INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS

UNIT 1
Introduction
BY DR D B NTALASHA

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 Outline
 What is an operating system
 The history of Operating System
 Hardware of operating system
 Important concepts of Operating System

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 What Is An Operating System

A modern computer consists of:

• One or more processors

• Main memory
• Disks
• Printers
• Various input/output devices

Managing all these components requires a layer of

software – the operating system
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 What is an Operating System?
 A modern computer is very complex.
 Networking
 Disks
 Video/audio card
 ….
 It is impossible for every application programmer to
understand every detail
 A layer of computer software is introduced to provide a
better, simpler, cleaner model of the resources and manage
them

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 What Is An Operating System

Figure 1-1. Where the operating system fits in.

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 What is an Operating System?
 Users use various OS
 Windows, Linux, Mac OS etc.
 User interacts with shell or GUI
 part of OS?
 they use OS to get their work done
 Is device driver part of OS?

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 What is an Operating System?
 On top of hardware is OS
 Most computers have two modes of operation:
 Kernel mode and user mode
 OS runs in kernel mode, which has complete access to all
hardware and can execute any instruction
 Rest of software runs in user mode, which has limited capability
 Shell or GUI is the lowest level of user mode software

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 As an extended machine
 Abstraction:
 CPU—process
 Storage –- files
 Memory– address space

 4 types of people:
 Industrial engineer: design hardware
 Kernel designer
 Application programmer: OS’s user
 End users

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 What is an operating system?
 Two functions:
 From top to down: provide application programmers a clean
abstract set of resources instead of hardware ones
 From down to top: Manage these hardware resources

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 The Operating System as a Resource
Manager

• Allow multiple programs to run at the same time

• Manage and protect memory, I/O devices, and
other resources
• Includes multiplexing (sharing) resources in two
different ways:
• In time
• In space

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 As a resource manager
 Modern OS runs multiple programs of multiple users at the
same time
 Imagine what would happen if several programs want to print at
the same time?
 How to account the resource usage of each process?
 Resources can be multiplexed:
 How to ensure fairness and efficiency?

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 summary
 Operating system is a software
 Is a complex software
 Runs in kernel mode
 Manages hardware
 Provide a friendly interface for application programmer

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 History of Operating Systems
Generations:

• (1945–55) Vacuum Tubes

• (1955–65) Transistors and Batch Systems
• (1965–1980) ICs and Multiprogramming
• (1980–Present) Personal Computers

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 1st: vacuum tubes
 Large and slow
 Engineers design, build, operate and maintain the computer
 All programming is done with machine language, or by
wiring circuits using cables
 insert plugboards into the computer and operate
 The work is mainly numerical calculations

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 2nd: transistors and batch systems
 Also called mainframes
 Computers are managed by professional operators
 Programmers use punch card to run programs; operators
operate (load compiler, etc ) and collect output to the user
 Complains soon come:
 Human Operation between computer operation
 Lead to batch system
 Collect a batch of jobs in the input room, then read them into a
magnetic tape; the same for output

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 2nd: Transistors and Batch Systems (1)

Figure 1-3. An early batch system.

(a) Programmers bring cards to 1401.
(b)1401 reads batch of jobs onto tape.
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 Transistors and Batch Systems (2)

Figure 1-3. (c) Operator carries input tape to 7094.

(d) 7094 does computing. (e) Operator carries output tape to
17 1401.
Introduction to OS - Ntalasha 2020 (f) 1401 prints output. 24/08/2024
 Transistors and Batch Systems (4)

Figure 1-4. Structure of a typical FMS job.

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 3rd: IC and Multiprogramming
 OS/360: a dinosaur stuck in a tar pit
 Aims to adapts 1401/7904, covers all trades of life
 However, OS/360 introduces several key techniques
 Multi-programming: solve the problem of CPU idling
 Spooling: simultaneous peripheral operation on line
 Whenever a job finishes, OS load a new job from disk to the empty-
partition

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 3rd: ICs and Multiprogramming

Figure 1-5. A multiprogramming system

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 3rd: Ics and Multiprogramming
 Problems:
 3rd generation OS was well suited for big scientific calculations
and massive data processing
 But many programmers complain a lot… for not be able to
debug quickly…. Why?
 And the solution to this problem would be….?
 Timesharing:
 A variant of multiprogramming
 Provide both fast interactive service but also fits big batch work

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 3rd: IC and Multiprogramming
 A system to be remembered: MULTICS
 A machine that would support hundreds of simultaneous
timesharing users– like the electricity system (like a web server
nowadays)
 Introduces many brilliant ideas but enjoys no commercial
success
 Its step-child is the well-known and time-honored UNIX
 System V/ FreeBSD, MINIX, Linux

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 4th: personal computers
 Computers have performance similar to 3rd generation, but
prices drastically different
 CP/M
 First disk-based OS
 1980, IBM PC, Basic Interpreter, DOS, MS-DOS
 GUI--Lisa—Apple: user friendly
 MS-DOS with GUI– Win95/98/me—winNT/xp…

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 Summary
 4 generations OS
 Develops with hardware and user needs
 Multi-user, multi-programming, time-sharing

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 Computer Hardware Review

Figure 1-6. Some of the components

25 of a 2020
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 Hardware: processor
 Brain of computer
 Fetches instruction from memory and execute
 Cycle of CPU:
 fetch, decode, execute
 CPU has registers to store variable and temporary result: load
from memory to register; store from register to memory
 Program counter: next instruction to fetch
 Stack pointer: the top of the current stack
 PSW: program status word, priority, mode…

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 A reference
 Adam Smith: Wealth of Nation Of the Division of labor

 One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts
it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top…
 One person could make up to forth-eight thousand pins in a
day

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 CPU Pipelining

Figure 1-7. (a) A three-stage pipeline. (b) A superscalar CPU.

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 CPU Pipeline
 Accelerate the execution
 Cause headaches to OS/compiler writers
 For superscalar: instructions are often executed out of order

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 Multithreaded and Multicore Chips

Figure 1-8. (a) A quad-core chip with a shared L2 cache.

30 (b)
Introduction A -quad-core
to OS Ntalasha 2020 chip with separate L2 caches.
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 Memory (1)

Figure 1-9. A typical memory hierarchy.

31 The
Introduction to OSnumbers
- Ntalasha 2020are very rough approximations.
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 memory
 Memory is where computer fetch and store data, ideally, it
should be both chip/large
 The best people can do, is to construct a memory hierarchy
 Cache lines:
 Memory divided into cache lines; the mostly used ones are stored
in caches
 Cache hit, cache miss
 Cache: whenever there is disparity in usage or speed; used to
improve performance

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 Memory (2)

Questions when dealing with cache:

• When to put a new item into the cache.

• Which cache line to put the new item in.
• Which item to remove from the cache when a
slot is needed.
• Where to put a newly evicted item in the larger
memory.

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 Disks

Figure 1-10. Structure of a disk drive.

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 Disks
 Cheap and large: two orders better than RAM
 Slow: three orders worse than RAM
 Mechanical movement to fetch data
 One or more platter—rotate– rpm
 Information is stored on concentric circles
 Arm, track, cylinder, sector
 Disk helps to implement Virtual Memory
 When no enough memory is available, disks are used as the
storage, and memory as cache

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 I/O Devices

Figure 1-11. (a) The steps in starting an I/O device and

36 getting an interrupt.
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 I/O devices
 Two parts: a controller and a device
 Controller: to provide a simpler interface to OS
 Device driver: talks to controller, give commands and accepts
response
 Busy waiting/interrupt/DMA

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 Booting the Computer
 BIOS—basic input/output system
 On the parentboard, low-level I/O software
 Checks RAM, keyboard and other basic devices
 Determine the boot device: floppy, CD-ROM, disk
 First sector of the boot-device is read into memory
 The sector contains program to check which partition is active
 Then a secondary boot-loader is read into memory and reads in
operating system from the active partition

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 The Operating System Zoo

• Mainframe operating systems

• Server operating systems
• Multiprocessor operating systems
• Personal computer operating systems
• Handheld operating systems
• Embedded operating systems
• Sensor node operating systems
• Real-time operating systems
• Smart card operating systems
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 Operating System Concepts
• Processes
• Address spaces
• Files
• Input/Output
• Protection
• The shell
• Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
• Large memories
• Protection hardware
• Disks
• Virtual memory
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 processes
 Process
 Address space: 0-4G; executable program, program’s data, and
its stack
 Other resources like: registers, files, alarms, related processes,
and other information
 A process is fundamentally a container that holds information
for a program to run

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 Processes

Figure 1-13. A process tree. Process A created two child

processes, B and C. Process B created three child processes,
D, E, and F.
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 Address Space
 The memory used by a process, in concept
 MOS allows multiple processes in memory simultaneously
 Some processes need more memory than physically
available– virtual memory

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 Files (1)

Figure 1-14. A file system for a university department.

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 Files (2)

Figure 1-15. (a) Before mounting, the files on the CD-ROM are not
accessible. (b) After mounting, they are part of the file
45 hierarchy.
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 Files (3)

Figure 1-16. Two processes connected by a pipe.

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 System calls
 System calls is the interface users contact with OS and
hardware
 System calls vary from system to system, but the underlying
concepts are similar

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 System Calls

Figure 1-17. The 11 steps in making the system call

48 Introduction to OS - Ntalasha read(fd,
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 System Calls for Process Management

Figure 1-18. Some of the major POSIX system calls.

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 System Calls for File Management (1)

Figure 1-18. Some of the major POSIX system calls.

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 System Calls for File Management (2)

Figure 1-18. Some of the major POSIX system calls.

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 Miscellaneous System Calls

Figure 1-18. Some of the major POSIX system calls.

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 Memory Layout

Figure 1-20. Processes have three segments:

55 text, data, and stack.
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 Linking

Figure 1-21. (a) Two directories before linking /usr/jim/memo to

56 ast’stodirectory.
Introduction (b) The same directories after linking.
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 Mounting

Figure 1-22. (a) File system before the mount.

(b) File system after the mount.

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 Windows Win32 API

Figure 1-23. The Win32 API calls that roughly correspond

58 to the
Introduction to OS - Ntalasha 2020UNIX calls of Fig. 1-18. 24/08/2024
 Operating Systems Structure

Monolithic systems – basic structure:

• A main program that invokes the requested

service procedure.
• A set of service procedures that carry out the
system calls.
• A set of utility procedures that help the service
procedures.

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 Layered Systems

Figure 1-25. Structure of the THE operating system.

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 Microkernels

Figure 1-26. Structure of the MINIX 3 system.

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 Client-Server Model

Figure 1-27. The client-server model over a network.

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 Virtual Machines (2)

Figure 1-29. (a) A type 1 hypervisor. (b) A type 2 hypervisor.

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 The World According to C
• The C language
• Header files
• Large programming projects
• The model of run time

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 World according to C
 Operating systems are large C programs consisting of many
pieces written by many programmers
 C language
 Data types, variables, control statements…
 Header files: declaration, definition, macros…
 For a large programming project

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 The Model of Run Time

Figure 1-30. The process of compiling C and header files to

66
make an executable.
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