go out late at night.
In the morning/afternoon/evening
The show is in the evening.

2.28: TELLING PHONE NUMBERS

Use requests such as the following to ask people their phone numbers.
 What’s your phone number?
 Would you tell me your phone number?
 Tell me your phone number, please.
 I need your phone number, please.
My phone number is
 0810355122  0987761185
 0856642933  0815552260
 0900763884  0985463266
2.39: DOING ARYTHMETICS
 25 + 65 = 90
 43 – 72 = 115
 90 ÷ 2 = 45
 5 × 8 = 40
TASK2: Calculate and then read aloud the following arithmetics:
 50 × 4 = ?  240 – 125 = ?
 20 + ? = 135  77 − ? = 32
 90 ÷ 3 = ?  273 + 127 =
Task3: Based on the language learnt in this unit, build a pair
dialogue making each partner talk at least thirty times.

PART II: BASIC GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH

UNIT I. PARTS OF THE SPEECH

If it helps you, think about a sentence as if it were a skeleton, the skeleton

contains various bones and these bones are put together to form different
parts of the body. So are sentences formed by words, the words are the
bones and they are put together in different ways to form sentences. English
consists of nine word families that actually constitute the parts of the speech.
They are namely: nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and verbs. The understanding of
each of these is necessary cue to the mastery of the English language.
1.1. ENGLISH NOUNS
Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you about nouns. A noun is
a word describing the name of a person (people), a thing, an object, a feeling,
an idea or an animal. Nouns can be classified into two main categories:
common nouns and proper nouns.
1.1.1. Common nouns
Common nouns are those describing two or more than two people or things
at once. e.g. car, policeman, office, computer, book…
as used in:
 I have a book.  This office is mine.
 He is a policeman.  I need a computer.
 My car is new.
1.1.2. Proper nouns
The concept proper nouns is applied to names of people, continents,
countries, towns, specific geographic settings, languages, rivers, lakes,
special trademarks, months of the years, days of the week… e.g. Nelson
Mandela, America, Africa, Europe, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
English, Spanish, Paris, New York, Nile, Ford. As used in:
- Nelson Mandela is from South Africa.
- He speaks English.
- It rains in September.
- New York is the capital city of The United States of America.
N.B: In writing, proper nouns always start with capital letter, while common
nouns start with initial small letter unless they are located at the initial
position in a sentence as in:
- Books are expensive.

1.1.3. Count versus non count nouns

There are two ways of seeing objects in English. Most often objects
are seen as separate things; sometimes, objects are seen as a whole or as
one thing. This allows to distinguish between count and non count nouns.
1. Count nouns refer to objects seen as separate things.
e.g. a job, a man, a lake, a pen…
N.B: count nouns can be singular or plural. They can be used with
indefinite articles when they are in singular.

2. Non count nouns refer to object seen as one thing or things which cannot
be easily counted.
e.g. transportation, power, heat, water, food, money…
N.B: Non count nouns also named uncountable nouns cannot be used with
indefinite articles and cannot take the plural inflection and are always used
with singular verb forms.
3.1.4. Verbal nouns
Sometimes, verbs are used as nouns and constitute what is called verbal
nouns. Verbal nouns also known as gerund are nouns deriving from verbs
.e.g. Coming, travelling, meeting …
In a sentence structure, they can be used as subject or object.
e.g.
 Meeting today will be very difficult.
 Let us meet for talking.

3.1.5. PLURAL OF COUNT NOUNS

Plural of count nouns can be regular or irregular
A) Plural of regular count nouns
To form the plural of most regular count nouns add ‹‹S›› and do not use a
or an before the plural noun.

bottle – bottles
 cup – cups
 pencil – pencils
 desk – desks
 sticker – stickers
 window – windows
 a car - two cars
 a boat - three boats
 (vowel + y) a display - three displays
 (vowel + o) a radio - four radios
Some regular plural count nouns require spellings changes:
1. If a noun ends in consonant + y, change y to l, then add – es.
e.g. Activity activities
Lorry Lorries
Cavity cavities
2. If a noun ends in sh, ch, ss, x, z add-es. e.g.:
Bush bushes Boss bosses
Church churches Box Boxes
3. If a noun ends in consonant + O, add-es
e.g. potato potatoes
Mango mangoes
To this rule, exception is made of the words:
Photo photos
Piano pianos
4. If a noun ends in fe or f, change f to v, and then add-es.
e.g. Knife knives
life lives
There are some exceptions to this last rule.
Chief chiefs
Chef chefs
B) Irregular plural nouns
Some English nouns do not take any form of “s” in plural. They have
irregular plural forms or special plurals.
1. Some nouns change spelling in the plural
e.g. Mouse Mice
Child Children
Man Men
Person people
Foot Feet
Some do not change form in plural. They have the same singular and
plural forms.

e.g. a deer two deer

a sheep three sheep
a fish four fish
a series two series
a) Pronunciation of regular plural nouns
The plural ending “s” can be pronounced in three different ways. It’s
pronounced:
[z]: after voiced sounds like (I, m, b, g, d, n, r, y…) or after vowels.
e.g. Rooms, bars, windows, words
[s]: after voiceless sounds like (p, t, k, f)
e.g. Socks, chips, ports, steps
[iz]: the final – s is pronounced iz after:
 S = as in voices, classes, spaces, offices;
 Z = as in exercices, noises,…
 Sh = as in flashes, dashes, dishes, slashes
 Ch = as in switches, matches;
 Ge/dge = as in pages, colleges, oranges.

1.2. ENGLISH ARTICLES

English people use two kinds of articles which namely are: indefinite and
definite articles.
1. Indefinite article
There are two forms of indefinite articles in English, which are: a and
an. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or before
an aspirated “h”; and “an” is used before words beginning with a vowel
sound or before a non aspirated “h” as in:
 A truck  An electrician
 A ship  An engineer
 A helicopter  An hour
N.B: use the indefinite article:
a) Before a non specific noun e.g.: My car has a windscreen.
b) To introduce a noun phrase for the first time
 e.g. My boss got an accident.
c) With singular count nouns only
e.g. I have a car, a motorcycle, a helicopter and a canoe.
2. Definite article
There is only a single form of definite article in English, it is “the”.
Use the definite article “the”
a) Before nouns describing specific information in a sentence.
e.g. - The Sun is bright today.
- The teacher’s car is new.
b) When the noun phrase has already been introduced in the discourse.
e.g. James has a new T.V set. The T.V set is a new Philips make.
c) With singular count nouns, plural count nouns or with non count nouns.
e.g. - The engine is accurate
- The data base is up dated.
N.B: don’t use articles:
1. Before uncountable nouns as in:
 Mathematics, Statistics, Accountant, Economics, Marketing,
Enterprise management, labor organization, labor law, Business law,
Adult psychology and so on are our faculty curriculum courses.
 Ignorance, jealousy, xenophobia and sorcery are serious obstacles to
African society development.
 Corrupting, cheating, fighting, killing, stealing are unacceptable
behaviors.
2. Before the names of seasons and meal as in:
 Summer time is the best period for studies;
 He rests during lunch hours.
Please say:
 The 1995 summer was very long.
 The lunch I had yesterday at university cafeteria was delicious.
3. Before some names of countries, lakes and mountains as
illustrated in:
 Lake kivu contains methane gaz
 Kilimandjaro is located in Kenya
Please say:.
 The Netherlands is member of European Union.
 The Kilimandjaro Mountain is quite impressive.
4. Before the words: school, market, hospital, bed, church as in:
 We went to bed at noon.
 She has been admitted in hospital after falling from a tree.
please say:
 The bed he made was too small for him.
 She was admitted in the Kinshasa general hospital
5. In some common expressions such as:
 They play football, tennis, basket-ball or volley-ball on Sundays.
 She goes swimming on Saturdays mornings.
Please say:
 The last Sunday’s football game between TP Mazembe and the
Brazilian team was very exciting.
Task 15: Fill in the blanks with definite or indefinite article if necessary.
 My father bought……..black car
 ………old man can’t walk alone at night.
 My boy friend took me to……party last Sunday
 I am travelling to……… Netherlands next year.
 He write…….. article in……… faculty review.
 My luggage was transferred to…….. Lusaka by mistake.
1.3. ENGLISH ADJECTIVES
1. Description of adjectives
e.g.: - a small train - a long path
- a flat surface - a short round
- Different types - old menus
- careful use
An adjective is a word describing the value or the quality of a person, a place
or a thing. It describes things or people. Among adjectives a distinction is
built between adjectives describing.
a) Colour: Dark, light, clean, black, brown, red, yellow, blue, blonde,
grey, green, white, purple, pink, multicolour…
b) Length: long, short, medium length
c) Hair type: straight, wavy, curly, short, long
d) Human height: tall, medium height, short
e) Weight: thin, average weight, over weight

Personality: Adjectives opposites

Shy = out going
Talkative = quiet
Messy = neat
Funny = serious
Nervous = calm
Energetic = lazy
Sad = happy
Strong = weak
English adjectives do not get into agreement with the noun phrase they are
related to. That is to say that they keep the same form and do not vary
according to the plural or singular of the related noun. Besides, they are
always located before (not after) the noun they are related to.
2. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives
Positive comparative superlative
1. old older oldest
2. Young younger youngest
3. Hot hotter hottest
4. Clever cleverer cleverest
5. Careful more careful most careful
6. fine finer finest
7. Late later latest
8. Happy happier happiest
9. Easy easier easiest
10. Interesting more interesting most interesting

N.B.: Comparative adjectives compare two things. Superlative adjectives

compare more than two things. Commonly, adjectives that contain only one
syllable or end in 'y' use 'er' to form comparatives and 'est' to form
superlatives. For adjectives ending in y, change the 'y' to 'i' before adding the
'er' or 'est'.

Adjectives with two or more syllables do not change but instead

add more to form comparatives and most to form superlatives.

 respectable – more respectable – most respectable

 beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
 preferable – more preferable – most preferable
 hardworking – more hardworking – most hardworking

Some adjectives have different forms of comparatives and superlatives.

 good – better – best

 bad – worse – worst
 little – less – least
 much (many) – more – most
 far – further - furthest
The word than typically appears in comparative sentences.

 Amy is smarter than Betty.

 Chad is stronger than Dan.
 Greg is more diligent than his brother.
 I have more apples than he.
 She likes him more than me.

Superlatives are typically accompanied by the word the.

 Tom is the oldest man in town.

 Paul is the tallest boy in the neighborhood.
 That shade of blue is the most beautiful color.
 This is the longest song that I have ever heard.

3. Comparative forms with “as”

e.g.:* Girls are as intelligent as boys.
* University of Kinshasa students pays as much academic fees as
their colleagues of UNILU.
4. Comparative forms with “than” e.g.:
* I am older than you.
* Some students find English more difficult than French.
Task 16: Fill in the blanks with “as” or “than”
* A stone is harder ……a brick.
* Please, eat as much…. You can.
* He is taller ……you are.
* Women live longer………men.
* Messi plays football much better…… you do.
* My shirt is almost the same color…..yours.
1.4. ENGLISH PRONOUNS
Pronouns are generally used to take the place of nouns. They are used
instead of a noun to avoid repetition. There are several types of pronouns
in English:
A. Personal pronouns
Subject personal pronouns
 I  We
 You  You
 He (She, It)  They
Object personal pronouns
 Me  Us
 You  You
 Him (Her, It)  Them
e.g:
I am Congolese. John is my friends. I like Him.
You are a student. Tell them my name.
He speaks French. I gave her some money

N.B: some words are used as pronouns or as adjectives. This is the case
for possessives, demonstratives, interrogatives….

B. Demonstratives:
Demonstrative can be pronouns or adjectives. There are four demonstratives
in English. They are; this, that, these and those. Each of these can be used
as adjective or as pronouns. Demonstrative are generally used to indicate
that the pointed object(s) or people (is/are) near/ far from the speaker. They
can be singular (this/ that) or plural (these/those)
 Singular Plural
This These Near the speaker
Far from the speaker
That Those

e.g.
This pen is blue. This is our English course.
That window is open. That belongs to the teacher.
Thesepeople are students. These are new comers.
Those girls are friends. Those are workers.

C. Possessives
A distinction is made between possessives adjectives and possessive
pronouns.
Possessive Adjectives
 My  Our
 Your  Your
 His, her, its  Thei

Possessive Pronouns
 Mine  ours
 Yours  yours
 His, hers, its  theirs

N.B. possessive (adjectives or pronouns) get into agreements with the

possessor, not with the noun they are related to.
e.g. – Jack is at the hospital. His son is sick.
- James is at school. His daughter is graduating today.
- Mary is at the hospital. Her son is sick.
- Mariam is at school. Her daughter has a graduation ceremony.
D. Interrogatives pronouns and adjectives
e.g. Who said you were going to fail the English course?
What kind of final exam do you really suggest?
Which language do you like? English, French or Chinese?
E. Relative pronouns
English relative pronouns are: That, who, whom, which.
e.g. – The man to whom I talked to said he was sorry about what
happened.
- The college from which Bertin graduated is one of the best
institutions in the D.R.C.
F. Reflexive or emphatic pronouns
e.g. - I sometimes talk to myself
- You have hurted yourself.
- She looked at herself at a piece of glass
G. Compound indefinite pronouns
Anybody anyone anywhere anything
Everybody everyone everywhere everything
Nobody no one nowhere nothing
Somebody someone somewhere something
e.g. - can anyone (anybody) help me?
- Someone (somebody) is waiting for you.
H. Distributive pronouns
Distributive pronouns are; each, every, everyone, everybody, everything.
e.g. - Each must do his/her best.
- Everybody knows him.
- Everything she says is true.
I. Quantifiers
English quantifies are: a lot, a little, a few, much, many.
e.g. - How much money does he earn per month?
 - Look at how little rice he gave me.
- How many boys do you have in your family?

Task 17: Fill in the blanks with the missing pronouns

1. The teacher……………is helping us to master the English language
is Bertin Kombenongo.
2. She introduced………to the class audience.
3. They help…….. to cook dinner.
4. …………students will fail if they do not work hard.
5. It is ………..duty to teach you good English.

1.5. ENGLISH ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that alter the meaning of the verb (adjective, or
another adverb) slightly. That is to say, adverbs are used in sentences
to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
A) An adverb tells more about a verb in the sentence.

 The fire engine runs fast.

 Listen to his speech carefully.
 I browse the web frequently.
 It rained hard.

B) An adverb describes more about an adjective in the sentence.

 The news is very surprising!

 The coffee is extremely hot, so be careful.
 Nature is really amazing!

C) An adverb modifies another adverb in the sentence.

 It rains very hard.

 Computers run much faster these days.
 I clean my room less frequently because I am busy.
There are different kinds of adverbs in English. Among these, mention is
regularly made of:
A. ADVERB OF MANNER
Commonly, adjectives can be changed to adverbs of manner. Adverbs of
manner are generally formed by adding “Ly” to the adjectives.

 Kind - kindly
 slow – slowly
 quick – quickly
 loud – loudly
 clear – clearly
 comfortable – comfortably-
 Careful - carefully
 General - generally
 Friend - friendly

To change adjectives ending in 'y' into adverbs, change the 'y' to 'i' and
add 'ly'.

 happy – happily
 easy – easily
 Angry - Angrily
 Comfortable - comfortably
 Probable – probably

Adverbs of manner are those used to answer the question “How?” as

illustrated in the following sentences:
e.g.:
* How are they listening * They are carefully listening
to the teacher? to the teacher.
* How does he work to * He hardly works to earn
earn his money? his money.
* How did you do the quiz? * I did it correctly.
* How did he replied to the * he replied intelligently
teacher’s question? to the teacher’s question.
B. ADVERB OF FREQUENCY
Adverb of frequency answer the question “How often?”. They tell how
many times a habit is repeated. They tell in a general way what percent of
time this habit occurs. They might look in a chart as follows;

Occasionally
Hardly ever

Sometimes
ten,seldom

Quite often
Not very of

Very often
Normally

Usually

Always
Almost
always
Never

Often
0% 100%
e.g. - Students sometimes need a rest.
- They very often wake up early in the morning.
- They rarely go to bed before 8.P.M.

C. ADVERBS OF PLACE
Adverb of place answer the question “where”
e.g. : Where does he stand?
Where did she go?
Where are we now?
Where did you buy your pen?
Where is your sister?
D. ADVERB OF DEGREE
Adverb of degree answers the question “to what extent?”
e.g. To what extent is this coffee bad?
To what extent can she drive?
To what extent are you involved in this matter?
N.B: Adverbs in general can be used at the initial, medium or final position
in a sentence.
e.g. - It is terribly hot to day.
 - Sometimes, students are very lazzy
- Paul has always spoken English
- John is a very intelligent student.
1.6. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words that relate one thing to another. They are of two
orders: prepositions of location and prepositions of direction.
A) PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION
Use preposition of location to talk about place. They usually combine
with position verbs (be, live, work, wait). They are mainly: in, above, under,
next to, on, at, behind, between, in front of, in the back of, near, closed to,
opposite to, until,
e.g.: - John was waiting at the car park.
- He keeps the key to the car in the cupboard.
B) PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION
Use the preposition of direction to talk about the direction? They
combine with verb of motion (such as go, get, drive, fly, move, run, walk,
come, lead…). They can be one word or two words. They are namely; to,
away from, on (to), off (to), in (to), out of, up, until, clown, across, along,
around, over, through.
e.g. - He is sailing through the sea line.
- He is driving to the station.
- The plane is flying away from the airport.
- They got out of the pub.
Task 18: Complete the sentences with one of the prepositions
1. We are……….the classroom.
2. She works…………..the south kivu province
3. They live……………..the people’s palace in lingwala
4. I go farming……………… Saturdays.
 5. Stand straight…………..your feet.
6. Back…………. work now.
7. He weights…………..75 kilogrammes
8. Air planes fly……………the town.
9. We were driving…………..the main road
10. They went………..the stadium to watch the football match

1.7. ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are connectors. Conjunctions are used to join words or
groups of words in a sentence. Conjunctions are also used to join phrases
or sentences together.
e.g.

 I ate lunch with Kate and Derma.

 Because it is rainy today, the trip is canceled.
 She didn’t press the bell, but I did.
 I went to the central library and borrowed some books.
 Will you be waiting inside or outside?
 All but you are not saying the truth.
 The head of the class and I will complete the task.
 John is absent but Ann is just late.

There are three types of conjunctions:

 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Correlative Conjunctions
 Subordinating Conjunctions
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses that are

independent or equal. Coordinating Conjunctions are namely: and, but,
or, so, for, yet, and not

1. And—means "in addition to":

 We are going to a zoo and an aquarium on the same day.

2. But—connects two different things that are not in agreement:

 I am a night owl, but she is an early bird.

3. Or—indicates a choice between two things:

 Do you want a red one or a blue one?

4. So—illustrates a result of the first thing:

 This song has been very popular, so I downloaded it.

5. For—means "because":

 I want to go there again, for it was a wonderful trip.

6. Yet—indicates contrast with something:

 He performed very well, yet he didn’t make the final cut.

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs. They are: both/and,

either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also

1. Both/and

 She won gold medals from both the single and group races.
 Both TV and television are correct words.

2. Either/or

 I am fine with either Monday or Wednesday.

  You can have either apples or pears.

3. Neither/nor

 He enjoys neither drinking nor gambling.

 Neither you nor I will get off early today.

4. Not only/but also

 Not only red but also green looks good on you.

 She got the perfect score in not only English but also math.

C. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating Conjunctions are used at the beginning of subordinate

clauses. They namely are: although, after, before, because, how, if,
once, since, so that, until, unless, when, while, where, whether,
etc.

1. Although—means "in spite of the fact that":

 Although it was raining, I ran home.
 She showed up, although she felt sick.
 Although my mom told me to come home early, I stayed out late.

2. After—indicates "subsequently to the time when":

 Please text me after you arrive at the shopping mall.
 We were forced to stop watching TV after the electricity went out.
 I always tell my daughter that she can have dessert after she eats
her dinner.

3. Before—indicates "earlier than the time that":

 He had written a living will before he died.
 Before he contacted me, I was going to call him.
 I need to finish the dishes before my wife gets home.

4. Because—means "for the reason that":

 Because he was smart and worked hard, he was able to make a lot
of money.
 They stopped building the house because it was pouring.
 I love dogs because they are so cute.
5. How—means "the way in which":
 I wonder how you did it.
 He explained how he completed it in a few days.
 Can you show me how you fixed the computer?

6. If—means "in the event that":

 If it is sunny tomorrow, we can go to the beach.
 If I receive a promotion, you will be the first to know.
 You can watch TV if you finish your homework.

7. Once—indicates "at the moment when":

 Once you see him, you will recognize him.
 Once the light came on, we all shouted with joy.
 Call me once you start having contractions.

8. Since—means "from the time when":

 I’ve been a singer since I was young.
 Since he graduated, he has been doing nothing.
 This building has been remodeled three times since I lived here.

9. So that—means "in order to":

 So that she could keep her position, she didn’t complain at all.
 He finished his work as fast as possible so that he could leave
early.
 He worked harder for a raise so he could buy a nice car.

10. Until—means "up to the time that":

 Don’t go anywhere until I come back.
 She didn’t realize her talent in painting until her teacher mentioned
it.
 They won’t allow us to sit until everyone arrives.

11. Unless—means "except, on the condition":

 You will not pass the exam unless you get a score of 80 or higher.
 I will not tell you anything unless you tell me what you know first.
 Unless you ask her, you will never know.

12. When—means "at that time":

 When I came in the room, everyone looked at me.
 I woke up when my baby was crying.
 I started looking for a gas station when my gas light went on.
13. While—means "during the time":
 Someone called you while you were at the meeting.
 We met while we were working at the University.
 My dog started barking while I was talking on the phone.

14. Where—indicates "in the place":

 This is where I came from.
 Please tell me where you are going.
 I need to know where John hid the present.

15. Whether—means "if it is true or not":

 We will have a picnic whether it rains or not.
 It is time to decide whether we should take action.
 You need to decide whether or not you are hungry.

D. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Conjunctive adverbs are words that join independent clauses into one
sentence. A conjunctive adverb helps you create a shorter sentence.
When you use a conjunctive adverb, put a semicolon (;) before it and a
comma (,) after it.

 We have many different sizes of this shirt; however, it comes in

only one color.

Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are: accordingly, also, besides,

consequently, finally, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile,
moreover, nevertheless, next, otherwise, still, therefore, then, etc.

 The due date for the final paper has passed; therefore, I could not
submit mine on time.
 There are many history books; however, none of them may be
accurate.
 It rained hard; moreover, lightening flashed and thunder boomed.
 The baby fell asleep; then, the doorbell rang.
 The law does not permit drinking and driving anytime; otherwise,
there would be many more accidents.

Conjunctive adverbs look like coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so,
for, yet, nor); however, they are not as strong as coordinating
conjunctions and they are punctuated differently.

A conjunctive adverb is also used in a single main clause. In this case, a

comma (,) is used to separate the conjunctive adverb from the sentence.

 I woke up very late this morning. Nevertheless, I wasn’t late to

school.
 She didn’t take a bus to work today. Instead, she drove her car.
 Jack wants a toy car for his birthday. Meanwhile, Jill wants a
dollhouse for her birthday.
 They returned home. Likewise, I went home.

1.8. ENGLISH INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word that expresses some kind of emotion. It can be
used as filler. Interjections do not have a grammatical function in the
sentence and are not related to the other parts of the sentence. If an
interjection is omitted, the sentence still makes sense. It can stand alone.

 Ouch! That hurts.

 Well, I need a break.
 Wow! What a beautiful dress!

When you are expressing a strong emotion, use an exclamation mark (!).
A comma (,) can be used for a weaker emotion.

Interjections do the following:

1.Express a feeling—wow, gee, oops, darn, geez, oh:

 Oops, I’m sorry. That was my mistake.

 Geez! Do I need to do it again?
 Oh, I didn’t know that.

2. Say yes or no—yes, no, nope:

 Yes! I will do it!

 No, I am not going to go there.
 Nope. That’s not what I want.
3.Call attention—yo, hey:

 Yo, will you throw the ball back?

 Hey, I just wanted to talk to you about the previous incident.

4.Indicate a pause—well, um, hmm:

 Well, what I meant was nothing like that.

 Um, here is our proposal.
 Hmm. You really need to be on a diet.

1.9. ENGLISH VERBS

Verb is a word that expresses an action, a fact, or a state in a sentence.
Action verbs express action and are the most common verbs.

A distinction is, however, built between regular and irregular verbs.

Regular verbs are these which follow regular rules of verb conjugation.
1.9.1. VERB FORMS
In sentence constructions, verbs can get into: affirmative form,
negative form, interrogative form, or into contraction.
Affirmative forms:
Action verbs need s at the end when used with third-person, singular
subjects in affirmative sentences such as:

 He eats bread.
 She walks to the station.
 It floats on the sea.
 Bertin speaks English.
 You have a new computer.

Negative forms:
Negative sentences need do not, does not, or did not as in

 I do not eat bread.

 He does not eat bread.
 You did not walk to the station.
 It does not float on the sea.
 Bertin does not speak Chinese.
  You don’t have a new car.

Interrogative forms:
Interrogative sentences begin with do, does, or did.

 Do you eat bread?

 Does he eat bread?
 Does she walk to the station?
 Did they finish it?
 Does Bertin speak lingala?
 Do you have a new computer?

Contractions:
Do not can be shortened to don't, does not to doesn't, and did not to
didn't.

 I don't eat bread.

 She doesn't walk to the station.
 It doesn't float on the sea.
 They didn't finish it.

Short answers:
 Yes, we are. No, we aren’t.
 yes, she did. No, she didn’t…
Task 19: put the correct verb form
 It is going ………..in a few minutes (rain)
 What……………..she think? (do)
 Do you ………….. cigarettes? (smoke)
 They ……………... to school yesterday (not go)
 What time ……………...?( john get up)
 I am…………………a letter to my girl friend. ( write)
 You…………………… tell him what happened. (ought)
1.9.2. AUXILIARIES
In sentence structures, verbs operate as main verbs or as auxiliaries.
Auxiliaries are used to help the main verb to express tenses and aspects.
A distinction is, however, built between primary auxiliaries and modal
auxiliaries.
A) PRIMARY AUXILIARIES
Primary auxiliaries are verbs such as:
To be: used to express progressivity or passivity
To have: used to express perfect aspect
To do: used to express negation, interrogation or insistance

B) MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

Can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would, must, need, dare,
ought to are modal auxiliaries. They are used to express modalities such
as; permission, obligation, capacity, possibility, probability, prohibition,
necessity, futurity…
UNIT II: SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

2.1. WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

Linguists have problems in agreeing on how to define the word sentence.

The concept sentence is traditionally (and inadequately) defined as a word
or group of words that expresses a complete idea and that includes a
subject and a verb. It is also described as the largest independent unit of
grammar actually starting with a capital letter and ending with a period/full
stop, question mark, or exclamation mark /point.

On the basis of this definition, some of the sentences written by ESL

students (indeed by all writers) will be correct, and other sentences will be
problematic.
2.2.: PARTS OF A SENTENCE
2.2.1.: SMALLEST PARTS

English language consists of nine word families susceptible to be

grammatically used in a sentence structure as it has been widely
described in the first unit. Each of them plays specific role in sentence
structure as stated bellow.

Parts of a sentence Description

Noun Nominative: Names things, people or
places etc
Pronoun used instead of a noun to avoid repetition
Article Determiners: a, an - indefinite articles,
the - definite articles
Adjective Modifier: Describes things or people
Adverb Alters the meaning of the verb slightly
Preposition Relates one thing to another
Conjunction Connector: Joins words or sentences
together
Interjection A short word showing emotion or feeling
Verb Action or doing word
2.2.2. MAIN PARTS OF A SENTENCE

A simple sentence actually consists of a single subject and predicate.

What is a subject? And what is a predicate?

2.2.2.1. SUBJECTS

A subject is the person or the thing the sentence is 'about'. Generally it is

the person or thing carrying out an action. Often (but not always) it will be
the first part of the sentence. The subject will usually be a noun phrase
(i.e. a noun and the words, such as adjectives, that modify it). In a
statement, the subject is actually followed by a verb.

The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions, "who or what."

Once you determine the verb, ask a wh...? question of the verb. This will
locate the subject(s).

For example: - David works hard.

-Who "works hard"? =David does=the subject.

-Beer and wine are my favorite drinks.

-What "are my favorite drinks"? Beer and wine are=the subjects.

2.2.2.2. PREDICATE

Predicate always includes the verb and the words which come after the
verb. Once you have identified the subject in a sentence, the remainder
of the sentence tells us what the subject does or did. This part of the
sentence is the predicate of the sentence.

In the sentence “Michael Schumaker drove the race car.” for example
"Michael Schumaker" is the subject; but "drove the race car" is the
predicate.
2.3. TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentences are categorized in different ways by different writers. The two

most frequent ways are by structure and by purpose.

2.3.1. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY STRUCTURE

One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. A

sentence, however, can consist of a single clause or several clauses. To
this extends, the four basic sentence structures are the simple sentence,
the compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-
complex sentence.

2.3.1.1. SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence is the one which contains a single clause and this
clause is called an independent clause (i.e. When a sentence is a single
clause, it is called a simple sentence). A simple sentence has just one
independent clause. A simple sentence contains a single subject and
predicate. It describes only one thing, one idea or one question, and has
only one main verb.

For example:

o I don't like dogs.

o I love chocolate.
o Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season.
o The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably
going to be knocked down at the end of next year.
o You can't surprise a man with a dog

Even the addition of adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases to a

simple sentence does not change it into a complex sentence. Even if you
join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a conjunction,
it remains a simple sentence.
For example:

 Jill reads.
 The dog barked loudly.
 The brown dog with the red collar always barks loudly

2.3.1.2. COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. It contains

two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Every clause in a compound sentence is like a sentence with a subject
and a verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence,
and it is the word that joins the two clauses together, (The most common
coordinating conjunctions are: but, or, and, so).

For example:

o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.

o I love chocolate, and I love eating chocolate
o You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was
injured.
o The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
o I walked to the shops, but my husband drove.
o I might watch the film, or I might visit my friends.
o My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn't like the actor.
2.3.1.3. COMPLEX SENTENCE

Complex sentences describe more than one thing or idea and have more
than one verb in them. They are made up of more than one clause. A
complex sentence contains an independent clause plus one or more
dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand by itself but a
dependent subordinate clause cannot stand by itself. A dependent clause
starts with a subordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while,
although, where, if.

For example:

 I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.

 She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
 You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to
correct mistakes easily.
 I love chocolate because it’s decadent.

2.3.1.4. COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE

Complex-compound sentence referred by some writers as Compound-

complex sentence Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two are
independent and one or more than one are dependent).

For example:

o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her
sneeze.
o You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily
correct your mistakes.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was
injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the
building.
 o I love chocolate because it’s decadent, and I love eating chocolate
because it’s delicious.

Those four categories apply to normal, grammatical sentences. However,

some of our most common expressions are sentences that don’t follow the
rules.

2.3.2. TYPES OF SENTENCES BY PURPOSE

2.3.2.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period / full stop. It is
used to make a simple statement. Most sentences in our speech or in our
writings are declarative.

For example:

o I love chocolate
o Clothes make the man.
o He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty.
o Naked people have little or no influence on society.
o I wonder if all the RDC politicians are members of a weird religious cult.

2.3.2.2. NEGATIVE SENTENCE

A negative sentence also known as negation is a sentence which is

denying. It generally holds a verb form carrying the negative particle “not”.
Not all verbs can carry the negative inflection “not”. “not” is carried by
auxiliary verbs only. If a main verb in a statement is used without auxiliary
verb, it will borrow the auxiliary (do, does, did) when getting into negation.
e.g.: - We are not stranger in this country.
- You cannot leave the office before the boss.
- Some students have not got personal computers.
- Politicians do not share the same opinions.
 - I do not like travelling by canoe.
N.B: The particle not is not the only one negative marker in English. Other
negative markers are never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere, and
neither. When not is carried by the conjugated verb, other markers are
carried by other sentence components.

e.g.: - Nobody understands her.

- He knows nothing.
- Not everybody can afford such holiday!
- He asked us not to repeat it.
- She went away without adding anything.
- We hardly know anything about him.
- She could scarcely walk, could she?
- Never did he work at night!
- No sooner had he graduated than he left his girlfriend.
- Hardly had she uttered his name than she burst into tears.

2.3.2.3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark.

? It is used to ask a question.

For example:

o Do you love chocolate?

o Who knew that dog saliva can mend a broken heart?

4.3.2.4. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

An imperative sentence is a command or a polite request. It ends with a

period / full stop. It is used for commands with the pronoun you always
implied.
For example:

o Please buy me some chocolate

o When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

2.3.2.5. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

An exclamatory sentence expresses excitement or emotion. It ends with

an exclamation mark. It is used for emphasis and emotion.

For example:

o I need chocolate!
o In Washington, it's dog eat dog. In academia, it's exactly the opposite!
o To die for an idea; it is unquestionably noble. But how much nobler it
would be if men died for ideas that were true!

2.3.2.6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

Conditional sentence is used to express what one would do if a condition

were met. There are several types of conditional sentences: the present
general (or zero condition), the future more-vivid (or first condition), the
future less-vivid (or second condition), the present contrafactual (also
sometimes called the second condition), and the past contrafactual (or
third condition).

For example:

o If I had a billion dollars, I would buy a castle made of chocolate.

o When a dog runs at you, whistle for him.

Advice: Writing that contains mostly short, simple sentences can be

uninteresting or even irritating to read. Writing that consists of mostly long,
complex sentences is usually difficult to read. Good writers, therefore, use
a variety of sentence types.

Sentences can be extremely simple or incredibly complicated. Obviously,

the more complicated the sentence the more care you need to take to
make sure that all the parts are properly constructed and agree with one
another. However, when you review your work, you should make sure that
all of your sentences contain all the necessary elements - at the most basic
level, at least a subject and a verb.

2.4. PROBLEMATIC 'SENTENCES'

To write a correct sentence, you need to have a good understanding of

what a sentence is. Students who don't have this understanding, or don't
take care, often include problem sentences in their writing. Native English
speakers are just as likely to write problem sentences as ESL students.
There are three main types of problem sentence:

2.4.1. RUN-ON SENTENCES

These are two sentences that the writer has not separated with an end
punctuation mark, or has not joined with a conjunction.

o I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have ever
visited.
o It's never too late to learn to swim you never know when you may fall
from a boat.
o If you're going to the shops can you buy me some eggs and flour I want
to make a cake.
o I like our new math teacher, she always explains the work very clearly.
o He was late to school again, his bus got caught in heavy traffic.
Advice: It is helpful to read your written work aloud. When you speak, you
will make natural pauses to mark the end of your sentences or clauses. If
there is no corresponding end punctuation mark in your writing, you can
be almost certain that you have written a run-on sentence.

2.4.2. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

Fragment sentences are unfinished sentences, i.e. they don't contain a

complete idea. A common fragment sentence in student writing is a
dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause. In the
each of the following examples the fragment is the second 'sentence':

o I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't study.
o She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very good
idea.
o He watched TV for an hour and then went to bed. After falling asleep on
the sofa.
o She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind her.
o I have to write a report on Albert Einstein. The famous scientist who left
Europe to live in the USA.
o After riding my bike without problems for over a year, the chain broke. 40
kilometers from my house!

Advice: If your 'sentence' is a dependent clause, or it doesn't contain both

a subject and a predicate, then it is not a proper sentence. You can often
detect fragments if you read your writing backwards sentence by
sentence, i.e. from the last sentence to the first one. You can usually
correct a fragment by connecting it to the sentence before or after it.
Good writers, who have a full understanding of the sentence, occasionally
choose to write a sentence fragment. So you may see sentence fragments
in the fiction or even some of the non-fiction you read. As an ESL student,
however, you should avoid fragments (except when writing your own
creative stories).
2.4.3. RAMBLING SENTENCES

A rambling sentence is a sentence made up of many clauses, often

connected by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, so.

o John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but yesterday his alarm clock did
not ring, so he was still asleep when his boss called him at 10.30 to ask
where he was and tell him that he would lose his job if he was late again.
o Although the blue whale has been protected for over 30 years and its
numbers are increasing, especially in the North Pacific, where whale
hunting has been banned, it is still at risk of extinction as its habitat is
being polluted by waste from oil tankers and its main food, the plankton,
is being killed off by harmful rays from the sun, which can penetrate the
earth's atmosphere because there is a huge hole in the ozone layer over
Antarctica.

Advice: A rambling sentence is quite easy to spot. You have almost

certainly written one if your sentence contains more than 3 or 4
conjunctions. If you read the sentence aloud and run out of breath before
reaching the end of it, you have written a rambling sentence. If your
sentence stretches over many lines of writing, you have certainly written a
rambling sentence and most probably a run-on sentence too.

Unlike run-ons or fragments, rambling sentences are not wrong, but they
are tiresome for the reader and one of the signs of a poor writer. You
should avoid them.
UNIT III: VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS
3.1. TENSES AND ASPECTS
The time line is always described in term of past time, present time, and
future time. The concept tense relates the form of the verb to the time of
its occurrence. English language has two simple verb tenses and many
compound or complex tenses.
 Simple present tense: Bertin speaks English.
 Simple past tense: James worked at the airport for five years.
 Present continuous tense: We are taking a basic grammar lesson
today.
 Past continuous tense: he was revising his grammar lessons.
 Present perfect tense: John has succeeded the English quiz.
 Present perfect continuous: They have been waiting for the
meeting.
 Past perfect tense: he had smoked cigarettes.
 Past perfect continuous: Tom had been listening for news.
 Future: I will/shall succeed the business English exam.
 Future continuous: Students will be reading new books.
 Future perfect: William will have gone to church.
 Future perfect continuous: They will have been planning new
strategies.
 Conditional tense: I would meet john if I have enough time.
 Conditional tense in the past: Workers would have gone into strike.

3.1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

A. FORM OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form

S + vb + s/es Do / does + s + vb s + don’t/doesn’t + vb

e.g. I speak English. e.g. do you speak e.g. I don’t speak Chinese
English?
  Simple present tense is formed by using verb base in all persons
except in third person singular. The third person singular inflection is
“s/es”.
 When a verb ends in /s/z/x/sh/ch/, please add-es. e.g. /he boxes/ he
washes / he watches/.
 When a verb ends in consonant + y please change y to i and add e.
e.g. to cry /he cries/ to try/he tries/ to carry /he carries/
 The third person singular inflection s/es is pronounced in three
different ways. It is pronounced:
[ S ] after voiceless consonants /p/t/k/f/
e.g. he stops/he puts/he paints/he cooks/he laughs/
[ Z ]after voiced consonant or after vowel sound
e.g. he runs /he drives/he does/he goes
[ IZ ] after /s/z/dz/ʃ/tʃ/
e.g. he faces/he chooses/he judges/he pushes/he punishes

B. USE OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Use the simple present tense:

1. To describe established facts or to state general truth.

e.g. The sun rises in the east.
2. To describe permanent facts
e.g. He works in the town. He is a dentist.
3. With or without adverbs of frequency, to express habit in the present.
e.g. He usually gets up at 5 a.m.

4. In particular cases, to express:

 Immediate successive actions
 e.g. ………..he stands up, gets dressed, opens the door and gets
out.
 The future (stating schedules or planning)
e.g. The train leaves at 7 a.m.

3.3.2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS

A. FORM OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + am/is /are + vb + ing am/is/are/+ s + vb + ing s/amnot/isn’t/aren’t+ vb
+ ing
e.g. I am (I’m) working at e.g. Are you working at the e.g.He is not (isn’t) working
ISS/kin. office?

 The final consonant is doubled before -ing when it appears in a

stressed syllable and when it is used immediately after a vowel. E.g.:
to put / he’s putting
to get/ he’s getting
to bigin/ he’s beginning
to stop/ he’s stopping
 The final consonant is not doubled before -ing in a non-stressed
syllable. Exception to this rule is made for verbs ending in [L]. E.g.:

To offer/ he’s offering

To travel /he’s travelling

 Verbs describing state, feeling, taste or mental activities are rarely

put into -ing form.
e.g. to like, to love, to prefer, to hate, to see, to hear, to seem, to
understand, to know, to want, to remember, to agree, to believe
 , to need, to belong, to suppose, to mean, to forget…
B. USE OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Use the present continuous:

1. To describe an action taking place at the moment of speech,

e.g. he’s playing in his room upstairs.
2. With time expressions to express a future event,
e.g. they are flying to South Africa tonight.

3.3.3. SIMPLE PAST TENSE

A. FORM OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE
Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
S + vb + d/ed Did + s + vb S + didn’t + vb
e.g. he opened the door. e.g. did I open the door? e.g. I didn’t open it.

 There is a specific preterit (past tense) for each irregular verb.

e.g.:
To do /he did
To speak / he spoke
To buy/he bought
To teach/he taught
 The past tense inflection -d/-ed can be pronounced in three different
ways. It is pronounced
 [Id] after /t/ and /d/ e.g. started, painted, wanted, decided
 [t] after /p/k/f/s/ʃ/tʃ/θ/ e.g. helped, asked, cooked, finished
 [d] after voiced consonants and vowels sounds e.g.
prepared, cleaned, answered.
 When the verb ends in Y change Y to I and add –ed. e.g. to cry /he
cried to try / he tried
  The final consonant will be doubled before –ed if it is preceded by a
vowel and if it appears in a stressed syllable. e.g. to stop / he
‘stopped to prefer / he preferred but to offer / he offered.

B. USE OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

Use the simple past tense to express

1. A past action, totally completed in the past

E.g. He got up and left the room.
2. With time expressions such as when, two day ago, last week, last
month, last year, in those days.
E.g. Three month ago, he decided to move, and he settled in
America.

3.3.4. PAST CONTINUOUS

1. FORM OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS
Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + was/were+vb+ ing was/were+s + vb + ing s+wasn’t/weren’t+vb+ing
e.g.james was singing . e.g.Was he sleeping? e.g.I wasn’t singing.

2. USE OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS

Use the past continuous:

1. To describe a progressive action in the past.

E.g. When I rang her she was talking to john.
2. To make comment about an action
E.g. He was always complaining Ị
3.3.5. PRESENT PERFECT

1. FORM OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + have / has + past have / has + s + past s + hasn’t / haven’t +
participle participle past participle
e.g. I have played football. e.g. Have you played e.g. I have not played
tennis? baseball.

N.B. When the past participle for regular verbs is VB + d/ ed, there exists
a specific past participle form for each irregular verb.

2. USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT

Use the present perfect:

1. To make an account of the present impact of a past action or to put

an emphasis on the present result of a past action.
E.g. I have eaten too much chocolate.
2. To build a link between the present and the past times. (with‘’for’’ –
‘’since’’)
E.g. We have known each other for ten years.
3. With ‘’just’’ to express a recent past action
E.g. We have just bought a new car.
3.3.6. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
1. FORM OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + have/has + been + vb have/has + s + been + vb please use present
+ ing + ing perfect
e.g. I have been reading e.g. Have you been e.g. I have not solved my
the book. waiting for the train? problem yet.
2. USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use the present perfect continuous:

To express a process that started in the past but which is recently finished
but still having an impact in the present/ or which still extends to the
present (it is used with ‘’since’’ or ‘’for’’).

E.g. You have been eating chocolate cakes since morning.

3.3.7. PAST PERFECT

1. FORM OF THE PAST PERFECT

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + had + past participle had + s + past participle s + hadn’t + past
participle
e.g. i had started the talk. e.g. had you started the e.g. john had not started
talk? the task.

2. USE OF THE PAST PERFECT

Use the past perfect:

1. To express an action that happened before another in the past.

E.g. She started reading the letter he had sent her.
2. To report the ‘’present perfect’’ from direct to indirect speech.
E.g. ‘’I have understood’’ he said. He said that he had understood.
3. To express an real past action. E.g. If you had listened to me it would
have been easier to solve the problem.
3.3.8. PAST PREFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FORM OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative form Interrogative form Negative form
s + had + been + vb + ing had + s + been + vb + ing please use past perfect
e.g. the baby had been e.g. had the baby been e.g. the baby hadn’t cried.
crying. crying?

2. USE OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use the past perfect continuous to describe a process or an activity taking
place before a given action in the past.

e.g. : - It was obvious she had been eating a lot of chocolate Ị

-He had been reading the book before the meeting started.
PART III: TALKING ABOUT COMPUTERS

UNIT I: COMPUTER IS AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE

1.1. Look carefully at this picture.

What is this?
This is a computer.

1.2. WHAT IS COMPUTER?

READING PASSAGE

The term computer was taken from the verb to compute which means to
calculate. Computer is an electronic device widely used for calculations
and for controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or
numerical terms. The word ‘computing’ refers to ‘the act of calculating’,
or the action of doing as a computer. A computer is an electronic device
very different from others electronic devices. It executes the instructions
that are contained in a program.
Target language

Computer, to compute, to calculate, computing, calculating, calculations,

controlling operations, logical, numerical terms

1.3. COMPUTER MAIN FUNCTIONS?

READING PASSAGE

Computer generally has four main functions which are (input, processing,
output and storage) respectively consisting on receiving data,
processing data, producing output and storing results.

Computer functions are respectively:

 INPUT: A running computer receives/accepts information data.

 PROCESSING: A running computer processes information data.
 OUTPUT: A running computer produces results.
 STORAGE: A running computer keeps (temporary or permanently)
information inside.
Target language

Computer main functions, input, processing, output,

storage receiving data, processing data, producing output,
storing results

1.4. COMPUTER BASIC FEACTURES?

READING PASSAGE

The basic features of computers which make them an essential part of

every emerging technology and very desirable tools in human
development are speed, accuracy, reliability and huge storage capacity.
The early computers were limited in speed, reliability and flexibility and
were mainly used for calculations. The present-day computers touch all
the aspects of human life.

Computer special values are:

 Speed: A computer has a very quick processing and memory speed.

It can process millions of information per second
 Accuracy: A computer provides correct results. Errors that occur in
using a computer are generally due to human failures.
 Reliability: Because of its speed, accuracy, and huge storage
capacity, computer need to be trusted.
 Huge storage capacity: A computer can store large amount of data.
Target language

Computers basic features, speed, accuracy, reliability and

huge storage capacity

1.5. COMPUTER UTILITIES?

READING PASSAGE

The early computers were limited in speed, reliability and flexibility and were
mainly used for calculations. The present-day computers touch all the aspects
of human life and have multidimensional utilities. Due to the proficiency,
versatility and speed which modern-day computers possess, they are used to
control space missions, diagnose and develop nuclear research programmers,
print books, track inventories and much more.

Target language

multidimensional utilities, proficiency, versatility, control

space missions, diagnose, develop nuclear
research programmers, print books, track inventories
1.6. COMPUTER LIKES
Things computers like are:
 Good ventilation
 Clean environment
 Stable, vibration free surface

1.7. COMPUTER DISLIKES

READING PASSAGE

Things computers don’t like are:

 Dust
 Drinking and eating over the keyboard
 Heat, Cold or Moisture
 Don’t place objects on top of monitors.
 Don’t place floppy disks near monitors.
UNIT II: HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
2.1. EARLY HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Humans, indeed, have always needed to perform arithmetic like counting
and adding. During the pre-historic period, they counted either on their
fingers or by scratching marks on the bones and then with the help of stone,
pebble and beads. The early civilization had witnessed men develop
number systems to keep track of the astronomical cycles, businesses,
etc.
Abacus 2500 BC is the first known calculating machine used for counting. It is
made of beads strung on cords and is used for simple arithmetic calculations.
Abacus was mainly used for addition and subtraction and later for division and
multiplication. In 1614 AD John Napier, a Scottish mathematician invented
The Napier’s Bones as an aid to multiplication. In 1614 AD The Slide Rule
was invented by William Oughtred. It is based on the principle that actual
distance from the starting point of the rule is directly proportional to the logarithm
of the numbers printed on the rule. In 1642 AD The Rotating Wheel
Calculator was developed by a French philosopher, Blaise Pascal, using
simple components such as gears and levers. This is a predecessor to today’s
electronic calculator. He was only 19 years old, when he devised this model.

The Difference Engine, however, was built in 1822 AD by Charles

Babbage, British mathematician and engineer which mechanically
calculated mathematical tables. Babbage is called the father of today’s
computer. A tabulating machine using punched cards was designed in 1890
AD by Herman Hollerith and was called as the Hollerith Tabulating
Machine. This electronic machine is able to read the information on the
punched cards and process it electronically.

Target language

Computing devices:
Abacus, Napier’s Bones, Slide Rule, Rotating Wheel Calculator, Difference
Engine, Tabulating Machine
Inventors:
John Napier, William Oughtred, Blaise Pascal, Charles Babbage, Herman
Hollerith
2.2. COMPUTER GENERATIONS
READING PASSAGE

First Generation The first generation of computers (1940-1956) used

vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
(1940-1956) memory. They were large in size, occupied a lot of
space and produced enormous heat. First
generation computers operated only on machine
language. Input was based on punched cards and
paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts. First generation computers could solve
only one problem at a time. The Universal
Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and the
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
(ENIAC) are classic examples of first-generation
Vacuum Tubes computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first
commercial computer delivered to a business client,
the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

SecondGeneration The second generation of computers (1956-1963)

witnessed the vacuum tubes being replaced by
(1956-1963) transistors. The transistor was far superior to the
vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than
their first-generation counter parts. Second-
generation computers moved from the use of machine
language to assembly languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of
Transistors COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first
computers that stored their instructions in their
memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology. The first computers of this
generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation The development of the integrated circuit left its mark
in the third generation of computers (1964-1971).
(1964-1971) Transistors were made smaller in size and placed on
silicon chips, which dramatically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers. In this generation,
keyboards and monitors were used instead of
punched cards and printouts. Computers for the
first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and
Integrated Circuits cheaper than their predecessors.
FourthGeneration The microprocessor brought forth the fourth
(1971-Present) generation of computers (1971-Present), as
thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip.
What in the first generation filled an entire
room could now fit in the palm of the hand.
The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
located all the components of the computer-
Microprocessors from the central processing unit and memory
to input/output controls on a single chip. In
1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the
home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out
of the realm of desktop computers and into
many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use
microprocessors.
As these small computers became more
powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the
development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs,
the mouse and handheld devices.
FifthGeneration Fifth generation computing devices (Present and
Beyond), based on artificial intelligence, are still in
(Present and their developmental stage, though there are
Beyond) some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today. Fifth
COMPUTER OF generation computers will come close to bridging the
gap between computing and thinking. The use
THE FUTURE of parallel processing and superconductors
Artificial Intelligence is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality. Quantum computation and molecular
and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come. The goal
of fifth-generation computing is to develop
devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning
and self-organization.
Task 32: Read carefully and complete the chart below providing information about computer
generations and the main characteristics of related devices.

COMPUTER

GENERATIONS DEVICES CHARACTERISTICS

 Circuitry: Vacuum tubes
 Memory: Magnetic drums
First generation  Programming language: relied on
Computers UNIVAC & ENIAC machine language
 Input: based on punched cards
and paper tape,
 Output: displayed on printouts
 Processing: could only solve one
Problem at a time
 Size: large, enormous,
 Cost: very expensive to operate
 Requirement: used a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat
Second generation
Computers

Third generation
Computers

Fourth generation
Computers

Fifth generation
Computers
2.3. COMPUTER INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS
"Who invented the computer?" is not a question with a simple answer. The
real answer is that many inventors contributed to the history of computers
and that a computer is a complex piece of machinery made up of many
parts, each of which can be considered a separate invention.

COMPUTER COMPUTER COMPUTER DESCRIPTION OF

HISTORY INVENTORS/INVENTIONS EVENT
YEAR
1936 Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer First freely programmable computer.
1942 John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry Who was first in the computing biz is
ABC Computer not always as easy as ABC
1944 Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper The Harvard Mark 1 computer
Harvard Mark I Computer
1946 John Presper Eckert & John W. 20,000 vacuum tubes later...
Mauchly
ENIAC 1 Computer
1948 Frederic Williams & Tom Kilburn Baby and the Williams Tube turn on
Manchester Baby Computer & The the memories.
Williams Tube
1947/48 John Bardeen, Walter No, a transistor is not a computer, but
Brattain & Wiliam Shockley this invention greatly affected the
The Transistor history of computers.
1951 John Presper Eckert & John W. First commercial computer & able to
Mauchly pick presidential winners.
UNIVAC Computer
1953 International Business Machines IBM enters into 'The History of
IBM 701 EDPM Computer Computers'.
1954 John Backus & IBM The first successful high level
FORTRAN Computer programming language.
Programming Language
1955 Stanford Research Institute, Bank of The first bank industry computer -
(In Use 1959) America, and General Electric also MICR (magnetic ink character
ERMA and MICR recognition) for reading checks.
1958 Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce Otherwise known as 'The Chip'
The Integrated Circuit
1962 Steve Russell & MIT The first computer game invented.
Spacewar Computer Game
1964 Douglas Engelbart Nicknamed the mouse because the
Computer Mouse & Windows tail came out the end.
1969 ARPAnet The original Internet.
1970 Intel 1103 Computer Memory The world's first available dynamic
RAM chip.
1971 Faggin, Hoff & Mazor The first microprocessor.
Intel 4004 Computer
Microprocessor
1971 Alan Shugart &IBM Nicknamed the "Floppy" for its
The "Floppy" Disk flexibility.
 1973 Robert Metcalfe & Xerox Networking.
The Ethernet Computer
Networking
1974/75 Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair & IBM 5100 The first consumer computers.
Computers
1976/77 Apple I, II & TRS-80 & Commodore More first consumer computers.
Pet Computers
1978 Dan Bricklin & Bob Frankston Any product that pays for itself in two
VisiCalc Spreadsheet Software weeks is a surefire winner.
1979 Seymour Rubenstein & Rob Barnaby Word Processors.
WordStar Software
1981 IBM From an "Acorn" grows a personal
The IBM PC - Home Computer computer revolution
1981 Microsoft From "Quick And Dirty" comes the
MS-DOS Computer Operating operating system of the century.
System
1983 Apple Lisa Computer The first home computer with a GUI,
graphical user interface.
1984 Apple Macintosh Computer The more affordable home computer
with a GUI.
1985 Microsoft Windows Microsoft begins the friendly war with
Apple.
SERIES TO BE CONTINUED

TASK 33: Please, continue this chart completing relevant information

related to computer evolution from 1985 up to 2020
UNIT III: COMPUTERS CLASSIFICATIONS
3.1. SAMPLES OF COMPUTERS
TASK 23: Loot at the following samples of computers and then name
correctly each of them.

This is…………. This is…………. This is………….

This is………….
This is………….
This is………….

This is………….
This is………….
This is………….

This is…………. This is………….

This is………….
 3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Classification of the electronic computers may be based on either their

principles of operation or their configuration. By configuration, we
mean the size, speed of doing computation and storage capacity of a
computer.

3.2.1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF

OPERATION
Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into
three types, analog computers, digital computers and hybrid computers.

CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
TYPES DESCRIPTIONS
Analog Computer is a computing device that works on
Analog continuous range of values. The analog computers give
Computers approximate results since they deal with quantities that vary
continuously. It generally deals with physical variables such as
voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc.
A digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers. It uses
Digital binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1.
Computers Each one is called a bit. The digital computer is designed using
digital circuits in which there are two levels for an input or output
signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital
Computers can give the results with more accuracy and at a faster
rate.
A hybrid computing system is a combination of desirable features
Hybrid of analog and digital computers. It is mostly used for automatic
computers operations of complicated physical processes and machines.
Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters
are used for transforming the data into suitable form for either type
of computation.

3.2.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON

CONFIGURATION
Based on performance, size, cost and capacity, the digital computers are
classified into four different types: Super computers, Mainframe computers,
Mini computers and Microcomputers.
 CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON
CONFIGURATION
DIGITAL COMPUTERS
TYPES DESCRIPTIONS

The mightiest computers but at the same time, the most

Super expensive ones are known as super computers. Super computers
Computers process billions of instructions per second. In other words, super
computers are the computers normally used to solve intensive
numerical computations. Examples of such applications are stock
analysis, special effects for movies, weather forecasting and even
sophisticated artworks.

Mainframe computers are capable of processing data at very high

Mainframe speeds – hundreds of million instructions per second. They are
Computers large in size. These systems are also expensive. They are used to
process large amount of data quickly. Some of the obvious customers
are banks, airlines and railway reservation systems, aerospace
companies doing complex aircraft design, et

The mini computers were developed with the objective of bringing out
low cost computers. They are lower to mainframe computers, in
terms of speed and storage capacity. Some of the hardware features
Mini available in mainframes were not included in the mini computer
Computers hardware in order to reduce the cost. Some features which were
handled by hardware in mainframe computers were done by
software in mini computers. Hence the performance of mini
computer is less than that of the mainframe. However, the mini
computer market has diminished somewhat as buyers have moved
towards less expensive but increasingly powerful personal
computers.
Micro
Computers The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the
microcomputers. They are several times cheaper than mini
computers
3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF MICRO COMPUTERS

CLASSIFICATION OF MICRO COMPUTERS

TYPES DESCRIPTION

Workstations Workstations are also desktop machines mainly used for intensive
graphical applications. They have more processor speed than that
of personal computers.

Personal Today the personal computers are the most popular computer
Computers systems simply called PCs. These desktop computers are also known
as home computers. They are usually easier to use and more affordable
than workstations. They are self-contained desktop computers intended
for an individual user. Most often used for word processing and small
database applications.

Laptop Laptop computers are portable computers that fit in a briefcase.

Computers Laptop computers, also called notebook computers, are
wonderfully portable and functional, and popular with travelers who
need a computer that can go with them.

Pen-based computers use a pen like stylus and accept

Pen-based handwritten input directly on a screen. Pen-based computers are
computers also called Personal Digital Assistants (PDA). Special
engineering and hardware design techniques are adopted to make
the portable, smaller and light weight computers.
UNIT IV: COMPUTER SYSTEM
4.1. WHAT IS COMPUTER SYSTEM ACTUALLY MADE OF?
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any
single part called “computer”. Computer is a system made of many and
different components working together. A computer system, however,
actually has two major components, hardware and software.

4.2. WHAT IS COMPUTER HARDWARE?

In practice, hardware is the name given to all the physical devices found in
a computer system, i.e. everything that you can see and touch. Computer
hardware (usually simply called hardware) is the collection of physical
elements that constitutes a computer system.

4.3. WHAT IS COMPUTER SOFTWARE?

Software is a set of instructions, which enables the hardware to perform a

specific task. Software actually refers to computer data, instructions or
programs that tell the hardware what to do. Software is what allows the
computer to run, operate and solve problems.

4.4. WHAT DOES COMPUTER HARDWARE INCLUDE?

Computer hardware includes all the physical parts or components of a

computer, such as the system unit ( including graphic cards, sound cards,
memory, motherboard and chips), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data
storage, hard disk drive (HDD), and so on, all of which are physical objects
that are tangible. Here is the illustration of computer hardware components.
Your system might look a little different, but it probably has most of these
parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single,
notebook-sized package.
 4.5. WHAT IS THE ROLE OF EACH OF THE COMPUTER
HARDWARE COMPONENTS?
The following illustrations describe the role of each of the hardware
components in desktop computer systems.

4.6. WHAT ARE PERIPHERAL DEVICES?

Hardware that is not part of the system unit, but that is connected to the “the
central processing unit (CPU)” for input, output or for storage is called
peripheral device or device. Peripherals are generally classified by function
into Input devices, output devices and storage devices, and are typically
housed externally to the main computer chassis. Almost every peripheral
connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports
(openings), typically on the back of the system unit.

4.6.1. INPUT DEVICES

An input device is used to feed data into a computer. Input devices allow the
user to enter information into the system, or control its operation.

For example, a keyboard is an input device. An input device is also defined as

a device that provides communication between the user and the computer.
Input devices are capable of converting data into a form which can be
recognized by computer. A computer can have several input devices. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically
use a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams,
microphones, joysticks, and image scanners.

keyboard mouse touchpad scanner

microphone joystick joystick Digital Camera

4.6.1.1. KEYBOARDS
The most common input device is the keyboard. Keyboard consists of a
set of typewriter like keys that enable you to enter data into a computer.
They have alphabetic keys to enter letters, numeric keys to enter
numbers, punctuation keys to enter comma, period, semicolon, etc., and
special keys to perform some specific functions. The keyboard detects
the key pressed and generates the corresponding ASCII codes
which can be recognized by the computer.

A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the
keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also
has special keys:

 The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions
depending on where they are used.
 The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards,
allows you to enter numbers quickly.
 The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move
your position within a document or webpage

You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you
can perform with a mouse. For more information, see Using your
keyboard.
4.6.1.2. OTHER INPUT DEVICES ARE:

Mouse is an input device that controls the movement of

the cursor on the display screen. Mouse is a small
device you can roll along a flat surface. In a mouse, a
small ball is kept inside and touches the pad through a
hole at the bottom of the mouse. When the mouse is
moved, the ball rolls. This movement of the ball is
converted into signals and sent to the computer. You
Mouse
will need to click the button at the top of the mouse to
select an option. Mouse pad is a pad over which you
can move a mouse.

Scanner is an input device that allows information such

as an image or text to be input into a computer. It can
read image or text printed on a paper and translate the
information into a form that the computer can use. That
Scanner is, it is used to convert images (photos) and text into a
stream of data. They are useful for publishing and multi-
media applications.

The barcode readers are used in places like

supermarket, bookshops, etc. A bar code is a pattern
printed in lines of different thickness. The bar-code
reader scans the information on the bar- codes and
transmits to the computer for further processing. The
Bar Code Reader system gives fast and error-free entry of information
into the computer.

The digital camera is an input device mainly used to

capture images. The digital camera takes a still
photograph, stores it and sends it as digital input to the
Digital Camera computer. It is a modern and popular input device.
Touch Sensitive Screen is a type of display screen that
has a touch-sensitive panel. It is a pointing device that
enables the user to interact with the computer by
touching the screen. You can use your fingers to directly
touch the objects on the screen. The touch screen
senses the touch on the object (area pre-defined) and
Touch Sensitive
Screen communicate the object selection to the computer.
 MICR is widely used by banks to process cheques.
Human readable numbers are printed on documents
such as cheque using a special magnetic ink. The
cheque can be read using a special input unit, which
can recognize magnetic ink characters. This method
eliminates the manual errors. It also saves time,
Magnetic Ink Character
ensures security and accuracy of data.
Recognition(MICR)

The OCR technique permits the direct reading of any

printed character like MICR but no special ink is
required. With OCR, a user can scan a page from a
book. The computer will recognize the characters in
the page as letters and punctuation marks, and stores.
Optical Character
This can be edited using a word processor.
Recognition (OCR)

In this method special pre-printed forms are

designed with boxes which can be marked with a dark
pencil or ink. Such documents are read by a reader,
which transcribes the marks into electrical pulses
which are transmitted to the computer. They are
widely used in applications like objective type
Optical Mark Reading answer papers evaluation in which large number of
and Recognition (OMR) candidates appear, time sheets of factory employees
etc.

A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen

and is connected to a monitor. The tip of the light
pen contains a light- sensitive element which, when
placed against the screen, detects
Light Pen

Magnetic reader is an input device which reads a

magnetic strip on a card. It is handy and data can be
stored and retrieved. It also provides quick
identification of the card’s owner. All the credit cards,
ATM cards (banks), petro cards, etc. stores data in a
magnetic strip which can be read easily by the
Magnetic Reader magnetic reader.
This input device stores data in a microprocessor
embedded in the card. This allows information, which
can be updated, to be stored on the card. These data
can be read and given as input to the computer for
further processing. Most of the identification cards
use this method to store and retrieve the vital
Smart Card Reader information.
 Notes taker is a device that captures natural handwriting
on any surface onto a computer. Using an electronic
pen, the notes taker displays the user’s handwritten
notes, memos or drawings on the computer, and
stores the image for future use

Notes taker

Microphone serves as a voice input device. It captures

the voice data and input to the computer. Using the
microphone along with speech recognition software
Microphone can offer a completely new approach to input
information into your computer.

4.6.2. OUTPUT DIVICE

Output is anything that comes out of a computer. An output device is
capable of presenting information from a computer. Output devices
display information in a human readable form. There are many output
devices attached with the computers. Output devices could include
printers, speakers, monitors or a Braille embosser. But the monitors and
printers are commonly used output devices.

monitor printer speaker earphone

 4.6.2.1. COMPUTER MONITORS

CRT monitor LCD monitor

Monitor is a commonly used output device, sometimes called as display

screen. It provides a visual display of data. Monitors are connected with the
computer and are similar in appearance to a television set.

A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The
portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like
a television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and
the newer LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp
images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and
lighter.

4.6.2.2. COMPUTER PRINTERS

Printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper or other media
(like transparencies). By printing you create what is known as a ‘hard copy’.
There are different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print
quality. The two main types of printers are impact printers and non-impact
printers.
Printer is an output device that transfers data from a computer onto paper.
With a printer one will prints text or images on paper or other media (like
transparencies). By printing you create what is known as a ‘hard copy’.
There are different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print
quality. The two main types of printers are impact printers and non-impact
printers.
TYPES OF PRINTERS

Line Printer DotMatrix Printer Thermal Printer

Laser Printer
Inkjet Printer

CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS
PRINTERS

Impact Non-impact

Line Serial Thermal Lase Inkjet

printe printer (fax) printer r printer
(Dot matrix
r printer
printer)
Impact printers include all printers that print by striking an ink ribbon.
Impact printers use a print head containing a number of metal pins which
strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper. Line
printers, dot matrix printers are some of the impact printer

Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact printers as their

printing heads do not strike the paper. Non-impact printers include
laser printers, inkjet printers and thermal printers.

4.6.2.3. SPEAKER

The computer can also give produce voice output (audio data). Speaker
serves as a voice output device. Using speakers along with speech
synthesizer software, the computer can provide voice output. Voice
output has become very common in many places like airlines, banks,
automatic telephone enquiry system etc. Users can also hear
music/songs using the voice output system.

4.6.2.4. PLOTTERS
Apart from the output devices like printers, plotters are also used to
produce graphical output. Although printer output is very convenient for
many purposes, the user needs to present the information graphically
in order to understand its significance.
4.6.3. STORAGE DEVICES
Your computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store
information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the
information even when your computer is turned off.

Hard disk floppy disk

CD ROM floppy disk

Flash disk Memory card

Magnetic Tape

DESCRIPTION OF STORAGE DEVICES

Hard disk is a rigid platter or stack of platters with a

magnetic surface. It is a magnetic disk on which you can
store computer data. The hard disk is a direct-access
storage medium. This means you can store and retrieve
data randomly
Hard disk

Optical disks are a storage medium from which data is

read and to which it is written by lasers. The optical disk is
a random access storage medium; information can be
easily read from any point on the disk. CD-ROM stands for
Compact Disk - Read Only Memory.
CD ROM
 The floppy drive uses a thin circular disk for data storage. It
is a soft magnetic disk. It is a thin magnetic-coated disk
contained in a flexible or semi-rigid protective jacket. The
disk rotates at 360rpm. A read/write head makes physical
contact with the disk surface. Data is recorded as a series
floppy disk of tracks subdivided into sectors.
A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating
of a fine magnetic strip, used for recording digital data. The
tape itself is a strip of plastic coated with a magnetic
recording medium.

Magnetic Tape

Your computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store

information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information
even when your computer is turned off.

1. HARD DISKS

Hard disks Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk is a rigid platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. It

is a magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The hard disk
is a direct-access storage medium. This means you can store and
retrieve data randomly. Disk storage systems are essentially based on
magnetic properties. The magnetic disk consists of high speed
rotating surfaces coated with a magnetic recording medium. The
rotating surface of the disk is a round flat plate. When writing data, a
write head magnetizes the particles on the disk surface as either north
or south poles. When reading data, a read head converts the magnetic
polarisations on the disk surface to a sequence of pulses. The read and
write heads are generally combined into a single head unit. There may be
more than one read/write head.Data is arranged as a series of
concentric rings. Each ring (called a track) is subdivided into a number
of sectors, each sector holding a specific number of data elements
(bytes or characters)

The smallest unit that can be written to or read from the disk is a sector.
Once a read or write request has been received by the disk unit, there
is a delay involved until the required sector reaches the read/write head.
This is known as rotational latency, and on average is one half of the
period of revolution.

The storage capacity of the disk is determined as (number of tracks *

number of sectors * bytes per sector * number of read/write heads)
Thus, the data is stored as magnetized spots arranged in concentric
circles (tracks) on the disk. Each track is divided into sectors. The
arrangement of tracks and sectors on a disk is known as its ‘format’.

High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a high speed (about
3,600 rpm). As the disk rotates read/write heads move to the correct
track and fetch the desired data.
The storage capacity of a hard disk can be Gigabytes (GB), i.e.
 thousands of Megabytes of information.

4.6.4. POINTING DEVICES

mouse mouse joystick joystick

trackball trackball touch screen light pen

A pointing device allows users to input information into computers. The

user using pointing devices points, clicks, drags or selects the required
commands from the options in any applications. The common pointing
devices include the mouse, joystick, light pen, trackball and touch screen.

4.6.4.1. MOUSE

A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your

computer screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical
mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and
connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some
newer mice are wireless.

Mouse
A mouse usually has two buttons: A primary button (usually the left button) and
a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons,
which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of information.

Mouse pointers

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen
moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change
depending on where it's positioned on your screen.)

When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click
(press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your
mouse is the main way to interact with your computer
 UNIT V: COMPUTER WORKING SYSTEM
5.1. HOW DOES A COMPUTER SYSTEM WORK?
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to accept data (input),
and process it into useful information (output). It also stores data for later
reuse (storage). The processing is performed by the hardware. The
computer hardware responsible for computing are mainly classified as
follows:

Main Secondary
Memory Storage

Input Device CPU Output Devices

5.2. WHAT ARE THE COMPUTER FUNCTIONS?

Computer system is a tool for solving problems. The hardware should be
designed to operate as fast as possible. The software (system software)
should be designed to minimize the the amount of idle computer time and
yet provide flexibility by means of controlling operations. Basically any
computer is supposed to carry out the following functions.
 Accept the data and program as input
 Store the data and program and retrieve as and when required.
 Process the data as per instructions given by the program and
convert it into useful information
 Communicate the information as output
 5.3. WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF A
COMPUTER SYSTEM?
Based on the functionalities of the computer, the hardware components
can be classified into four main units, namely
 Input Unit
 Output Unit
 Central Processing Unit
 Memory Unit
These units are interconnected by minute electrical wires to permit
communication between them. This allows the computer to function as
a system. The block diagram is shown below.

5.3.1. Input Unit

A computer uses input devices to accept the data and program.
Input devices allow communication between the user and the computer.
In modern computers, keyboard, mouse, light pen, touch screen etc, are
some of the input devices.

5.3.2. Output Unit

Similar to input devices, output devices have an interface between

the computer and the user. These devices take machine coded output
results from the processor and convert them into a form that can be used
by human beings. In modern computers, monitors (display screens) and
printers are the commonly used output devices.
5.3.3. Central Processing Unit

CPU is the brain of any computer system. It is just like the human brain that
takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer function by activating and controlling the
operation. It consists of arithmetic and logic units, control unit and internal
memory (registers). The control unit of the CPU co- ordinates the action
of the entire system. Programs (software) provide the CPU, a set of
instruction to follow and perform a specific task. Between any two
components of the computer system, there is a pathway called a bus
which allows for the data transfer between them.

Control unit controls all the hardware operations, ie, those of input units,
output units, memory unit and the processor. The arithmetic and logic units
in computers are capable of performing addition, subtraction, division
and multiplication as well as some logical operations. The instructions
and data are stored in the main memory so that the processor can directly
fetch and execute them.

5.3.4. Memory Unit

In the main memory, the computer stores the program and data that are
currently being used. In other words since the computers use the stored
program concept, it is necessary to store the program and data in the
main memory before processing.

The main memory holds data and program only temporarily. Hence there
is a need for storage devices to provide backup storage. They are called
secondary storage devices or auxiliary memory devices. Secondary
storage devices can hold more storage than main memory and is much
less expensive.

UNIT VI: COMPUTER MEMORIES

6.1. DEFINITIONS
Memory units are the storage areas in a computer. The term “memory”
usually refers to the main memory of the computer, whereas, the word
“storage” is used for the memory that exists on disks, CDs, floppies or
tapes. The main memory is usually called a physical memory which
refers to the ‘chip’ (Integrated Circuit) capable of holding data and
instruction.

Fig. 3.7 Memory Unit

6.2. TYPES OF MEMORIES

There are different types of memory. They are Random Access Memory
(RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read- Only Memory
(PROM), Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM),
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM).
Each of these types of memories can be shortly described as follows:
6.2.1. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
RAM is the most common type of memory found in the modern computers.
This is really the main store and is the place where the program gets
stored. When the CPU runs a program, it fetches the program
instructions from the RAM and carries them out. If the CPU needs to
store the results of the calculations it can store them in RAM. When we
switch off a computer, whatever is stored in the RAM gets erased. It is
a volatile form of memory.

6.2.2. READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

In ROM, the information is burnt (pre-recorded) into the ROM chip at

manufacturing time. Once data has been written into a ROM chip, it
cannot be erased but you can read it. When we switch off the computer,
the contents of the ROM are not erased but remain stored permanently.
ROM is a non-volatile memory. ROM stores critical programs such as
the program that boots the computer.
6.2.3. PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY (PROM)

PROM is a memory on which data can be written only once. A variation

of the PROM chip is that it is not burnt at the manufacturing time but can
be programmed using PROM programmer or a PROM burner. PROM is
also a non-volatile memory.

6.2.4. ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY

(EPROM)

In EPROM, the information can be erased and reprogrammed using a

special PROM – programmer. EPROM is non-volatile memory. A
EPROM differs from a PROM in that a PROM can be written to only
once and cannot be erased. But an ultraviolet light is used to erase the
contents of the EPROM.

6.2.5. ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY

MEMORY (EEPROM)

EEPROM is a recently developed type of memory. This is equivalent to

EPROM, but does not require ultraviolet light to erase its content. It can
be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. It is also non-volatile in
nature. EEPROM is not as fast as RAM or other types of ROM. A flash
memory is a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed.
The main memory must store many data items and have some way of
retrieving them when they are needed. The memory can be compared
to the boxes at a post office. Each box-holder has a box with a unique
number which is called its address. This address serves to identify the
box. The memory has a number of locations in its store. Each location
in a memory has a unique number called its memory address. This
serves to identify it for storage and retrieval.

Operations on memories are called reads and writes, defined from the
perspective of a processor or other device that uses a memory: a write
instruction transfers information from other device to memory and a read
instruction transfers information from the memory to other devices. A
memory that performs both reads and writes is often called a RAM, random
access memory. Other types of memories commonly used in systems are
read-only memory.
6.3. STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT
All modern computers use the stored program concept. This concept is
known as the Von – Neumann concept due to the research paper
published by the famous mathematician John Von Neuman. The
essentials of the stored program concept are:

 the program and data are stored in a primary memory (main

memory)
 once a program is in memory, the computer can execute it
automatically without manual intervention.
 the control unit fetches and executes the instructions in
sequence one by one.
 an instruction can modify the contents of any location in the
stored program concept is the basic operating principle for
every computer.

6.4. DATA REPRESENTATION

The smallest unit of information is a single digit called a ‘bit’ (binary digit),
which can be either 0 or 1. The capacity of a memory system is
represented by a unit called a byte, which is 8 bits of information.
Memory sizes in modern systems range from 4MB (megabytes) in small
personal computers up to several billion bytes (gigabytes, or GB) in large
high-performance systems.

The performance of a memory system is defined by two different

measures, the access time and the memory cycle time. Access time,
also known as response time or latency, refers to how quickly the
memory can respond to a read or write request. Memory cycle time
refers to the minimum period between two successive requests.

The following terminology is used while discussing hierarchical memories:

 The registers (internal memory) are used to hold the

instruction and data for the execution of the processor.
Eventually the top of the hierarchy goes to the registers.
 The memory closest to the processor is known as a
cache. It is a high speed memory that is much faster than
the main memory.
 The next is the main memory which is also known as
the primary memory.
 The low end of the hierarchy is the secondary memory.
The secondary memory is the memory that supplements the main
memory. This is a long term non-volatile memory. It is external to the
system nucleus and it can store a large amount of programs and data.
The CPU does not fetch instructions of a program directly from the
secondary memory. The program should be brought into the main
memory from the secondary memory before being executed.

The secondary memory is cheaper compared to the main memory

and hence a computer generally has limited amount of main memory
and large amount of secondary memory.
UNIT VII: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
READING PASSAGE

7.1. DEFINITIONS
Computers operate according to the instructions given to them. As
computers do not work or make decisions on their own, people need
to instruct computer to solve problems. These instructions are given
to computers by the software.

This term software refers to a program that makes the computer to do

something meaningful. Software is what makes the computer work.
The computer with only the hardware is like an empty box which is
useless unless it is provided with the necessary software.

Software is then an organized collection of computer data and

instructions. It is the planned, step-by-step instructions required to turn
data into information.

7.2. DATA, INFORMATION AND PROGRAM

Computer is a tool for solving problems. Computers accept
instructions and data, perform arithmetic and logical operations and
produce information. Hence the instructions and data fed into the
computer are converted into information through processing.

Data Processing Information

Data, Processing and Information

1. DATA
Basically data is a collection of facts from which information may be
derived. Data is defined as an un-processed collection of raw facts in
a manner suitable for communication, interpretation or processing.
Hence data are
 Stored facts
 Inactive
 Technology based
 Gathered from various sources.

2. INFORMATION
On the other hand information is a collection of facts from which
conclusions may be drawn. Data that has been interpreted, translated,
or transformed to reveal the underlying meaning. This information can
be represented in textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic, narrative, or
audiovisual forms.

Hence information is
 Processed facts
 Active
 Business based
 Transformed from data.

3. ALGORITHM
Algorithm is defined as a step-by-step procedure or formula for
solving a problem i.e. a set of instructions or procedures for solving a
problem. It is also defined as a mathematical procedure that can
usually be explicitly encoded in a set of computer language instructions
that manipulate data.

7.3. SOFTWARE FUNCTIONS

People judge software on different basis. This is because they
are involved with the software in different ways. However, the
software characteristics can be generalized into four major
components which namely are: Reliability, efficiency, functionality and
portability. Software can be stored in hardware device and can be
removed from the hardware device without any physical data loss. To
this extend, software is said to be intangible.

Software, indeed, is responsible for controlling, integrating and

managing the hardware components of a computer. Software
communicates and instructs the hardware to perform specific tasks.
Software enables the hardware to carry out the functions properly. In
other words, software instructs the hardware what to display on user
screen, what kind of input to take from users and what kind of output
to generate.

7.4. SOFTWARE CATEGORIES

Software can be classified into two categories: System Software
and Application Software

Computer Software

System Software Application Software

Software categories
Both the system software and application software are important and
complementary to each and to another. Without system software,
computers cannot run and without application software, computers
cannot meet the requirements desired by users.
UNIT VIII : MICROSOFT OFFICE APPLICATIONS
Microsoft Office is a set of interrelated desktop applications, servers
and services, collectively referred to as an office suite, for
the Microsoft Windows and mac OS operating systems. It is a powerful
service that helps you unleash your best ideas, get things done, and
stay connected on the go.
8.1. Microsoft Word : Microsoft Word is a full-featured word
processing program for Windows and Mac operating systems.
8.2. Microsoft Excel : Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that
features calculation, graphic tools, pivot tables, and macro
programming language support for Windows and Mac operating
systems.
8.3. Microsoft PowerPoint : Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation
program for Windows and Mac operating systems.
8.4. Microsoft OneNote : Microsoft OneNote is a free-form note-
taking program for Windows and Mac operating systems.
8.5. Microsoft Outlook : Microsoft Outlook is an email program for
Windows and Mac operating systems.
8.6. Microsoft Publisher : Microsoft Publisher is a desktop
publishing program for Windows operating systems.
8.7. Microsoft Access : Microsoft Access is a database management
solution for Windows operating systems.
8.8. Skype for Business : Skype for Business is an instant
messaging client and unified communications application.
8.9. Microsoft InfoPath : Microsoft InfoPath is a program that allows
you to design, distribute, complete, and submit electronic forms. You
may choose to add the InfoPath Form Web Part to a SharePoint
Online site. To learn how PowerApps, the successor to InfoPath, can
improve business productivity in SharePoint without writing code,
see Customize SharePoint with PowerApps.
8.10. Windows 10 apps : Some Office applications, such as Excel
and Word, have tiles pinned to the Start screen of Windows 10,
Windows 8, and Windows 7 by default.
8.11. Office Mobile for iPad/iPhone : Office Mobile for iPad and
iPhone includes your favorite Office apps, like Word for iPad/iPhone,
Excel for iPad/iPhone, and PowerPoint for iPad/iPhone. The apps are
available to download for free, and with applicable plans, you can
create and edit documents on your iPad or iPhone.
8.12. Office Mobile for Android : Office Mobile for Android includes
your favorite Office apps, like Word for Android, Excel for Android, and
PowerPoint for Android. The apps are available to download for free,
and with applicable plans, you can create and edit documents on your
Android devices.
8.13. Office Mobile for Windows Phone : Office Mobile for Windows
Phone includes your favorite Office apps, like Word for Windows
Phone, Excel for Windows Phone, and PowerPoint for Windows
Phone. The apps are available to download for free, and with
applicable plans, you can create and edit documents on your Windows
Phone.
8.14. Office for Windows 10 Mobile : Office for Windows 10 Mobile
apps are optimized for touch and smaller screens on Windows 10
phones and tablets. The apps are available to download for free on
the Windows Store.
UNIT IX: MICROSOFT WORD SCREEN
9.1. MICROSOFT WORD 2007 SCREEN

9.2. PARTS & FUNCTIONS OF MICROSOFT WORD SCREEN

1. Ribbon
The Ribbon is the strip of buttons and icons located above the work
area in Word 2007. The Ribbon replaces the menus and toolbars
found in earlier versions of Word. Each ribbon contains groups of
command buttons with common purpose. Each ribbon contains 7 tabs.

2. Office Button
Click the Office Button to find a drop down menu containing options,
such as: open, save, and print. Also shows previously opened files,
which you may choose to “pin” them to make them
“permanent”choices.

3. Rulers
Gives you an idea of where you are on the page
4. Tab Selector Button
You can easily set tab stops by clicking on the desired position on the
ruler. This buttonallows you to determine which type of tab will be set
left aligned , right aligned , center aligned or decimal tab . Clicking on
this button will allow you to change the tab style.

5. Document
This is what you are typing/what will print out.

6. Status Bar
This row can be customized by right-clicking and selecting desired
options. Desired options may include page number/number of total
page, word count, insert/overtype mode, caps lock, and zoom slide.

7. View Shortcuts
These four buttons allow you to change the way you view your
document on the screen. From left to right they are: print layout, full
screen reading, web layout and draft. These can be added/removed
by right clicking anywhere on the status bar and checking/unchecking
View shortcuts.

8. Task Bar
Shows open programs.

9. Zoom Slide
Allows you to increase/decrease the amount of the document you see
on the screen.

10. View Ruler Button

Allows you to view or hide the rulers.

11. Screen Split Button

At the top of the vertical scroll bar is a new button. Just below the
double arrow is a tiny button that looks like a minus sign that lets you
split your screen in two when double-clicked. Double-clicking it a
second time will unsplit your screen.
12. Scroll Bars
Allows you to view entire workbook by moving it up, down ( this is the
case of vertical scroll bar), or by moving it left or right ( that is the case
of horizontal scroll bar).

13. Right Indent

Slide this triangle to the left of the margin to limit the right side of a
paragraph to that point. Move the triangle to the right of the margin to
allow the right side of the paragraph to extend beyond the margin. The
triangle at the margin will keep the right side of the paragraph with the
margin.

14. Group
Command buttons with a common purpose are clustered together.
Each ribbon contains several groups.Some groups, but not all, contain
a quick launch bar (dialogue box launcher) in the bottom right hand
corner.

15. Quick Launch Bar/Dialogue Box Launcher

It is the arrow in the bottom right hand corner of some groups. When
clicked, it will bring up a dialog box where additional options/changes
can be entered.

16. Title Bar

Shows name of program and open document. Also contains minimize,
maximize and close buttons.

17. Quick Access Toolbar

This customizable toolbar allows you to add frequently used
commands. Click on the down arrow at the end of the toolbar to
add/remove command buttons – or – right-click on any command
button and choose Add to Quick Access Toolbar.

18. Tab
The ribbon is broken down into 7 tabs. Each tab has a common
purpose and consists of several groups. To select a tab, simply click
on it and the appropriate groups will be displayed.
19. First Line Indent
This triangle controls where the first line of a paragraph begins. Moved
to the left of the margin, will allow the first paragraph to be in the left
margin. Can be moved to the right of the margin to indent your
paragraph.

20. Hanging Indent

The opposite of a first line indent. It is often moved to the right of the
first line indent, which allows the remaining lines of a paragraph to be
indented according to placement of the triangle.
 112

UNIT XI: MICROSOFT EXCEL SCREEN

9.1. WHAT DOES MICROSOFT EXCEL SCREEN
COMPRISE?

If you are new to Excel, it is highly recommended that you familiarize

yourself with the layout and terminology for all the parts of the Excel
2016 screen. The Excel screen comprises elements such as the
Ribbon, Tabs, Quick Access Toolbar, Name Box, Formula Bar,
Column and Row Labels, cells and Worksheet Tabs.

9.2. PARTS OF THE EXCEL SCREEN

9.2.1. THE RIBBON
How does it work in Excel 2016?
The Microsoft Excel Ribbon is where you will find all the functions, options
and settings to use Excel efficiently. The Ribbon in Excel 2016 contains
options for everything: from making your Excel worksheet look good and
setting out how your worksheets print, to building complex financial or
programmatic formulas and functions.

Before you can explore the rest of the MS Excel screen, understanding
how the Ribbon and menu items are organized, is essential.

Let’s investigate each area of the Ribbon:

1. Tabs - the Excel Ribbon will change, displaying different function
buttons, depending on which tab is selected. To select a tab, click on any
of the default tabs on the Excel 2016 Ribbon: File, Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View or Developer.

2. The function buttons that display on the Ribbon relate to the Tab that
is selected. In the example below, the Home tab is selected and the
functions which display relate to essential Excel functions such as cutting
and pasting, formatting text and setting cell alignment.

3. The function buttons on the Ribbon in Excel is divided into groups of

similar function buttons. For example, the Font group contains function
 113

buttons pertaining to changing the font type, size and color. This makes it
easy to find functions on the Ribbon in the Excel screen.

4. The dialog box launcher opens a box that has additional and
advanced options relating to a specific group on the Ribbon. For example,
if you are looking for a font option that you cannot see within the Font
group under the Home tab, click on the dialog box launcher to see
additional options, like superscript and strikethrough. The dialog box
launcher button is very small and easily missed – we have magnified it for
you in the screenshot above.

9.2.2. QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR

Quick Access Toolbar in Excel - QAT options 2016

The Excel Quick Access Toolbar is like a mini-Ribbon and very useful for
option buttons you use frequently, saving you time in having to navigate
through the Excel Ribbon and function groups to find a specific option. The
Quick Access Toolbar is also known as the QAT or shortcuts menu.

You will find the QAT in the top left-hand corner of your Excel 2016
screen:
1. Functions are displayed as icon buttons. In the area labelled as 1 in the
screenshot below, the QAT contains buttons for: Save, Undo, Redo, Open
and New.
2. It is easy to add additional shortcut options to the Quick Access Toolbar
in Excel: either click on the More Options arrow (labelled as 2 in the
screenshot above) OR right-click on any option on the Excel Ribbon, and
select to add the option to the QAT.

9.2.3. ROWS AND COLUMNS

Rows and columns in Excel spreadsheet / worksheet 2016

The area of the Excel screen where you add text, numbers or graphical
content, is like no other word processing or design program you may have
experience with using. An Excel worksheet, also called a spreadsheet, is
divided into multiple columns and rows (1,048,576 rows by 16,384
columns to be exact). For any worksheet you create, you use only as
many rows and columns as you need for your data and ignore the blank,
 114

unused rows and columns. You can also merge data across columns or
rows and add separate lines of content within the same cell.

To understand how this works, lets study the worksheet in the

image below:

1. The area labeled as 1 contains the column labels. Columns are

labeled alphabetically, with the first column being A.
2. The area labeled as 2 contain the row labels. Rows are labeled
numerically, with the first row being 1.
3. Each block within an Excel worksheet is called a cell. Each cell has an
address based on the column and row intersection they appear in. In the
image above, the cell labeled as 3, is located in Column I and Row 6. This
cell’s address will therefore be: I6

One of the reasons Excel works with a grid divided into cells, is to enable
the content of each cell to be treated both individually and collectively with
other cells (rows and columns) to be used in calculations in formulas and
functions and for data analysis.

9.2.4. WORKSHEET TABS

Worksheet tabs in Excel workbooks
Worksheets, also known as spreadsheets, within an Excel workbook, are
the digital versions of the different tabbed sections you would find in a
traditional paper folder. You may, for example, have an invoice folder,
where you inserted tabs for each month of the year to separate and
organize invoices into month sections. In Microsoft Excel, these tab
sections or dividers are called Worksheets.

In the screenshot below is an example of a workbook containing

five visible worksheet tabs:

1. The area labeled as 1, contains worksheets that have been

named: January, February, March, April and Quarter Total. Depending on
the workbook you are viewing, the worksheet labels will be different. In a
blank new workbook, a worksheet label will be titled Sheet1. When you
click on a worksheet tab label, that worksheet will open.
 115

2. When a workbook contains multiple worksheets, these may not all be

visible at the same time due to space constraints. In the area labeled 2 in
the screenshot above, you will find arrows to navigate backwards and
forwards through all the worksheets in an Excel workbook.
3. The Add New Worksheet button is labelled as 3 in the screenshot
above. To add more worksheets to a workbook, click the plus sign.

9.2.5. THE NAME BOX AND FORMULA BAR

The Name Box in Excel and Formula Bar in Excel 2016

The Name Box and Formula Bar, which are located in the area between
the Ribbon and the worksheet grid, serve two purposes: they provide you
with information about the cell (or collection of cells) you have selected
and you can insert information into them to name and add content to
selected cell(s).

In the screenshot example below, the Name Box and Formula Bar
are labelled as 1 and 2:

1. The Name Box contains the name of the cell which is selected within
the worksheet. If you study the screenshot, you will see there is a green
border around Lynn Norton’s surname [Norton] in row 4, column B. The
Name Box therefore displays the cell address which is: B4. The Name Box
can also contain customized names for cells or ranges of cells.

2. The Excel Formula Bar reflects the contents of the cell which is
selected. In this Worksheet cell B4, which is selected, contains the
word Norton. You can type directly into the formula bar to change the cell
contents. The Formula Bar becomes really useful when a worksheet
contains formulas or functions, where the worksheet cell will display the
result of the calculation, the Formula Bar will display the actual formula or
function.