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Experiment No: - 01
Title: - Experimental study of Solar I-V characteristics.
Objectives:-
-Learn the properties of a photovoltaic cell including its equivalent circuit;
-Test I-V and P-V characteristics for a photovoltaic module;
-Study the effects of solar insolation, shading, and tilting angle of a solar panel on an
I-V characteristic.
Theory:-
Incident sunlight can be converted into electricity by photovoltaic conversion using a
solar panel. A solar panel consists of individual cells that are large-area semiconductor
diodes, constructed so that light can penetrate into the region of the p-n junction. The
junction formed between the n-type silicon wafer and the p-type surface layer governs the
diode characteristics as well as the photovoltaic effect. Light is absorbed in the silicon,
generating both excess holes and electrons. These excess charges can flow through an
external circuit to produce power.

Figure 1. Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

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whereIsc is short circuit current. If the solar cell is open circuited, then all of the ISC flows
through the diode and produces an open circuit voltage Voc of about 0.5-0.6V. If the solar
cell is short circuited, then no current flows through the diode, and all of the short-circuit
current Isc flows through the short circuit.
Since the Voc for one solar cell is approximately 0.5-0.6V, then individual cells are
connected in series as a “solar panel” to produce more usable voltage and power output
levels. Most solar panels are made to charge 12V batteries and consist of 36 individual cells
(or units) in series to yield panel Voc≈ 18-20V. The voltage for maximum panel power
output is usually about 16-17V. Each 0.5-0.6V series unit can contain a number of individual
cells in parallel, thereby increasing the total panel surface area and power generating
capability.

Figure 2. I-V Characteristics of Solar Panel

Figure 2 illustrates the I-V curve and power output of a solar panel. If no load is connected
with solar panel which is sitting in the sun, an open circuit voltage Voc will be produced but
no current follows. If the terminals of the solar panel are shorted together, the short-circuit
current ISC will flow but the output voltage will be zero. In both cases, no power is delivered
by the solar panel. When a load is connected, we need to consider the I-V curve of the panel
and the IV curve of the load to figure out how much power can be delivered to the load. The
maximum power point (MPP) is the spot near the knee of the I-V curve, and the voltage and

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current at the MPP are designated as Vm and Im. For a particular load, the maximum point is
changing as the I-V curve is varying with the temperature, insolation, and shading. Because
solar power is relatively expensive, it is important to operate panels at their maximum power
conditions. In fact DC-DC converters are often used to “match” the load resistance to the
Thevenin equivalent resistance of the panel to maximize the power drawn from the panel.
These “smart” converters are often referred to as “tracking converters”.

Experimental setup:-

Figure 3. Experimental setup

Apparatus:-
Sr. No. Item Type Specification
1 Photovoltaic panel Polycrystalline 37V, 1kW
2 Voltmeter PMMC 0-50/100 V
3 Ammeter PMMC 0-2.5/5 A
4 Lamp bank Resistive load
5 Insulated wires with alligator clips or other cables

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Procedure:-
1. Measure V-I characteristic of the PV panel at a certain condition (such as weather, date,
and angle of the panel):
 Begin with short-circuit: Short the output terminals of the PV panel with a wire.
Measure the short circuit current and panel output voltage. The panel voltage will be
small for this case. Record both the voltage and current in a table.
 Connect the lamp bank to the panel, starting from one to more so that the panel
voltage increases from zero toward open circuit in steps of approximately 2~3V.
Measure the voltage and current for each lamp and record them in the table.
 Measure the voltage and current when the panel is open-circuit. Record the panel
voltage and current in the table. Use the data recorded in the table to plot I versus V
manually.
2. Repeat step 1 in two very different sunlight’s, i.e. different weathers or different time of a
day.

Observation table:-
Sr. No. Voltage (Volt) Current (Amp.)
1 32 0.2
2 32 0.5
3 32 0.8
4 32 1.1
5 32 1.4
6 32 1.6
7 30 2.2
8 30 2.8

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Result:-
I-V characteristics of solar photovoltaic

I-V characteristics of PV
2.5

Cu
1.5
rr
en
t
(A 1
m

0.5

0
29.5 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5
Voltage (volts)

Conclusion:-
After studying this experiment we verify the test results with standard solar
photovoltaic I-V characteristics. Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and
voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving
a detailed description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency.

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Experiment No:- 02
Title:- Booster designing, simulation and pulse generation (by using
Arduino) for Solar PV array.

Theory:-
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up
voltage (while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class
of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and
a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in
combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

Figure 1. Boost converter power stage

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the
output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is
shown in Figure 1.

(a) When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and
the inductor stores some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the
inductor is positive.

(b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The
magnetic field previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current towards the load.
Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a

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result, two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through
the diode D.

If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging
stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when
the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load
is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is
shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and
energy to the load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from
discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to
prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states:

 In the On-state, the switch SW is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor

current;

 In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in
transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

 The input current is the same as the inductor current. So it is not discontinuous as in
the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a
buck converter.

Design procedure:-
Necessary Parameters of the Power Stage
The following four parameters are needed to calculate the power stage:
1. Input Voltage Range: Vin(min) and Vin(max)
2. Nominal Output Voltage: Vout
3. Maximum Output Current: Iout(max)
4. Integrated Circuit used to build the boost converter. This is necessary, because some
parameters for the calculations have to be taken out of the data sheet. If these parameters are
known the calculation of the power stage can take place.

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1. Calculate the Maximum Switch Current

The first step to calculate the switch current is to determine the duty cycle, D, for
the minimum input voltage. The minimum input voltage is used because this leads to
the maximum switch current.

(1)
Vin(min) = minimum input voltage
Vout = desired output voltage
η = efficiency of the converter, e.g. estimated 80%
The efficiency is added to the duty cycle calculation, because the converter has to
deliver also the energy dissipated. This calculation gives a more realistic duty cycle
than just the equation without the efficiency factor.
The next step to calculate the maximum switch current is to determine the
inductor ripple current. In the converters data sheet normally a specific inductor or a
range of inductors is named to use with the IC. So either use the recommended
inductor value to calculate the ripple current, an inductor value in the middle of the
recommended range or, if none is given in the data sheet, the one calculated in the
Inductor Selection section of this application note.

(2)
Vin(min) = minimum input voltage
D = duty cycle calculated in Equation 1
fs = minimum switching frequency of the converter
L = selected inductor value
The inductor ripple current cannot be calculated with Equation 1 because the inductor
is not known. A good estimation for the inductor ripple current is 20% to 40% of the
output current.

(3)

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ΔIL = estimated inductor ripple current

Iout(max) = maximum output current necessary in the application
The maximum switch current in the system is calculated:

(4)
ΔIL = inductor ripple current calculated in Equation 2 or 3
Iout(max) = maximum output current necessary in the application
D = duty cycle calculated in Equation 1
This is the peak current, the inductor, the integrated switch and the external diode has
to withstand.

2. Inductor Selection
The higher the inductor value, the higher is the maximum output current because of
the reduced ripple current. The lower the inductor value, the smaller is the solution
size. Note that the inductor must always have a higher current rating than the
maximum current given in Equation 4 because the current increases with decreasing
inductance.
The following equation is a good estimation for the right inductor:

(5)
Vin = typical input voltage
Vout = desired output voltage
fs = minimum switching frequency of the converter
ΔIL = estimated inductor ripple current

3. Rectifier Diode Selection

To reduce losses, Schottky diodes should be used. The forward current rating needed
is equal to the maximum output current:

(6)

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If = average forward current of the rectifier diode

Iout(max) = maximum output current necessary in the application
Schottky diodes have a much higher peak current rating than average rating.
Therefore the higher peak current in the system is not a problem.
The other parameter that has to be checked is the power dissipation of the diode. It
has to handle:

(7)
IF = average forward current of the rectifier diode
VF = forward voltage of the rectifier diode
4. Output Capacitor Selection
the following equations can be used to adjust the output capacitor values for a desired
output voltage ripple:

(8)
Cout(min) = minimum output capacitance
Iout(max) = maximum output current of the application
D = duty cycle calculated with Equation 1
fs = minimum switching frequency of the converter
ΔVout = desired output voltage ripple (1V)

Design Calculations:-

 Designing a boost converter of 80V, 160W, 2A for input voltage of range 36V-40V.

Input Voltage (Vin) 36-40V

Output Voltage required
80V
(Vout)
Maximum Output current 2A
required (Ioutmax)
Switching frequency(Fs) 20KHz
Converter efficiency 80%
1) Duty cycle from equation 1
D=0.64

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2) Inductor ripple current from equation

ΔIL =1.2A
3) The maximum switch current from equation 4
Isw(max)=6.15A
4) Inductor from equation 5
L=833.33uH
5) Output capacitor from equation 8
Cout=64uF

Simulation circuit:-

Fig: - simulation circuit of boost converter

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Simulation result:-

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Conclusion:-
After performing this experiment of booster design for solar PV, we can conclude that
booster can increase maximum output voltage 3 times of input voltage and this voltage
further used as input to invertor.

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Experiment No:- 03
Title:- Determination of Controllability and Observability of given state
model using SIMULINK.

Theory:-

Controllability and observability represent two major concepts of modern control system
theory. They can be roughly defined as follows.

 Controllability: In order to be able to do whatever we want with the given dynamic

system under control input, the system must be controllable.
 Observability: In order to see what is going on inside the system under observation,
the system must be observable.

The concepts of controllability and observability are related to linear systems of algebraic
equations. It is well known that a solvable system of linear algebraic equations has a solution
if and only if the rank of the system matrix is full. Observability and controllability tests will
be connected to the rank tests of certain matrices: the controllability and observability
matrices.

Example

Determination of Controllability and Observability of given state model using

SIMULINK and Hand calculation
−2 1 1
, 𝐵 = [ ], C=[1 −1]
1.𝐴 = [ 1 −2] 0

−1 0 0 1 0 1 1 2

2. A=[ 0 −2 0 ] ,B=[1 2] , C= [ ]
3 1 5
0 0 −3 2 1
0 0 0 40
3.A=[1 0 −3] , B=[10] , C=[0 0 1]
0 1 −4 0

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Program :
% Check Controllability and Observability of a 3rd order System
% Given
-
MatrixA = [-1 0 0;0 -2 0;0 0 -3];
MatrixB = [1 0;1 2;2 1];
MatrixC = [1 1 2;3 1 5];
MatrixD = 0;
% Objective
-
% 1) To Find Controllable Matrix Qc, its rank and check controllability
% 2) To Find Observable Matrix Qb, its rank and check observability
%
-
% Controllable Matrix
-
Qc = ctrb(MatrixA,MatrixB);
rankQc = rank(Qc);
disp('Controllable Matrix is Qc = ');
disp(Qc);
if(rankQc == rank(MatrixA))
disp('Given System is Controllable.');
else
disp('Given System is Uncontrollable');
end
% Observable Matrix
-
Qb = obsv(MatrixA, MatrixC);
rankQb = rank(Qb);
disp('Observable Matrix is Qb = ');
disp(Qb);
if(rankQb == rank(MatrixA))
disp('Given System is Observable.');
else
disp('Given System is Unobservable');
end

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Result:
Given System is Controllable.

Observable Matrix is Qb =

1 1 2

3 1 5

-1 -2 -6

-3 -2 -15

1 4 18

3 4 45

Given System is Observable.

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Experiment No:- 04
Title:- Analyze the effect of addition of pole-zero on system stability .

Objectives:-

 To plot root locus, and observe effect of additional pole on stability of given systems.
 To plot root locus, and observe effect of additional zero on stability of given systems.

Design of Experiment:-

Assumptions made:

 As the root locus plots are plotted by using Mat-lab software, assumed that the
root locus plots with higher accuracy of mat-lab software.
 The given second order system assumed to be a stable before addition of
pole-zero.

Experimental Setup required:

 Mat-lab software.

Theory:-

Root locus:-

Root locus is a graphical presentation of the closed loop poles as a system parameter
is varied. The root locus also gives a graphic presentation of a system’s stability.
Effect of addition of pole:

 The general effect of addition of pole is a tendency to shift the root locus towards
right half of the s-plane.
 This lowers the stability of system.
 The addition of pole brought the close loop poles towards 𝑗𝑤 axis making the system
more oscillatory.
 Addition of pole in G(s) means integrative action.

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Examples:-
, ∴ G(s) = 𝑘
𝑠2+15𝑠+50
G(s) = 𝑘
(𝑠+5)(𝑠+10)

Program:-

clc;
num=[1]
den=[1 15 50] Rootlocus:
sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)
1) No. of root locus
branches = no. of open loop poles=2
2) No. of asymptotes=P-Z=2-0=2

3) 𝜎 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝜎= ∑ −5−10−∑ 0 ∴ 𝜎 = −7.5
2−0

4) 𝜃 = (2𝑞+1)180°
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

(2 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑎 = 270° = −90°

𝜃𝑎 = 2−0

(2 ∗ 2 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑏 = 450° = 90°

𝜃𝑏 = 2−0

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5) Break away point : is given by one of the possible solution of the equation 𝑑𝐾 = 0.
𝑑𝑠

𝐶𝐸: 𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50 + 𝐾 = 0

−(𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50) = 𝐾

𝑑 −(𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50)

𝑑𝐾 =
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

0 = −(2𝑆 + 15)

∴ 𝑆 = −7.5

6) Break away direction: Angle of breaking away of ‘r’ branches

=±90°
=±180=±180
𝑟 2

7) Angle of departure from open loop pole

For real pole it is 0°𝑜𝑟 180°.

Adding a pole at s= -6 in given second order system

𝑘
∴ G(s) = (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 10)

𝑘
∴ G(s) = 𝑠3 + 21𝑠2 + 140𝑠 + 300

Program:-

clc;
num=[1]
den=[1 21 140 300]
sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)

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Root locus:

1) No. of root locus branches = no. of open loop poles=3 &

2) No. of asymptotes=P-Z=3-0=3. -7

3) 𝜎 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝜎= ∑ −5−10−6−∑
3−0 0
∴ 𝜎 = −7

4) 𝜃 = (2𝑞+1)180°
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

(0 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑎 = 60°
𝜃𝑎 = 3−0

(2 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑏 = 180°
𝜃𝑏 = 3−0

(2 ∗ 2 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑐 = 300°
𝜃𝑐 = 3−0

5) Break away point : is given by one of the possible solution of the equation 𝑑𝐾 = 0.
𝑑𝑠

𝐶𝐸: 𝑠3 + 21𝑠2 + 140𝑠 + 300 + 𝐾 = 0

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−(𝑠3 + 21𝑠2 + 140𝑠 + 300) = 𝐾

𝑑 −(𝑠 + 21𝑠 + 140𝑠 + 300)

3 2
𝑑𝐾
=
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

0 = −(3𝑆2 + 42𝑆 + 140)

∴ 𝑆 = −5.4724

6) Break away direction: Angle of breaking away of ‘r’ branches

=±60°
=±180=±180
𝑟 3

7) Angle of departure from open loop pole

For real pole it is 0°𝑜𝑟 180°.

8) Point of intersection of root locus to jw axis going into right half s-plane.
𝐶𝐸: 𝑠3 + 21𝑠2 + 140𝑠 + (300 + 𝐾) = 0

By using Routh’s Criterion

𝑠3 1 140
 Therefore21limits of gain (300+k)
K to stable system is -300<K<2640.
𝑠2
Put K=2640 in auxiliary equitation i.e.21𝑠2 + 300 + 𝐾 = 0
𝑠1 140 − (300+𝐾) 0
21
21𝑠2 + 300 + 2640 = 0
𝑠0 (300+k) 𝑠 = ±𝑗11.83

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 From above root locus it is clear that the addition of pole at s= -6 is caused to became
unstable and more oscillatory system.
 System becomes conditionally stable for K<2640.

Effect of addition of zero:

 The general effect of addition of zero is a tendency to pull the root locus to the left
half of the s-plane.
 Hence adding zero increases the stability of system.
 The addition of zero thus speeds up settling time (as it pulls the root locus to left) and
stabilizes the system.
 Addition of zero in G(s) means derivative action which is anticipatory and hence
speeds up transient response.

Examples:-

G(s) = 𝑘(𝑠+3) , ∴ G(s) = 𝑘(𝑠+3)

(𝑠+5)(𝑠+10) 𝑠2+15𝑠+50

Program:-

Root clc; locus:


num=[1 3]
den=[1 15 50]

sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)


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1) No. of root locus branches = no. of open loop poles=2

2) No. of asymptotes=P-Z=2-1=1.

3) 𝜎 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝜎= ∑ −5−10−∑
2−1 −3
∴ 𝜎 = −12

4) 𝜃 = (2𝑞+1)180°
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

(0 + 1)180° ∴ 𝜃𝑎 = 180°
𝜃𝑎 = 2−1

5) As the open loop pole at -5 terminating to open loop zero at -3, and pole at -10
terminating to infinity there is no any break away point on real axis.

6) Break away direction: Angle of breaking away of ‘r’ branches terminating to infinity.

=±180 =±180
1 =±180°
𝑟

7) Angle of departure from open loop pole For real pole it is 0°𝑜𝑟 180°.

 From above root locus it is clear that the system is stable.

Adding a zero at -4 in given second order system.

∴ G(s) = (𝑠+5)(𝑠+10) , ∴ G(s) = 𝑘(𝑠2+7𝑠+12)

𝑠2+15𝑠+50
𝑘(𝑠+3)(𝑠+4)

Program:-

clc;
num=[1 7 12]
den=[1 15 50]
sys=tf(num,den)
rlocus(sys)

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Rootlocus:

1) No. of root locus branches = no. of open loop poles=2 &

2) No. of asymptotes=P-Z=2-2=0.
3) After addition of pole system becomes proper system i.e. P=Z. Both open loop poles
terminates to open loop zeros.

4) Break away point: is given by one of the possible solution of the equation 𝑑𝐾 = 0.
𝑑𝑠

𝐶𝐸: 𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50 + 𝐾((𝑠2 + 7𝑠 + 12)) = 0

𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50
𝑠2 + 7𝑠 + 12 = −𝐾

𝑑 𝑠2 + 15𝑠 + 50
𝑑𝐾 = −
𝑑𝑠 𝑠2 + 7𝑠 + 12
𝑑𝑠

0 = 8𝑠2 + 76𝑠 + 170

∴ 𝑆 = −𝟓. 𝟖𝟗, −3.60

Therefore Break in point is -3.60

6) Break away direction (and Arrival): Angle of breaking away of ‘r’ branches
=±90°
=±180=±180
𝑟 2

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7) Angle of departure from open loop pole

For real pole it is 0°𝑜𝑟 180°.

 After adding a zero in T.F. system becomes a proper system (P=Z).

 From above root locus it is clear that the addition of zero at s= -4 is caused to
became more stable system.

Conclusion:-

 Effect of addition of pole is shift the root locus towards right half of the s-plane, This
lowers the stability
 Addition of pole in G(s) means integrative action, which further increases steady state
error (Ess).
 Effect of addition of zero is pull the root locus to the left half of the s-plane, which
increases the stability of system.
 Addition of zero thus speeds up settling time.
 Addition of zero in G(s) means derivative action, which further reduces steady state
error (Ess).

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Experiment No.:-05
Title:- Single phase Inverter designing simulation and (pulse generation by
Arduino)

Theory:-
An inverter is a dc to ac power converter. This converter obtains ac voltage from dc
voltage. The application are numerous power backup for the computer systems, variable
speed drive motor and induction heating. In most cases, the dead times introduced into the
control of the switches do not change the waveform of inverter

A 1 phase PWM inverter feeding R load is shown in fig below. It consist on continuous
voltage source and single phase inverter feeding R load

Figure 1. Single phase inverter

The above fig shows the power circuit diagram for single phase bridge voltage source
inverter. In this four switches (in 2 legs) are used to generate the ac waveform at the output.
Any semiconductor switch like IGBT, MOSFET or BJT can be used. Four switches are

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sufficient for resistive load because load current io is in phase with output voltage vo.
However this is not true in case of RL load where the io is not in phase with vo and diodes
connected in anti-parallel with switch will allow the conduction of the current when the main
switch is turned off. These diodes are called as Feedback Diodes since the energy is fed back
to the dc source.

Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

Instead of, maintaining the width of all pulses of same as in case of multiple pulse
width modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine
wave evaluated at the center of the same pulse. The distortion factor and lower order
harmonics are reduced significantly.

Fig :- Pulse – Width modulation (PWM)

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The gating signals are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with a
triangular carrier wave of frequency Fc.The frequency of reference signal Fr ,determines the
inverter output frequency and its peak amplitude AR, controls the modulation index M, and
Vrms output voltage VO. The number of pulses per half cycle depends on carrier frequency
.Inverters that use PWM switching techniques have a DC input voltage that is usually
constant in magnitude. The inverters job is to take this input voltage and output ac where the
magnitude and frequency can be controlled. There are many different ways that pulse-width
modulation can be implemented to shape the output to be AC power.
A common technique called sinusoidal-PWM will be explained. In order to output a
sinusoidal waveform at a specific frequency a sinusoidal control signal at the specific
frequency is compared with a triangular waveform. The inverter then uses the frequency of
the triangle wave as the switching frequency. This is usually kept constant. The triangle
waveform, vtri, is at switching frequency fs; this frequency controls the speed at which the
inverter switches are turned off and on. The control signal, v control, is used to modulate the
switch duty ratio and has a frequency f1. This is the fundamental frequency of the inverter
voltage output. Since the output of the inverter is affected by the switching frequency it will
contain harmonics at the switching frequency. The duty cycle of the one of the inverter
switches is called the amplitude modulation ratio, ma.
Simulation circuit:-

Fig :- simulation circuit of single phase inverter

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Simulation result:-

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Conclusion:
This practical Report deals with the Single Phase Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
(SPWM)-VSI. It includes both simple and practical SPWM-VSI. The Simulink model for
both simple and practical inverter has been simulated in MATLAB. Its various parameters
such as R these parameters are varied and the resulting voltage and current graphs has been
studied.

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Experiment No:- 06
Title:-To study simulation of 3 phase SPWM inverter using MATLAB

Theory :-
An inverter is a dc to ac converter. This converter obtains ac voltage from dc voltage. The application
is numerous power backup for the computer system, variable speed drive motor, and induction
heating. In most cases, the dead time introduced into the control of the switches do not change the
waveform of the inverter

A 3 phase inverter feeding RL load is shown in fig below. It consist on a continuous

voltage source and a three - phase inverter feeding RL load

Fig 3 phase inverter

There are many strategies for controlling the switches. The most common control
strategy is the interceptive PWM. Its principle is reminded in figure below. The switch
control signals are generated by comparing these sinusoidal voltages (modulating) which are
phase shifted through 2π/3(rad) with same triangular voltage waveform (carrier).

The sinusoidal control waveform establishes the desired fundamental frequency of the
inverter output, while the triangular waveform establishes the switching of the inverter. The

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ratio between the frequencies of the triangle wave and the sinusoid is referred to as the
modulation frequency ratio.

A graphical representation of the switch control is shown in fig. PWM. In theory, the
switches in each leg are never both on or off simultaneously; therefore, the voltages V,V and
V fluctuate between the input voltage(V) and zero. By controlling the switches in this
manner, the line-line inverter output voltages are ac, with a fundamental frequency
corresponding to the frequency of the sinusoidal control voltage. In most instances the
magnitude of the triangle wave is held fixed. The amplitude of the inverter output voltages is
therefore controlled by adjusting the amplitude of the sinusoidal control voltages. The ratio
of the amplitude of the sinusoidal control voltages. The ratio of the amplitude of the
sinusoidal waveforms relative to the amplitude of the triangle wave is the amplitude
modulation ratio

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Simulation Circuit:-

Fig: -Simulation circuit of three phase inverter

Simulation Results:-

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Conclusion:
This practical Report deals with the Three Phase Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
(SPWM)-VSI. It includes both simple and practical SPWM-VSI. The Simulink model for
both simple and practical inverter has been simulated in MATLAB. Its various parameters
such as R these parameters are varied and the resulting voltage and current graphs has been
studied.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 7
Title:- Voltage regulation of a transmission line.

Theory:
1) To observe the flow of real and reactive power in a three phase transmission line
with known passive loads
2) To observe the voltage regulation at the receiver end as a function of the type of the
load
3) To regulate the receiver voltage
4) To observe the phase angle between the voltages at the sending and receiving end
of the transmission line

A transmission line which delivers electric power dissipates heat owing to the resistance of
its conductors. It acts, therefore, as a resistance which in some cases is many miles long.
The transmission line also behaves like an inductance, because each conductor is
surrounded by a magnetic field which also stretches the full length of the line. Finally
transmission line behaves like a capacitor, the conductor acting as its more or less widely-
separated plates.

The resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are uniformly distributed
over its length, the magnetic field around the conductors existing side by side with the
electric field created by the potential difference between them. We can picture
transmission line as being made of thousands of elementary resistors, inductors and
capacitors as shown in figure 1.

In high frequency work this is precisely the circuit which has to be used to explain the
behavior of a transmission line. Fortunately, at low frequencies of 50Hz or 60Hz, we can
simplify most lines so that they comprise one inductance, one resistance and one (or
sometimes two) capacitor. Such arrangement is shown in figure 2. Here the inductance L is
equal to the sum of the inductors of figure 1, and same is true for the resistance R. The
capacitance C is equal to one half of the sum of the capacitors shown in figure 1.
Inductance and capacitances are replaced by XL and XC in figure 3.

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Figure: 2 Figure: 3

The relative values of R, XL and XC depend upon the type of transmission line. Short, low-
voltage lines such as in a house wiring are mainly resistive, and the inductive and
capacitive reactance can be neglected (figure 4(a)). Medium-voltage and medium length
lines operating say at 100kV and several miles long will have negligible resistance and
capacitive reactance compared with the inductive reactance. Such lines can be represented
by a single reactance XL, shown in figure 4(b). Finally very high voltage lines which run
for many miles have appreciable capacitive and inductive reactance and may be designated
by a circuit similar to figure 4(c).

Most transmission lines can be represented by figure 4(b) and a good understanding of
their behavior can be obtained by the simple inductance of figure 4(b). It is this circuit
which will be used in this experiment.

Voltage regulation of a transmission line is the rise in voltage at the receiving end,
expressed in percent of full-load voltage, when full load at a specified power factor is
removed while the sending-end voltage is held constant.
Where, Vnl = No load Voltage, Vfl = Full load Voltage

A resistive or inductive load at the end of a transmission line produces very large voltage
drop, which would be quite intolerable under practical conditions. Motor, relays and
electric lights work properly only under stable voltage conditions, close to the potential for
which these devices are rated. We must, therefore, regulate the voltage at the receiving end
of the transmission line in
such a way as to keep it as constant as possible. One approach is to connect capacitors
parallel to the load which delivers the required reactive power to the inductive loads thus
lowering the need of high line current through the transmission line which results in a
lower voltage drop at the load terminals.

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Fig: -Simulation model of three phase transmission for voltage regulation

Simulation Results:-

Fig: -Sending end voltage of three phase transmission line

Fig: -Sending end current of three phase transmission line

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Fig: - Receiving end voltage of three phase transmission line

Fig: - Receiving end current of three phase transmission line

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Experiment No. 08

Title:- To study Three Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier using R-L Load.

Apparatus:-
Experimental Kit, Digital Multimeter, DSO, DC Shunt Motor, Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter,
Connecting wires etc.

Theory:-
Three phase Full Converter
The figure shows a 6 pulse bridge converter. This converter is most widely used in industrial
applications up to the 120kW level, where two quadrant operation is required.

Fig. 3 phase fully controlled Bridge converter

The load is fed via 3 phase half wave connection to one of the 3 supply lines, no neutral
being required. Hence transformer connection is optional. However, for isolation of output from
the supply source, or for higher output requirements, the transformer is to be connected. If
transformer is used, then one winding is connected in delta because the delta connection gives the
circulating path for third harmonic current. Therefore, third harmonic current does not appear in
line which is an advantage.

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This circuit consists of two groups of SCRs, positive group and negative group. Here, SCRs
T1, T3, T5 forms positive group, whereas SCRs T4, T6, T2 forms a negative group. The positive
group SCRs are turned on when the supply voltages are positive and negative group SCRs are
turned on when the supply voltages are negative. In order to start the circuit functioning, two
thyristors must be fired at the same time in order to commence current flow, one of the upper arm
and one of the lower arm.
For describing the operation of the circuit, the following things to be remembered.
(i) Each device should be triggered at a desired firing angle α
(ii) Each SCR can conduct for 120º
(iii) SCR must be triggered in the sequence T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6
(iv) The phase shift between the triggering of the two adjacent SCR is 60º
(v) At any instant 2 SCRs can conduct and there are such 6 pairs. The 6 pairs are (T6, T1),
(T1, T2), (T2, T3), (T3, T4), (T4, T5), (T5, T6).
(vi) Each SCR conducts in two pairs and each pair conducts for 60º
(vii) The incoming SCR commutates the outgoing SCR, i.e. SCR T1 commutates SCR T5,
SCR T2 commutates SCR T6 and so on.
(viii) When the two SCRs are conducting, i.e one from +ve (upper) group and one from –ve
(lower) group, the corresponding line voltage is applied across the load.
(ix) When the upper SCR of a half bridge conducts, the current of that phase is +ve whereas
when the lower SCR conducts, the current is –ve.
Three phase Full Converter with Resistive load
Three phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load is shown in figure.

(a) 3 phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load

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For six pulse operation, each SCR has to be fired twice in its conduction cycle that is firing
intervals should be 60º. The output voltage waveforms for different values of α are shown in
figure (b).

(b) Voltage waveforms for various firing angles

The following points can be noted:
(1) The output voltage waveform for any value of α is a 6 pulse wave with a ripple frequency
of 300 Hz.

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(2) Continuous conduction mode (0 ≤ α ≤ Π/3) when the phasor AB is allowed to conduct at
α between 0 to Π/3, it continuous to conduct by 60º when the phasor AC is fired. The conduction
is shifted from SCR T6 to T2. T6 is commutated off by the reverse voltage of phase C and B across
it. The phasor AC conduct after another 60º after which it is replaced by phasor BC when phase B
voltage assumes greater value than C or A. hence load current is continuous for α between 0 to
Π/3.
(3) Discontinuous conduction mode : (Π/3 ≤ α ≤ 2Π/3)
When Π/3 ≤ α ≤ 2Π/3, the phasor AB conducts upto an angle Π after which both the thyristors T1
& T6 are commutated off because phase B becomes +ve w.r.to phase C and after 60º, when T2 &
T1 are fired, phase AC conducts also up to angle Π, hence load current remains zero from angle Π
to the next firing pulse and becomes discontinuous, therefore the fully controlled bridge circuit
produces a ripple frequency of 6 times the supply frequency at all trigger angles.
(4) For α =120º, the output voltage is zero and hence αmax = 120(2Π/3)
(5) The general equation for the average load voltage is given by

V  3Vml cos
O 

Procedure:-
1) Connect 3 phase 4 wire 440 volt supply to input points on right hand side of main unit.
2) Keep pot P1 in most anticlockwise position & connect a lamp load bank provided along with
equipment to 12 pin Johnson socket terminals on right hand side panel.
3) Now you may switch on main 3-phase, 440 supply. Keep trigger circuit ON/OFF switch in
downward position.
4) Press push button ‘Start’. Take P1 pot to most anticlockwise to affect software.
5) By turning pot P1 in clockwise direction increase output DC and thereby increasing lamp
intensity.
6) Attenuated (5:1) test point is provided on front panel for observation of waveform on isolated
DSO.
7) Observe Waveforms from DSO for firing angle greater than, equal to, less than 60°. Calculate
Firing angles from observed voltage and compare it with observed value.

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Observation Table:
𝑉𝑙𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚𝑙 = √2 𝑉𝑙𝑅𝑀𝑆

Sr. Output DC Voltage Output DC Load Firing Angle Speed in RPM

No 𝑉𝐷𝐶 Current (𝖺 °)
𝐼𝐷𝐶
Observed Calculated

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Conclusion:-

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Experiment No. 09

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Experiment No. 10

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VISIT REPORT ON SOLAR PV SYSTEM AND SOLAR

THERMAL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

On 3 November 2018 we visited a roof top grid tie solar system located in vishrambag, near
Maharashtra bank, Sangli.

This solar system was having six panel, each panel containing 72 cells. The rating of each
panel is 320 watt. In this solar power plant, polycrystalline silicon is used. The main
advantage of polycrystalline is that the process of manufacturing is simple and less cost. The
amount of waste silicon is less compared to monocrystalline. Size of each panel is about
(1956x 992x36) mm. The solar panel are lifted of from 2-3 feet above for direct exposure of
sunlight to meet the ample amount of solar energy.

The solar panels are manufactured by Vikram solar. This type of system is adopted because
of produced energy we can use for our residential purpose and excessive energy produced fed
to MSEB.

Fig. solar polycrystalline silicon

Total installed capacity of solar power plant system is 2 KW. In this system special type
bidirectional meter is used. When energy production is low then energy is supplied by the

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MSEB.

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This meter calculates supplied as well as consumed energy. In this system the protection of
overall solar power plant is most important part. There are three types earthing is used:

1] Lightening arrester

2] AC side earthing

3] DC side earthing

And various MCB and fuses are used. Special type of cables are used for the connection in
solar power system. The cables used are of 4 sq. mm in diameter.

Special grid tie inverter is used in this system which is of 240 V rms at 50 Hz. In order to
inject electrical power efficiently and safely into the grid, grid tie inverter must be accurately
match the voltage and phase of grid i.e. reference for generated energy is given from the
utility for synchronization of system. For reliable operation of panel, the temperature will be
at -40 ◦c to 85◦c.

A solar inverter, or converter or PV inverter, converts the variable direct current (DC) output
of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panelinto a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be
fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-gridelectrical network. It is a
critical balance of system (BOS)–component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of
ordinary AC-powered equipment. Solar power inverters have special functions adapted for
use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-
islanding protection.

Classification

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:

1. Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC
energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters
also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source,

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when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and
as such, are not required to have anti-islanding protection.
2. Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie
inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for
safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility outages.
3. Battery backup inverter are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from
a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess
energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to
selected loads during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding
protection.

Maximum power point tracking:

Solar inverters use maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to get the maximum
possible power from the PV array. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar
irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency
known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the
cells and determine a resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given
environmental conditions.

The fill factor, more commonly known by its abbreviation FF, is a parameter which,
in conjunction with the open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc) of the panel,
determines the maximum power from a solar cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the
maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.

Working principle of solar inverter:

Fig. solar inverter

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The inverters work by taking in power from a Direct Current (DC) Source, i.e., the solar
panel. The power is generated in the range of 250 Volts to 600 Volts. DC power is converted
into AC power by the inversion process taking place in the inverter. This process of DC to
AC Conversion is achieved by using a set of solid state devices like Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBT’s.). These devices when connected in a typical H-Bridge arrangement
oscillate the DC power thereby creating AC power.

SPECIFICATION OF SOLAR PANEL

PARAMETERS VALUE

MODEL ELDORA VSP.720.320.03.04

PLANT CAPACITY 2 KW

TYPES OF MODULE POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON

MODULE CAPACITY 320 WATT

TOTAL NO OF MODULES 6

RATED PEAK POWER (Pmpp) 320 W

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (Voc) 46 V

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT (Isc) 9.03 A

RATED VOLTAGE (Vmpp) 37.70 V

RATED CURRENT (Impp) 8.50 A

FILL FACTOR (ff) 77.04%

EFFICIENCY (%) 16.70%

FIRE RATING (TYPE) CLASS C

NOCT 44±2◦C

MAXIMUM OPERATING VOLTAGE 1000 V

(V)

DIMENSION (mm) 1956X992X36 mm

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A step up transformer is used in between the devices. At this stage, the AC power
output is obtained, which is either consumed by the local loads or can be fed to the grid. A
few manufacturers have started manufacturing transformer-less inverters which have higher
efficiencies as compared to inverters having transformers

SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

Solar water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water
heating using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are available at varying
cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for
residential and some industrial applications.

A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later
use. SWH are active (pumped) and passive (convection-driven). They use water only, or both
water and a working fluid. They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors. They
operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters. In large-scale installations,
mirrors may concentrate sunlight onto a smaller collector.

Fig. solar water plant

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DESIGN REQUIREMENTS:

The type, complexity and size of a solar water heating system is mostly determined by:

 Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between summer and winter

 Changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle

 Possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating or freezing

The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or
temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water
temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined
by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.

Freeze protection

Freeze protection measures prevent damage to the system due to the expansion of
freezing transfer fluid. Drain back systems drain the transfer fluid from the system when the
pump stops. Many indirect systems use antifreeze (e.g., propylene glycol) in the heat transfer
fluid.

In some direct systems, collectors can be manually drained when freezing is expected.
This approach is common in climates where freezing temperatures do not occur often, but is
somewhat unreliable since it relies on an operator.

A third type of freeze protection is freeze-tolerance, where low pressure polymer

water channels made of silicone rubber simply expand on freezing.

Overheat protection

When no hot water has been used for a day or two, the fluid in the collectors and
storage can reach high temperatures in all non-drain back systems. When the storage tank in
a drain back system reaches its desired temperature, the pumps stop, ending the heating
process and thus preventing the storage tank from overheating.

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Some active systems deliberately cool the water in the storage tank by circulating hot
water through the collector at times when there is little sunlight or at night, losing heat. This
is most effective in direct or thermal store plumbing and is virtually ineffective in systems
that use evacuated tube collectors, due to their superior insulation. Any collector type may
still overheat. High pressure, sealed solar thermal systems ultimately rely on the operation
of temperature and pressure relief valves. Low pressure, open vented heaters have simpler,
more reliable safety controls, typically an open vent.

Heat transfer

Direct

Direct systems: (A) Passive CHS system with tank above collector. (B) Active system
with pump and controller driven by a photovoltaic panel.

Direct or open loop systems circulate potable water through the collectors. They are
relatively cheap. Drawbacks include:

 They offer little or no overheat protection unless they have a heat export pump.

 They offer little or no freeze protection, unless the collectors are freeze-tolerant.

 Collectors accumulate scale in hard water areas, unless an ion-exchange softener is

used.

The advent of freeze-tolerant designs expanded the market for SWH to colder
climates. In freezing conditions, earlier models were damaged when the water turned
to ice, rupturing one or more components.

Indirect

Indirect or closed loop systems use a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the "heat-
transfer fluid" (HTF) fluid to the potable water. The most common HTF is an
antifreeze/water mix that typically uses non-toxic propylene glycol. After heating in the
panels, the HTF travels to the heat exchanger, where its heat is transferred to the potable
water. Indirect systems offer freeze protection and typically overheat protection.

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