Hydrology

Lesson 1: Hydrology and The Hydrologic Cycle

Definition of Hydrology Engineers use
hydrological data to design
Hydrology means the
and build infrastructure such
science of water. It is an extremely
as dams, bridges, and
important field of study, dealing
drainage systems that can
with one of the most valuable
withstand and manage water
resources on Earth: water.
flow and minimize damage.
According to USGS, it is the science
that encompasses the occurrence,
4. Environmental Protection
distribution, movement, and
Hydrology helps in
properties of the waters of the
understanding and
earth and their relationship with
preserving natural habitats
the environment within each phase
by studying how water
of the hydrologic cycle.
affects ecosystems and
The importance of hydrology influencing conservation
lies in its role in managing and strategies.
understanding the Earth's water
systems. Key aspects include: 5. Climate Change
Adaptation
1. Resource Management
It aids in assessing the
Hydrology provides
impacts of climate change on
critical data for managing
water availability and
water resources effectively,
distribution, supporting the
ensuring that there is enough
development of strategies to
water for drinking,
adapt to these changes.
agriculture, industry, and
recreational use.
6. Sustainable Development
By integrating
2. Disaster Risk Reduction
hydrological knowledge into
By predicting and
planning and development, it
analyzing flood risks and
supports the sustainable use
droughts, hydrology helps in
of water resources and
planning and implementing
ensures long-term
measures to reduce the
environmental and economic
impact of these natural
stability.
disasters.

3. Infrastructure Design Engineers study hydrology to

effectively manage and optimize
water resources in their projects. The Hydrologic Cycle and the
Here are some key reasons: Human Impact
Human activities can
influence the hydrologic cycle in
many other ways. The volumes and
1. Infrastructure Design timing of river flows can be greatly
Understanding affected by channeling to decrease
hydrology helps engineers the impediments to flow, and by
design efficient and safe changing the character of the
infrastructure like dams, watershed by paving, compacting
reservoirs, and irrigation soils, and altering the nature of the
systems by predicting water vegetation. Risks of flooding can be
flow and its impacts. increased by speeding the rate at
which water is shed from the land,
2. Environmental Protection thereby increasing the magnitude
Knowledge of of peak flows. Risks of flooding are
hydrology allows engineers to also increased if erosion of soils
minimize the negative effects from terrestrial parts of the
of projects on ecosystems watershed leads to siltation and
and natural water sources. the development of shallower river
channels, which then fill up and
3. Disaster Prevention spill over during high-flow periods.
Hydrology aids in Massive increases in erosion are
predicting and managing often associated with deforestation,
risks such as floods and especially when natural forests are
droughts, which can damage converted into agriculture.
communities and
Hydroelectricity
infrastructure.
This involves changing the
4. Water Usage stored gravitational energy of
Studying hydrology water held behind the dam into
helps in optimizing water use electrical energy that can be used.
for various needs, including While this is a non- polluting
agriculture, industry, and renewable way to generate
domestic purposes. electricity, it does have
environmental impacts – especially
when mismanaged.
Overall, hydrology is crucial
for informed planning, design, and Rivers must be dammed,
management of projects related to which can affect the function of the
water and environmental systems river both upstream and
downstream – lakes are usually
formed from the water is that salt is brought up from lower
accumulating above the dam and a levels (salination).
build-up of silt can occur, while the
Deforestation
amount of water is reduced further
downstream. This can be The removal of trees is
problematic for any plants and having a major impact on the water
animals that may find themselves cycle, as local and global climates
with too much or too little water, change.
and migrating fish cannot get
Normally, trees release water
through the dams.
vapour when they transpire,
Seriously mismanaged dams producing a localized humidity. This
can result in droughts downstream, water vapour then evaporates into
with smaller streams completely the atmosphere where it
drying up, leaving areas of un- accumulates before precipitating
watered land. People then have to back to the Earth as rain, sleet or
look at ways of getting more water snow. Deforestation in one area can
into these dry areas. therefore affect the weather in
another area because if trees are
Irrigation
cut down, there is less water to be
As the human population has evaporated into the atmosphere
increased, so have our demands on and subsequently less rain.
the land. We need more food, and
At a local level, the land
to make food, we need water.
becomes drier and less stable.
Irrigation is the artificial watering of
When it rains, instead of the water
land that does not get enough
being soaked up, there is increased
water through rainfall. Irrigation is
run-off and leaching. Areas can
used substantially by most
become more prone to both
countries, some more than others.
droughts and flooding, impacting
Arid (dry) lands require far more
on plants and animals, and also
water, as do countries that have
humans living near deforested
large intensive farming
areas.
communities.
Hydrologic Cycle
The problem with irrigation is
that it removes water from its
natural source and often causes
leaching and run-off where it is
used. This removal of nutrients
results in farmers using more
fertilizers to keep their pastures
productive while the waterways
become polluted. Another problem
 Water also evaporates
directly into the atmosphere from
soil in the vicinity of the plant. Any
dew or droplets of water present on
stems and leaves of the plant
eventually evaporates as well.
Scientists refer to the combination
of evaporation and transpiration
as evapotranspiration,
abbreviated ET.
Precipitation
Precipitation is the general
term for all forms of moisture
emanating from the clouds and
falling to the ground.
Particles of dust or smoke in
the atmosphere are essential for
precipitation. These particles,
Interrelationships of Phases of the called “condensation nuclei,”
Hydrologic Cycle provide a surface for water vapor
to condense upon. This helps water
Evapotranspiration droplets gather together and
Evapotranspiration is the become large enough to fall to the
sum of evaporation from the land earth.
surface plus transpiration from “A common misconception is
plants. that when raindrops fall, they have
The typical plant, including a teardrop shape. In fact, smaller
any found in a landscape, absorbs raindrops (ones that are
water from the soil through its approximately one millimeter
roots. That water is then used for (0.039 inches) across) are almost
metabolic and physiologic perfectly spherical. Larger
functions. The water eventually is raindrops (two to three millimeters
released to the atmosphere as (0.078-0.118 inches) across) are
vapour via the plant's stomata — also round, but with a small indent
tiny, closable, pore-like structures on their bottom side. They look
on the surfaces of leaves. Overall, more like kidney beans when
this uptake of water at the roots, falling. Very large rain drops (larger
transport of water through plant than 4.5 millimeters (0.177 inches))
tissues, and release of vapour by have a huge indent and look more
leaves is known as transpiration. like a parachute. These extra-large
drops usually end up splitting into Percolation test or perc test is
two smaller droplets. The indents an analytical technique in which we
on raindrops are caused by air can determine the absorption rate
resistance. of the soil.
Precipitation is always fresh Percolation Rate = Amount of
water, even when the water water in mL / time in minutes
originated from the ocean.
However, in some cases, pollutants
in the atmosphere can contaminate
water droplets before they fall to
the ground.”(National Geographic
Society)
Infiltration and Percolation
Infiltration is defined as the
downward entry of water into the
soil or rock surface.
Percolation is the flow of Surface and Sub-Surface Run-
water through soil and porous or off
fractured rock.
Surface runoff is water from
In hydrologic modeling, these rain, snow melting, or other
two processes are usually modelled sources that flows over the land
separately. Infiltration rate is the surface, and is a major component
rate at which a soil under specified of the water cycle. There are two
conditions absorbs falling rain, types of surface runoff that occur
melting snow, or surface water during rainfall or snowmelt.
expressed in depth of water per
unit time (ASCE, 1985). Percolation Key factors influencing surface run-
rate, although more difficult to off include:
measure directly, represents the 1. Land Use and Cover:
rate at which soil moisture moves Urbanization, deforestation,
down through the soil or permeable and agricultural practices can
rock. increase run-off by reducing
Infiltration rate is the volume vegetation and soil
of water that flows into a unit area permeability.
of soil. Percolation rate is the rate
at which water moves into the soil 2. Topography: Steeper slopes
as determined by the percolation generally lead to higher run-
test. off rates due to increased
 gravitational force, which Ground water is water that fills
accelerates water flow. pores and fractures in the ground,
much as milk fills the voids within
3. Soil Type and Condition: bits of granola in a breakfast bowl.
Soil properties, such as The top of ground water is called
texture and structure, affect the water table. Between the water
infiltration rates. Sandy soils, table and the land surface is the
for example, have higher unsaturated zone or vadose zone.
infiltration rates compared to In the unsaturated zone, moisture
clayey soils. is moving downward to the water
table to recharge the ground water.
4. Rainfall Intensity and The water table can be very close
Duration: High-intensity, to the surface (within a few feet),
short-duration rainfall events or very deep (up to several
are more likely to cause hundred feet).
significant surface run-off
Types of Aquifers
compared to light, prolonged
showers. 1. Unconfined Aquifers: Also
known as water tables, these
Interflow, also known as
aquifers are found close to
subsurface runoff is relatively
the Earth's surface and are
rapid flow toward the stream
directly recharged by
channel that occurs below the
precipitation.
surface. It occurs more rapidly than
2. Confined Aquifers: These
base flow, but typically more slowly
are trapped between
than surface runoff.
impermeable layers of rock
Can be categorized into: or clay, which confine the
groundwater and create
1. Interflow: This is the lateral
pressure.
movement of water through
the soil layer above the water Hydrogeological Characteristics
table.
Porosity: The percentage of pore
2. Baseflow: This refers to the
spaces in rock/soil.
portion of streamflow that
comes from groundwater Permeability: The ability to
discharge. transmit water.
3. Recharge: The process of
Recharge Areas: Locations where
groundwater recharge
water enters the aquifer.
involves the infiltration of
water from the surface into
the groundwater system.
Groundwater
Importance of Groundwater:
 Groundwater is crucial for Watersheds in the Philippines
water supply and ecological
The Philippines has 412
balance. Effective management
principal river basins in 119
and conservation are essential.
proclaimed watersheds. Of these,
Challenges Facing 19 are considered major river
Groundwater: basins. There are also 11
watersheds reservations in the
Over-extraction: Leads to
Philippines that supports power
depletion and subsidence.
generation which are located in the
Contamination: Risks from Northern and Southern Luzon and
pollutants and chemicals. Mindanao. Some of these
watersheds are the Angat, Magat,
Aquifer Depletion: Excessive
Makiling-Banahaw, Pantabangan-
withdrawal vs. recharge rates.
Carranglan, Lake Lanao Agus River
Philippine Watersheds: Delineation and Pulangi Watershed.
of Drainage Area, Sub-
Watershed Delineation
basing/Physical Properties
Determination (Application in the Delineation is the action of
Term Project) indicating the exact position of a
border or boundary.
Watershed
Watershed
Watershed is simply known
delineation involves
as an area that drains surface
determining the boundaries of a
water from high elevation to low
watershed, also known as a
elevation. It is defined as an area of
catchment, drainage basin, or river
land that serves as a catchment for
basin. This process is crucial in
water. From the watershed, the
fields like environmental science,
surface water then enters a
engineering, and management, as
common outlet in the form of either
it aids in the analysis of flooding,
a body of water, such as a lake,
aquatic habitats, and water
stream, or wetland; or it infiltrate
pollution. Delineating a watershed
into the groundwater. The
is essential because it allows users
watershed is a hydrologic unit that
to identify surface water features
is used to be modeled as it is
within the watershed and
considered fundamental to
comprehend the downstream
hydrologic designs, and it is used
effects when planning and
to aid in the study of the
executing actions related to water
movement, distribution, and quality
quality and quantity protection and
and quantity of water in an area.
mitigation.
Steps in Delineation of
Watershed
Step 1: Choose the point of the hydrologists can model how
watershed outlet. This is generally water moves through a
your point of interest for designing landscape, aiding in water
a structure or monitoring location. resource management, flood
risk assessment, and
Step 2: Trace the watercourse from
environmental conservation.
its source to its mouth, including
DEMs rely heavily on
the tributaries.
technology, such as satellite
Step 3: Examine the brown lines imagery, LiDAR, and GIS
on the topographic map that are software, to capture and
near the watercourse. analyse terrain elevation
data accurately.
Step 4: Contour lines spaced very
2. Manual Watershed
closed together indicate dramatic
Delineation - Manual
changes.
delineation of watersheds is a
Step 5: Check the slope of the process that involves defining
landscape by locating two adjacent the boundaries of a
contour lines and determine their watershed by hand, using
respective elevations. maps, topographic features,
and hydrological principles.
Step 6: Mark the Break points This method is often used in
surrounding the water body and hydrology and environmental
determine direction of drainage in science to understand the
the area. drainage area for a particular
Step 7: Connect the break points body of water and to analyse
with a line following the highest how water flows across a
elevations in area. landscape.

Step 8: Creating a boundary that Parts of Watershed

represents the contributing area for  Precipitation – water that
a particular control point or outlet. falls to the earth as rain and
Delineation Methods snow that flows into streams
and is absorbed into the
1. Digital Elevation Model ground for plants to take up
(DEM) – A Digital Elevation in their roots.
Model (DEM) is a critical tool  Headwater – are the places
for watershed delineation where streams begin, usually
because it provides detailed the highest point.
topographic data to identify  Tributary – small streams
watershed boundaries, flow into one another to
analyse flow directions, and make larger streams. Larger
define stream networks. By streams join to form rivers.
processing elevation data,
  Ridgeline/Watershed received, retained, and disposed off
Divide – is the top edge of (run off). The larger the watershed,
the mountain that divides the larger be the channel and
one watershed from another. storage of water in basin.
 Flood Plain – border areas
Sub-components
on each side of a river, which
allows water to spill 1. Stream areas – are those
out/overflow at times of high areas that would constitute
flow. the area draining to a
 Distributaries – a stream or predetermined point in the
river that branch off of the stream or outlet.
main or parent river. 2. Inter-basin areas – are the
 Estuary – is the area where surface elements
the river meets the ocean. contributing flow directly to
Fresh water from the river streams of order higher than
and salt water from the 1
ocean mix here.
Watershed Shape – Watersheds
 Groundwater – water that is
differ in their shape based on
located beneath the surface
morphometric parameters. Its
of the earth in pores in the
either square, rectangle, triangle,
soil
oval etc. A frequently occurring
Physical Properties of a shape is a pear shape in plain view.
Watershed
Watershed Slope – Slope reflects
The description of watershed the rate of change of elevation with
in terms of area, slope, shape, respect to distance along the
drainage density, aspect, relief, principal flow path.
land use and soil characteristics
Drainage Density – The total
etc.
length of all streams and rivers in a
The physical properties of a drainage basin divided by the total
watershed influence to a large area of the drainage basin.
degree of its hydrological
Land Use – Type of land use, its
responses and especially the flow
extent and management are the
regime during floods and periods of
key factors, which affect watershed
drought.
behaviour. Judicious land use by
Watershed Area – defined as the users [human beings] is of vital
area contained within the vertical importance to watershed
projection of the drainage divide on management and functioning.
a horizontal plane. Watershed Area
determines the quantity of rainfall
 Hydrology
Lesson 2: Precipitation