Week 3: Data Analysis (Data Analysis and Types of Data Analysis; Levels of Data Analysis;

Multivariate Analysis).
Data Analysis and Types of Data Analysis

Data analysis refers to the process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to
extract meaningful insights and draw conclusions. SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) offers a wide range of data analysis techniques for researchers and analysts. Here are
some common types of data analysis in SPSS:

1. Demographic Analysis
Demographics are statistics that describe populations and their characteristics. Demographic
analysis is the study of a population-based on factors such as age, race, and sex. Demographic
data refers to socioeconomic information expressed statistically, including employment,
education, income, marriage rates, birth and death rates, and more.

Governments, corporations, and non-government organizations use demographics to learn more

about a population's characteristics for many purposes, including policy development and
economic market research. For example, a company that sells high-end RVs may want to reach
people nearing or at retirement age and the percentage of those who can afford their products.

Demographic analysis is the collection and study of data regarding the general characteristics of
specific populations. It is frequently used as a business marketing tool to determine the best way
to reach customers and assess their behavior. Segmenting a population by using demographics
allows companies to determine the size of a potential market.

The use of demographics helps determine whether its products and services are being targeted to
that company's most influential consumers. For example, market segments may identify a
particular age group, such as baby boomers (born 1946–1964) or millennials (born 1981–1996),
with specific buying patterns and characteristics.

The advent of the internet, social media, predictive algorithms, and big data has dramatic
implications for collecting and using demographic information. Modern consumers give out a
flood of data, sometimes unwittingly, collected and tracked through their online and offline lives
by myriad apps, social media platforms, third-party data collectors, retailers, and financial
transaction processors.

Combined with the growing field of artificial intelligence, this mountain of collected data can be
used to predict and target consumer choices and buying preferences with uncanny accuracy based
on their demographic characteristics and past behavior.

Types of Demographic Information

For corporate marketing goals, demographic data is collected to build a customer base profile. The
common variables gathered in demographic research include age, sex, income level, race,
employment, location, homeownership, and level of education. Demographical information makes
certain generalizations about groups to identify customers.

Additional demographic factors include gathering data on preferences, hobbies, lifestyle, and
more. Governmental agencies collect data when conducting a national census and may use that
demographic data to forecast economic patterns and population growth to better manage resources.

You can gather demographic information on a large group and then break it down into smaller subsets
for deeper dive into your research.

Demographic analysis.

Demographic analysis examines and measures the dimensions and dynamics of populations. These
methods have primarily been developed to study human populations, but are extended to a variety
of areas where researchers want to know how populations of social actors can change across time
through processes of birth, death, and migration. In the context of human biological populations,
demographic analysis uses administrative records to develop an independent estimate of the
population. Demographic analysis estimates are often considered a reliable standard for judging
the accuracy of the census information gathered at any time. In the labor force, demographic
analysis is used to estimate sizes and flows of populations of workers; in population ecology the
focus is on the birth, death, migration and immigration of individuals in a population of living
organisms, alternatively, in social human sciences could involve movement of firms and
institutional forms. Demographic analysis is used in a wide variety of contexts. For example, it is
often used in business plans, to describe the population connected to the geographic location of
the business. Demographic analysis is usually abbreviated as DA. For the 2010 U.S. Census, The
U.S. Census Bureau has expanded its DA categories. Also as part of the 2010 U.S. Census, DA
now also includes comparative analysis between independent housing estimates, and census
address lists at different key time points.

2. Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the main

characteristics of a dataset. SPSS provides various measures such as mean, median, mode,
standard deviation, and percentiles to describe numerical variables. It also offers frequency
tables and charts to summarize categorical variables.

3. Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics are used to make inferences and draw
conclusions about a population based on a sample. SPSS offers a range of inferential
statistical tests, including t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square tests, correlation analysis, regression
analysis, and factor analysis. These tests help to determine if there are significant
differences, relationships, or associations between variables.

4. Data Visualization: SPSS allows users to create visual representations of data through
charts, graphs, and plots. These visualizations help to identify patterns, trends, and outliers
in the data. SPSS offers various types of charts, including bar charts, line charts, scatter
plots, histograms, and box plots.
5. Cluster Analysis: Cluster analysis is a technique used to group similar cases or objects
based on their characteristics. SPSS provides several clustering methods, such as k-means
clustering and hierarchical clustering, to identify clusters or segments within a dataset.
6. Factor Analysis: Factor analysis is used to identify underlying factors or dimensions that
explain the relationships among a set of observed variables. SPSS allows users to perform
exploratory or confirmatory factor analysis to uncover latent constructs and assess the
validity of measurement scales.
7. Survival Analysis: Survival analysis is used to analyze time-to-event data, such as time
until an event occurs or time until failure. SPSS offers survival analysis techniques,
 including Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Cox regression analysis, to analyze and model
survival data.
These are just a few examples of the types of data analysis available in SPSS. The software
provides a comprehensive suite of statistical techniques to suit various research questions and data
types.

Levels of Data Analysis

Variate, bi-variate, and multivariate analysis are terms used to describe different levels of data
analysis based on the number of variables involved.

1. Univariate Analysis: Univariate analysis focuses on analyzing a single variable at a time.

It involves examining the distribution, central tendency, and dispersion of a single variable.
Common techniques used in univariate analysis include calculating descriptive statistics
such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and creating frequency distributions and
histograms. Univariate analysis provides insights into the characteristics and properties of
individual variables.
2. Bivariate Analysis: Bivariate analysis involves analyzing the relationship between two
variables. It examines how changes in one variable are associated with changes in another
variable. Bivariate analysis techniques include correlation analysis, chi-square tests, t-tests,
and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Bivariate analysis helps to understand the strength and
direction of the relationship between two variables and test hypotheses concerning their
association.
3. Multivariate Analysis: Multivariate analysis involves analyzing the relationship between
three or more variables simultaneously. It explores the complex relationships and
interactions among multiple variables. Multivariate analysis techniques include multiple
regression analysis, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and structural equation modeling
(SEM). Multivariate analysis allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the
relationships among multiple variables and can uncover underlying patterns or structures
in the data.
Overall, univariate analysis provides insights into individual variables, bivariate analysis examines
the relationship between two variables, and multivariate analysis explores the relationships among
multiple variables. These different levels of analysis help researchers gain a deeper understanding
of the data and draw more meaningful conclusions. SPSS and other statistical software provide a
range of tools and techniques to perform variate, bi-variate, and multivariate analyses.

The data analysis process involves several steps to transform raw data into meaningful insights
and conclusions. While the specific steps may vary depending on the research question and data
type, here is a general overview of the data analysis process:

1. Define the Research Question: Clearly articulate the research question or objective that you
want to answer through data analysis. This will guide your entire analysis process.
2. Data Cleaning and Preparation: This step involves inspecting the data for errors, missing
values, outliers, and inconsistencies. Clean the data by correcting errors, dealing with
missing data, and transforming variables if necessary. Ensure that the data is in a suitable
format for analysis.
3. Exploratory Data Analysis: Conduct exploratory data analysis (EDA) to gain initial
insights and understand the characteristics of the variables. This may involve calculating
descriptive statistics, creating visualizations, and examining relationships between
variables.
4. Select Analysis Techniques: Determine the appropriate statistical techniques or methods
to answer your research question. This may involve selecting from a range of techniques
such as hypothesis testing, regression analysis, factor analysis, or cluster analysis.
5. Apply Statistical Techniques: Apply the chosen statistical techniques to the data. This may
involve running tests, estimating models, or conducting further analyses based on the
research question.
6. Interpret and Analyze Results: Analyze the results obtained from the statistical techniques.
Interpret the findings in the context of the research question and draw conclusions.
Consider the limitations of the analysis and discuss the implications of the results.

7. Communicate Findings: Present the results and findings in a clear and concise manner. Use
visualizations, tables, and written explanations to effectively communicate the insights and
conclusions. Provide appropriate context and recommendations based on the analysis.
 8. Validate and Verify: Validate the analysis by reviewing the methodology, conducting
sensitivity analyses, and seeking feedback from peers or experts. Verify the results by
replicating the analysis or conducting additional analyses if necessary.
Remember, the data analysis process is iterative, and it may involve going back to previous steps
to refine the analysis or address any issues that arise. It is important to document and document
the analysis process to ensure transparency and reproducibility.

Statistical Analysis

Statistics can be defined in two senses.

(a) In Plural sense (as Statistical Data): statistics are the raw data themselves, like statistics
of births, statistics of deaths, statistics of plants, statistics of students, statistics of imports
and exports, etc.
(b) In Singular sense (as Statistical Methods): statistics is the subject that deals with the
collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

Method of data analysis/ Techniques of data analysis:

Method of data analysis is the statistical analysis. there are two basic statistics: Descriptive
Statistics and Inferential Statistics.