www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 1 www.Facebook.com/CS.

Minhas
 Table of Contents

1. Logic Gates…………………………….……………...……………..………………………………………………………………. 04
2. Number System / Bit Pattern……………………..…………………………………………………………………………. 14
3. Input / Output Devices.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
4. Monitoring and Control System…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 36
5. Storage Devices..………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
6. Operating System ……………..…………………….……………………………………………………………………………. 49
7. Programming Languages……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
8. Computer Safety, Security and Ethics……………………………………………………………………………………. 58
9. Computer Networks…………………………..…………..……………………………………………………………………… 69
10. Internet and Communications……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
11. Common File Standards and Compression…………………………………………………………………………….. 82
12. Von Neumann Model of a Computer…………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
13. Serial and Parallel Transmission…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 90
14. Error Detection Methods…………………..………………………………………………………………………………….. 92

Blank Sheets……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 96
Source………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 121

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 2 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Minhas Rupsi
0333-2276602
[email protected]
www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas
www.MinhasRupsi.com

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 3 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Logic Gates
The six main logic gates
The most common symbols used to represent logic gates are shown below. To avoid confusion the
graphical representations will be used in exam questions but candidates may use either set of symbols
when answering questions.

1. Simple graphical representations

OR AND NOT NOR NAND XOR

D
2. MIL symbols used to represent logic gates

Description of the function of the five logic gates

The AND gate The OR gate The NOT gate The NAND gate The NOR gate The XOR gate

A B X A B X A X A B X A B X A B X
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 4 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:
Complete truth tables from the given logic networks.

A B C X

1 1 1

1 1 0

1 0 1

1 0 0

0 1 1

0 1 0

0 0 1

0 0 0

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 5 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:
Complete the truth table for the following logic circuit, which is made up of NAND gates:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 6 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

Draw a logic network and truth table for the following logic problem:

“A sprinkler (S) is ON if
either temperature alarm (T) is ON and cooler alarm (C) is ON
or vent alarm (V) is OFF and cooler alarm (C) is ON”

Answer:
Working:

If ((T is ON) AND (C is ON)) OR ((C is ON) AND (V is OFF)), then sprinkler (S) is ON.

S=1 If ((T = 1) AND (C = 1)) OR ((C = 1) AND (V = 0))

S=1 If ((T = 1) AND (C = 1)) OR ((C = 1) AND (NOT V = 1))

S= (T AND C) OR (C AND (NOT V))

Logic Network:

Truth Table:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 7 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 8 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 9 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

A computer will only operate if three switches R, S and T are correctly set. An output signal (X = 1) will
occur if R and S are both ON or if R is OFF and S and T are ON. Design a logic network and draw the
truth table for this network.

Write the logic statement to describe the following logic circuit:

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 10 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

Complete the truth table for the following logic circuit:

Which single logic gate has the same function as the above logic circuit?

____________________________________________________________________________

Write the logic statement to describe the following logic circuit:

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 11 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 12 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Logic Gates 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 13 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 14 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

Some decorative lights are made up from a cluster of red, blue, green, yellow and white LEDs.

Each colour is represented by a binary code:

A 6-bit register, R1, stores the 1-values to represent a sequence of colours.

Thus, if R1 contains:

this means the blue, yellow and black colour sequence is stored and displayed in that order.

The length of time each light is on is set by a binary value in another register, R2:

Thus

means each colour is on for 2 seconds.

a) The two registers contain the following values.

What is the sequence of coloured lights and the timing for each colour?

sequence of colours ___________________________________________________________________

timing ______________________________________________________________________________

b) What will the two registers contain if the coloured light sequence is red, green and black and the
timing is 5 seconds?

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 15 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

A digital light meter has a 3-digit LCD. The value of each digit on the instrument display is stored as a 4-
bit binary number in a register.

For example:

(a) What value is shown on the display if the 4-bit binary registers contain:

(b) What would be stored in the 4-bit binary registers if the display shows:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 16 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:
A burglar alarm system uses an 8 – bit register. The first 4 bits indicate if a sensor has picked up an
intruder (shown with a 1 – value) and the second four bits indicate the zone where the sensor has picked
up an intruder:
8 4 2 1

A B C D

(where A = window sensors

B = floor sensors
C = door sensors
D = infra red heat sensors)

For example:
8 4 2 1

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

A B C D

Indicates: window sensor detected an intruder in zone (8 + 4 + 2) 14

a) What do the following indicate:

8 4 2 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

A B C D

____________________________________________________________________________

8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

A B C D

____________________________________________________________________________

b) What would be the binary pattern for a window broken and an infra red sensor detecting an
intruder both in zone 15?

____________________________________________________________________________

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 17 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 18 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 19 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 20 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 21 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 22 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Number System / Bit Pattern 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 23 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Hardware
Laptop/notebook computers

Laptop computers have the obvious advantage over desk top computers (PCs) in that they are fully
portable. This is of particular value if a user wishes to do work away from the office (e.g. when travelling)
or if they want the freedom to work anywhere within a building taking full advantage of WiFi technology.

One of the main considerations when buying a laptop is the battery life. This can depend on a number of
things but one major factor is the processor specification. The following is a list for consideration:
 the processor should consume as little power as possible thereby prolonging internal battery life
 the processor should run as cool as possible minimizing the problems associated with heat
dissipation
 no fans needed to cool the processor thus reducing the load on the internal battery

The main disadvantages of laptops compared to desk top PCs are:

 they tend to be more expensive to purchase
 it is easier to steal a laptop
 security risks (if sensitive data is stored on the internal hard drive)
 laptops tend to have a lower specification than an equivalent desk top computer

Household devices
Many household devices now use microprocessors to control their various functions. The following is just
a sample of common devices (showing some of the functions controlled by the microprocessor and
general notes on the application; it is worth doing further research to find out more about these devices):

Digital cameras

The microprocessor would be used to control the following functions, for example:
 shutter speed
 lens focus
 flash
 aperture (light intensity)

(Note 1: the sensitivity of the camera depends on the number of pixels used to represent the picture taken
e.g. an 8 megapixel camera takes a sharper image than a 5 megapixel camera. The camera memory size
also dictates how many photos can be taken or limits the pixel size of a photo. The sharpness of the
image also depends largely on the lens quality.

Note 2: the advantages of digital cameras over manual cameras include: no processing costs (since there
is no need to develop film or make prints), easy to delete unwanted photos, direct transfer of photos from
camera to computer through the USB port (no need to scan in photos), easier to modify photos on screen
(e.g. crop, change colour density, etc.) etc.)

Washing machines

The microprocessor would be used to control the following features, for example:
 water temperature
 time for each cycle
 the wash cycle (when to add powder, when to rinse, etc.)
 loading (i.e. weight of the washing in the drum)

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 24 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210
(Note 1: the main advantages are that these machines are fully automatic (wash programs are fully
stored) which makes them easy to use, they are cheaper to manufacture (modular design) and generally
more reliable).

Digital televisions

The microprocessor would be used to control the following features, for example:
 automatically tuning into television stations
 allow digital signals to be decoded
 since constantly monitoring signal strength (etc.) far better sound and picture quality result)
 allows interface with many devices
 controls picture and sound quality (factory settings can be stored, etc.)
 in built diagnostics in case of faults

(Note 1: signals to televisions are now sent digitally so need a computer to interpret and decode these
signals into a picture/sound; need multi-functional system to control plasma and LCD screens)

Input and output devices

Input and output devices need to be matched up to the computer application.
 computer-aided design (large screens, graph plotters, etc.)
 virtual reality (data goggles, data gloves, etc.)
 control/monitoring applications (sensors, ADC/DAC, actuators, etc.)

Other examples include:

Information centres

Airports, supermarkets, and any application where information needs to be relayed to customers, gain
benefit from having automatic information kiosks rather than having manned desks. These allow
customers to automatically obtain information when they require it. Output is normally on a screen but the
input devices can vary and are usually:
 touch screens (with menu options)
 mouse/trackerballs to select options
 limited options keyboard
 light pens (although these are becoming increasingly less common)

(keyboards are usually not offered since the number of options is limited and the owners of the system
don’t want customers keying in information and attempting to “hack” into the system).

Using this automated information system affords the following advantages to the customers and
company:
 the system can be linked into websites to give live updates (very useful option at airports, bus
terminals, railway stations, etc.)
 information is usually more up to date using this method
 no language problems (manually operated desks may have limited language capability)
 no need to wait in queues
 companies can advertise special offers, special services, key notices, etc.
 lower costs to companies (fewer staff needed)
 automatic information kiosks are always open

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 25 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210
Supermarkets/retailers

These use several types of specialist input/output hardware. For example:

 bar code readers/scanners (to read product details and enable automatic stock control)
 Point of Sale (POS) terminals – usually include the bar code readers/scanners
 CAD output/input devices (the supermarkets produce their own notices etc. and need this
specialist hardware to carry out these tasks)
 sensors (counting customers entering and leaving the supermarket to allow efficient check out
performance)

Facilities for the disabled

There are many input/output devices to help disabled people. Some of these are summarized below:

Device Application
Touch screens + head wand For people who can’t use a keyboard allowing input;
also helps people with learning difficulties since icons
are easier to understand
On-screen keyboards For people who can’t use keyboards (use head wand
to select letters)
Voice recognition Blind and partially-sighted people can communicate
with a computer using microphone and software
(keyboard and touch screens can’t be used)
Trackerball Easier to use than a mouse if people have problems
using their arms and hands or if they have a
coordination problem
Large font size/use of colour Helps people who are partially-sighted since the larger
icons and/or colourful outputs on large screens are
much easier to see
Braille printers Dot matrix printers can be modified to produce raised
dots (i.e. Braille) – this helps blind and partially-
sighted people to read the output
Voice synthesis Loud speakers and special software are used to
output information in the form of sound to help blind
and partially-sighted people; it also helps people who
have difficulty reading/understanding text
Large/concept keyboards These help people who have difficulty using normal
keyboards (either because of difficulty using hands/
arms or coordination problems)
Prediction software To help dyslexic people when typing
Foot activated controls To allow people with restricted hand/arm movement to
communicate

Bar Code Readers

A bar code is a set of parallel lines of varying thickness, which are alternately black and white, which
represents a number. The number represented by the bars is also printed above or below the bar code.
Bar codes may be read by a hand held scanner, which is passed over the bar codes. The scanner is
attached to a computer terminal or a stationary scanner, which scans the bar code as it is passed over it.
When bar codes are used for products in shops the coded number usually contains:
 Country of origin
 Manufacturer
 Item number for the product

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 26 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210
We have to note that the price is not included in the bar code. This is because the prices change often.
Instead the price is stored in the computer and when the price is needed it can be retrieved. The expiry
date is also not included since it too may change. Bar codes are used in products in supermarkets, books
and magazines in libraries, luggage at airports and warehouse stock control systems. Bar code systems
are now at an advanced stage and readers are able to read the bar codes at distances of five meters or
more. This fact has increased the number of applications.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Magnetic ink characters printed using magnetic ink, are the numbers that you see at the bottom of bank
cheques. As the document is passed through the reader the ink is magnetized and the characters are
recognized by their strength of magnetism. Most banks use the MICR to encode the following information
from the magnetic ink characters at the bottom of the cheques:
 the cheque number
 the branch number of the bank
 the customer's account number

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

The document is first scanned using a scanner. The software used to scan the document would be an
Optical character recognizer. Then the document can be saved in a word processor. i.e. As a MS Word
document.

An optical character reader recognizes characters from their shape. Text is input using a scanner and
special OCR software. OCR involves scanning the image of a page of text with a scanner, and then using
special software, it converts the scanned image into standard ASCII code, which recognizes each of the
characters separately, so that they may be altered if needed, using a word processor. Scanners often
have OCR software included in their price.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Optical mark readers are able to sense marks made in right positions on a special form. These forms
include multiple choice answer sheet marking (MCQ papers), questionnaires and enrolment forms which
are data capture forms for OMRs.

Voice Recognition

Using a microphone, human speech is coded into a sequence of electrical signals and the computer
searches a set of stored patterns for the sound, which has been the input. Voice recognition is useful
where only a few different commands are required and the hands are busy to type or use the mouse. On
some advanced jet fighters the pilot has a small display of some of the instruments. Using one of a
number of simple pre-stored voice commands this display can be changed. Relatively few words can be
recognised and the error rate is high. The system is not suitable for use in noisy places.

3D Scanner

A 3D scanner is a device that analyses a real-world object or environment to collect data on its shape and
possibly its appearance (e.g. colour). The collected data can then be used to construct digital three-
dimensional models.

There are many different devices that can be called 3D scanners. Any device that measures the physical
world using lasers, lights or x-rays and generates dense point clouds or polygon meshes can be
considered a 3D scanner. They go by many names, including 3D digitizers, laser scanners, white light
scanners, industrial CT, LIDAR, and others. The common uniting factor of all these devices is that they
capture the geometry of physical objects with hundreds of thousands or millions of measurements.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 27 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Output Devices: Information for the User

Output devices provide the results after processing, in a suitable form. In many cases this will be in the
form of a hard copy (printout), or on screen (soft copy). With the widespread use of electronic mail (e-
mail), output could be in the form of an electronic message to another computer.

Display Screens (Monitors)

Today the computer monitor is the most common form of output, which is also referred to as the VDU or
Visual Display Unit that is the most prolific form of output. Pixel is the name given to a picture element
and refers to the smallest area of the screen. The entire screen is made of a lot of pixels. The clarity or
clearness of a computer screen is measured in terms of resolution. Screens are normally classed as low
resolution, medium resolution or high resolution. High-resolution monitors use more pixels than low
resolution. The quality of a computer monitor is based on the following properties:
 The resolution
 The number of possible colors
 The size (normally the monitors come in sizes of 15" and 17")
 Energy consumption and radiation

Printers

There are many types of different printers used for computer output. We will consider 4 types in this section.
 Dot-matrix printers
 Ink-jet printers
 Laser printers
 Graph Plotters

Dot-Matrix Printers

Dot-matrix printers are impact printers, which can transfer print through layers of paper. This means that
they are able to print multi-part stationery. Example: If you want to print a multi-part sheet where, the
white top sheet goes to the customer, the yellow sheet goes to accounts and the blue sheet to the store
sheet, then you will need to use a dot-matrix printer. (similar to the blue, yellow and green layers of bills
found in shops when they write the bill).

A dot-matrix printer is very cheap and has the lowest running costs of any printer. It has a matrix of small
pins in its print head. As the head moves across the paper the correct pins are fired out to hit an inked
ribbon and the shape of the letter required is formed. The greater the number of pins, the higher the
quality of the print.

Ink-Jet Printers

An ink-jet printer is a non-impact character printer. They are silent in operation, have good quality printing
and have become a very popular printer for PCs. The print head of an ink-jet printer consists of nozzles
(usually 64). The ink flows through the appropriate nozzle, where it is heated and a bubble forms. This
expands and breaks, releasing a very small ink droplet. These dots are much smaller, and there are more
of them, than in a dot-matrix printer. These printers produce printouts that are almost comparable to that
produced by laser printers and therefore can print high quality text and graphics.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. A laser beam is used to form an image on a rotating charged metal
drum. Laser printers have toner cartridges, which contain a fine powder called toner. The charged image
then picks up the toner particles, which are transferred to the paper, which is also charged. Once the

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 28 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210
image has been transferred, heat and pressure are used to stick it to the paper permanently. Since they
are page printers they are very fast. The speed of a laser printer is typically about 8 ppm (pages per
minute). Color laser printers are now available. Laser printers offer both high speed and excellent print
quality of text and graphics. Although they are expensive, they have become widespread in many offices
where quality printouts are needed because of the many advantages it has.

Graph Plotters

A plotter is a device commonly used in producing printing plans, maps, line diagrams and three-
dimensional drawings, which are particularly line diagrams or graphical output on paper.

Graph plotters use pens to produce images and different pens containing different colored inks may be
used. Plotters are generally classified as pen plotters or as pen less plotters. Pen less plotters use
various kinds of different technologies. At the moment high quality work for publication is done on
electrostatic plotters.

3D Printing

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital
file. The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process an
object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the entire object is created. Each of
these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 29 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Summary
Input devices
You need to be able to select devices that are suitable for a particular computer application.
Therefore, you must know what the different types of devices are, how they work and what they are used
for:
 keyboards and keypads
 pointing devices (e.g. mouse, joystick)
 image input devices (e.g. scanners, cameras and webcams)
 input devices for sound and music (e.g. microphones, MIDI keyboards and other MIDI
instruments)
 remote controls (used to operate a TV, satellite or cable TV receiver, DVD player, home
entertainment system or PC)
 devices and methods for automatic data capture:
o optical character recognition (OCR) soft ware
o optical mark reading (OMR) soft ware
o magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
o barcode reader
o radio-frequency identification (RFID) reader
o magnetic stripe reader
o smart card reader
o biometric data capture device. Common types of device:
o fingerprint reader
o retina or iris scanner
o microphone
o camera
o video camera
 sensors; common sensors include:
o microswitch
o reed switch
o temperature sensor
o pressure sensor
o light sensor
o infrared (IR) sensor
o distance sensor
o speed sensor
o humidity sensor
o moisture sensor
o gas sensor.

Most sensors produce analogue signals that need to be digitized or converted into digital data by an
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 30 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Output devices
As with input devices, you need to be able to select devices that are suitable for a particular computer
application. Therefore, you must know what the different types of devices are, how they work and what
they are used for:
 monitor, e.g. a CRT or LCD screen
 multimedia projector
 printer or plotter, e.g. laser, inkjet and dot matrix
 loudspeakers and headphones
 actuators make physical changes; they include:
o light bulb or LED
o heater
o heat-pump
o solenoid
o relay or contactor
o motor
o pump
o buzzer and similar actuators such as bell, beeper or siren.

Many output devices require analogue signals, so the computer’s digital output needs to be converted by
a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC).

Specialized input and output devices

Automated systems often use sensors and actuators together to do useful tasks, such as controlling a
washing machine.

Some computer applications require highly specialized input and output devices. An example is virtual
reality (VR), in which the input devices include a wired glove, or data glove, and a VR suit containing
sensors to detect changes of position. The main output devices are virtual reality headsets or virtual
reality goggles, vibration actuators for wired gloves or VR suits to provide haptic (tactile) feedback for the
user, and CAVE rooms in which panoramic images are projected onto the walls.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 31 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 32 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 33 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 34 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Input / Output Devices 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 35 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Monitoring and Control System 2210

Monitoring and control

Examples of use
Monitoring hospitals (monitoring patient’s vital signs), chemical and nuclear plants (monitoring key
parameters), burglar alarms (monitoring for intruders), etc.

Control traffic lights (controlling the sequence of lights to maintain optimum traffic flow), chemical
and nuclear plants (opening and closing valves, safety systems, etc.), etc.

How it is done

 sensors gather information from the application being monitored or controlled

 the data being gathered is often analogue in nature and therefore requires translating into digital
using an analogue to digital converter (ADC) to enable the computer or microprocessor to
“understand” and process the data from the sensors
 the computer or microprocessor will compare the incoming data with the data values stored in
memory
 if monitoring, the computer/microprocessor system will warn the user in the form of a sound (e.g.
a siren if a burglar alarm, a loud beeping sound if monitoring patients in a hospital) and/or read
outs (e.g. heart rate trace in hospital monitoring system, temperature reading on a chemical
plant).
 if a control system, the computer will send a signal to a device which will be converted to
analogue using a DAC (analogue to digital converter); actuators are usually employed to operate
devices like valves, heaters, etc.
 the device will be instructed to switch on or off (e.g. if controlling a central heating system, if
temperature > set temperature a heater will be switched off and/or a cooling fan switched on; if
the temperature is below the set point then the heating will be switched on and/or a cooling fan
switched off)
 the computer/microprocessor system will continually monitor the data coming from the sensors
 in chemical and nuclear plants, there is often a combination of monitoring and control taking
place. Information from sensors is often displayed on a control panel where operators can see
key values and alarm conditions (e.g. if a system monitors temperatures and 1100C is the normal
temperature and 1200C is the alarm temperature, the control panel will show normal, present and
alarm values in the form of read outs – either the computer will automatically take action if
necessary or the operator will take action (i.e. over-ride the system if necessary).

Why is this done?

Monitoring and control using computers/microprocessors is often done for the following reasons:

 it is safer (faster response to non-standard conditions and they don’t get tired and miss key data)
 computers work 24/7 (even though humans can work in shifts there is always the danger of
missing information at shift handover etc.)
 computers are more accurate and can take more frequent readings (e.g. if readings need to be
taken every 30 seconds, humans can make mistakes or miss readings or even find it impossible
to take readings at such short time intervals)
 data can be automatically displayed and analysed without the need to enter data manually (which
in itself could introduce errors into the system)

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 36 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Monitoring and Control System 2210

Sensor type Possible applications

temperature  used in controlling central heating systems
 used to control/monitor temperatures in chemical processes
moisture  monitoring of greenhouse environment
 any process where moisture is an issue (e.g. production of tablets in a
pharmaceutical company)
oxygen  environment (e.g. measuring oxygen content in a river to check for
pollution)
light  growth control in a greenhouse
 traffic lights to detect the presence of a vehicle
 on automatic doors to detect the presence of a person
infra red  detecting an intruder by breaking an infra-red beam
 counting (e.g. counting coins as each one breaks the beam)
pressure  detecting intruders in a burglar alarm system
 some systems still use these to count vehicles on the road
acoustic  picks up sound (e.g. burglar alarm system)
 detecting liquids moving in pipes (chemical processes)
motion  detecting speed (e.g. radar guns measuring vehicle speed)
pH  used to measure acidity in rivers (pollution monitoring)
 used in greenhouses to monitor soil acidity
 used to monitor/control chemical process where acidity levels are
important
proximity/distance  these tend to be versions of the above (e.g. light or infra-red)

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 37 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Monitoring and Control System 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 38 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Monitoring and Control System 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 39 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Monitoring and Control System 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 40 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210

Storage Devices

Introduction
Unless you want to lose all of the work you have done on your computer, you need to have a way to store
it safely.

There are various types of storage devices; different devices are suitable for different tasks.

A computer uses two types of storage, a main store consisting of ROM and RAM and backing stores
which can be internal (a hard disk) or external (eg floppy disk or CD).

Storage capacity
Data can be stored either in the 'internal memory' or on a 'storage device'.

The amount of data and instructions that can be stored is measured in 'bytes'.

One byte contains 8 bits (short for Binary Digit). This is the smallest unit of data that can be stored. Each
'bit' is represented as a binary number, either 1 or 0.

A single keyboard character such as the letter A or T takes one byte of storage.

We normally refer to the capacity of a storage device in terms of Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB),
Gigabytes (GB) - or even Terabytes!

Storage sizes
Quantity Information
Bit Smallest unit of data, either a 0 or 1
Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte (Kb) Assumed to be 1,000 bytes. In reality, it is really 1,024 bytes.
Megabyte (Mb) 1,000 kilobytes (1,024 Kb)
Gigabyte (Gb) 1,000 megabytes (1,024 Mb)

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 41 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210

Computer Memories
Computer memories are either internal or external. Internal memories are either ROM (read only memory)
or RAM (random access memory). External memories can take on many forms (and discussed in some
detail later).

The first part of this discussion considers internal memory systems:

Read only memory (ROM)

ROM holds the instructions for starting up the computer. This type of memory can only be read and
cannot be altered (i.e. deleted or written to) and is non-volatile (i.e. it doesn’t lose its contents when the
computer is switched off).

Programmable read only memory (PROM)

A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written
onto a PROM, it is permanent. Unlike RAM, PROM's retain their contents when the computer is turned
off. The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as
a blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a
PROM chip, a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner is required.

Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)

This is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) light. Once it has
been erased, it can be re-programmed using an EPROM burner.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 42 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210
Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM)

An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like
other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also, as with
other types of ROM, EEPROM access time is not as fast as RAM. EEPROMs are similar to flash
memories (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The principal difference is that an EEPROM requires data
to be written or erased one byte at a time, whereas a flash memory allows data to be written or erased in
whole blocks.

Random access memory (RAM)

This is a volatile memory (i.e. contents are lost when the computer is switched off). A user can write or
delete data as well as read the contents. Before a program can be ran it must first be loaded into RAM
which allows the CPU to access the program. Battery-backed RAMs overcome data loss on switching
power off, but are outside the scope of these booklets.
(NOTE: For completeness, it is worth mentioning that two types of RAM exist called SRAM (static RAM)
and DRAM (dynamic RAM) – SRAM doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed to retain its memory unlike
DRAM. Also note that computers use cache which is a portion of memory made from SRAM. Memory
caching works since programs usually access the same data or instructions over and over again. By
retaining as much information as possible in SRAM, the computer operates more quickly (cache is usually
termed level 1, 2 or 3 (termed L1, L2 or L3)).

Backing storage

Backing storage has to be non-volatile and includes:

 magnetic media, such as hard disks and magnetic tape
 optical media, such as CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs
 solid-state storage devices, such as flash-based memory sticks
 digital storage cards.

Hard Disk

The hard disk is the main storage device in your computer. It is a bit like a filing cabinet: all of your data
files and applications software are stored on it.

The hard disk contains a number of metal platters which have been coated with a special magnetic
material. The data is stored in this magnetic material. Thus, the hard disk is known as a magnetic storage
device.

In order to access the data, the platters spin many thousands of times a second and a magnetic read and
write head floats just above the surface of the platter.

When you hear the term 'hard disk crash', this refers to the read/write head crashing down onto the
surface of the hard disk. There is a risk every time this happens that the data stored in the section just
where the head crashes might be damaged. That is why it is a bad idea just to switch the computer off at
the wall without shutting it down properly.

Hard disks are measured in Gigabytes. A typical hard disk size will be around 120 Gb - 1 Terabyte.
It is possible to also have an external hard disk which can be plugged into the computer and used to back
up your data and then stored in a different place to keep it safe.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 43 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210
Magnetic Tape

The amount of work that you do on your computer at home can easily be backed up onto a CD-RW or a
memory stick. However, many organizations, such as your school or an office, need to back up large
volumes of data each day. A CD-RW, DVD-RW or flash memory sticks just would not be large enough for
doing this.

Large organizations who need to back up their systems daily tend to use magnetic tapes to store their
data.

Magnetic tape uses 'serial access' to find a piece of data. It works in much the same way as a video tape
that you might have at home. To find a specific piece of data, you have to start at the beginning of the
tape and continue fast forwarding until you get to the piece of data that you need. This makes it fairly slow
to find and retrieve data so it would not be much use to store data that you needed to get hold of quickly.

Compact disks (CD)

These are an optical storage media which have basically taken over from the floppy disk. Software is now
usually supplied on a CD (in the form of CD-R which can be read only or CD-RW which allows reading
and writing of data).

Digital versatile disk (DVD)

This is an optical system for storing data. It is similar to CD but typically can hold 4.7 Gbyte of data
compared to only 700 Mbyte of data on a CD. This is due to dual layering and higher density of data
storage.

Flash memories

These are non-volatile re-writable memories evolved from the EEPROM; they are often connected to the
USB port on the computer enabling a user to transfer files between computers.

SD (secure digital) cards are a type of flash memory used in digital cameras and mobile phones. XD
(extreme digital) cards are also a type of flash memory used in digital cameras and are similar to SD
cards.

Credit cards and smart cards

Credit cards contain a magnetic stripe on the back which is made up of iron-based particles in a plastic
film.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 44 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210
Different storage media have different characteristics that make them suitable for particular applications:

 magnetic storage media

o internal hard disk drive (HDD) is very cheap per gigabyte of storage and provides very
high storage capacity with rapid direct access, which makes it suitable for a computer’s
main backing storage
o lightweight, pocket-sized, external hard disk drive is more expensive, but both removable
and highly portable for safekeeping
o magnetic tape drive is very expensive, but a magnetic tape cartridge is a cheap, high
capacity, removable and highly portable storage medium, although access is very slow.
This makes it more suitable for making backup or archive copies of the contents of an
HDD

 optical storage media

o optical discs such as CDs and DVDs have smaller capacities than HDDs or tapes and
are also more expensive per gigabyte of storage. They are also direct access media, with
rather slower access than a HDD, and are removable and highly portable. The main
types of CD and DVD have different suffixes, as follows:
o ROM stands for ‘Read-Only Memory’ – these cannot be written to, and are suitable for
the distribution of music, movies, software and encyclopedias
o R stands for ‘Recordable’ – these can be written to just once and then can only be read
from, making them suitable for storing music or movies or archive copies of documents
o RW stands for ‘ReWritable’ – these can be written to and read multiple times, making
them suitable for making temporary copies of data fi les for transfer from one computer to
another or regular backup copies
o Blu-ray discs (BD or BR) have larger storage capacities than other optical storage media
and a higher rate of data transfer. Although disks are expensive, their cost per gigabyte
of storage is nearer to that of a HDD

 solid-state storage media

o are electronic and made as integrated circuits or chips, currently using FLASH
technology which, like ROM, holds data that are non-volatile, but can be erased and
rewritten in large blocks
o also known as non-volatile memory
o devices often have multi-gibibyte capacities, are very small and portable, and are usually
more robust than HDD or optical media. They include:
o USB flash drives (memory sticks or pen drives)
o flash memory chips
o digital storage cards (DSCs)
o solid-state drives (SSDs).

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 45 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210

Direct and serial access

Having selected a storage medium and saved the data, it is important to understand how a computer
accesses this information. There are two principal ways in which a computer can access stored data:
direct access and serial access.

Direct access (also known as random access)

Direct access is similar to playing a music CD and quickly jumping to any track on the CD. This allows
you to choose the order in which you listen to the music.

Where is data stored?

Data is stored on a magnetic storage medium such as a hard disk or a floppy disk, or an optical storage
medium such as CD or DVD.

When is direct access used?

Direct access is used when fast access and a quick response is required.

An example of direct access

A hotel booking system needs fast access to the stored data so that the user can type questions into the
computer and get an immediate response to questions such as:
 What day is the stay?
 What type of room is required?
 What rooms are free?

Serial access

Serial access is similar to playing an audio cassette tape. It is not so easy to jump to any track on the
tape. However they are good if you want to listen to every track in order.

Where is data stored?

Data is stored on magnetic tape - either on a spool or in a cartridge like an audio cassette but larger. This
means that you must go through the tape to get to the record you want.

When is serial access used?

Serial access media (i.e. magnetic tapes) are widely used for backing up data overnight nowadays.

Advantages of serial access systems

 can be done automatically at times when the computers would not normally be used, e.g.
overnight
 easily backed up by keeping copies of tapes
 magnetic tape is a cheap storage medium

Disadvantages of serial access systems

 cannot be used where a fast response is needed

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 46 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210

Question:

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 47 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Storage Devices 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 48 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Operating System 2210

Operating System
An operating system is a software program that controls and organises the general operation of the
computer. A computer cannot work without an operating system.

Operating system functions

In any computer, the operating system:
 controls the backing store and peripherals such as disk drives and printers
 controls the loading and running of programs
 organises the use of memory between programs
 organises processing time between programs and users
 organises priorities between program
 maintains security and access rights of users
 deals with errors and user instructions

On a personal computer the operating system will:

 deal with the transfer of programs in and out of memory
 allow the user to save files to a backing store
 control the transfer of data to peripherals such as printers
 provide the interface between user and computer - for example, Windows XP and OSX.
 issue simple error messages

In a larger computer such as a main frame the operating system works on the same principles.

Modes of operation
Computers can operate in many different ways requiring different and complex operating system.

Real Time Processing

When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time operating system is
used. For example, the engine management system within a car uses a real time operating system in
order to react to all the things going on within the engine. A real time operating system does not
necessarily have to be fast. It simply has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way.
Embedded computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control something.

Batch Processing

A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch and processed in
one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices and daily transactions are dealt with
this way.

This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs where no human
intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is ready to deal with them. Often
batch processed jobs are done overnight.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 49 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Operating System 2210

User Interface
A user interface is the method by which the user and the computer exchange information and
instructions. There are three main types: command line, menu driven and graphical user interface (GUI).

Command line interfaces

A command line interface allows the user to interact

with the computer by typing in commands. The
computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the
command and presses enter or return.

Features of a command line interface include:

 Commands - usually abbreviated - must be typed correctly and in the right order or the command
will not work.
 Experienced users who know the commands can work very quickly without having to find their
way around menus.
 An advantage of command driven programs is that they do not need the memory and processing
power of the latest computer and will often run on lower spec machines.
 Command driven programs do not need to run in Windows.
 A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could launch half a
dozen programs to do its task.
 An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use because of
the number of commands that have to be learnt.
 In the early days of personal computers, all PCs used command-line interfaces.
 An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating system
for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive c would be:
dir c:\.

Graphical user interfaces

Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to

GUI. The user chooses an option usually by pointing
a mouse at an icon representing that option.

Features of GUIs include:

 They are much easier to use for beginners.

 They enable you to easily exchange
information between software using cut and
paste or 'drag and drop'.
 They use a lot of memory and processing power. It can be slower to use than a CLI if you are an
expert user.
 They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number of operations.
 When discussing user interfaces, it is important to note that Windows XP, OS/X and Linux are all
graphical user interfaces.

A good user interface should:

 be attractive and pleasing to the eye

 allow the user to try out different options easily
 be easy to use
 use suitable colours for key areas
 use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of use

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 50 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Operating System 2210

Interrupt
An interrupt is a signal from a device attached to a computer or from a program within the computer that
causes the main program that operates the computer (the operating system) to stop and figure out what
to do next. Almost all personal (or larger) computers today are interrupt-driven - that is, they start down
the list of computer instruction s in one program (perhaps an application such as a word processor) and
keep running the instructions until either (A) they can't go any further or (B) an interrupt signal is sensed.
After the interrupt signal is sensed, the computer either resumes running the program it was running or
begins running another program.

Basically, a single computer can perform only one computer instruction at a time. But, because it can be
interrupted, it can take turns in which programs or sets of instructions that it performs. This is known
as multitasking . It allows the user to do a number of different things at the same time. The computer
simply takes turns managing the programs that the user effectively starts. Of course, the computer
operates at speeds that make it seem as though all of the user's tasks are being performed at the same
time. (The computer's operating system is good at using little pauses in operations and user think time to
work on other programs.)

An operating system usually has some code that is called an interrupt handler. The interrupt handler
prioritizes the interrupts and saves them in a queue if more than one is waiting to be handled. The
operating system has another little program, sometimes called a scheduler that figures out which program
to give control to next.

In general, there are hardware interrupts and software interrupts. A hardware interrupt occurs, for
example, when an I/O operation is completed such as reading some data into the computer from a tape
drive. A software interrupt occurs when an application program terminates or requests certain services
from the operating system. In a personal computer, a hardware interrupt request (IRQ ) has a value
associated with it that associates it with a particular device.

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 51 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Operating System 2210

Question:

A user wishes to use a word processing application. They can either use a command line
interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI) to open this application.

Describe how both methods could be used to select the application including any input
hardware needed.

CLI __________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

GUI __________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________ [ 4 ]

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 52 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Programming Languages 2210

Programming Languages
There are many programming languages.

This is because some are better suited for writing particular types of software applications than others.

For example, there are programming languages that are particularly suitable for:

 commercial / financial applications

 scientific problems
 creating computer games
 controlling machines such as robots
 safety critical programs e.g. controlling nuclear reactors

Each language is designed to provide the programmer with the right kind of tools to do the job.

These are some of the computer languages available; you might recognise the names of some of them:

 BASIC
 FORTRAN
 C++
 LOGO
 C
 JAVA

Low level language

At the most basic level computers only understand one 'language' namely a series of binary 1s and 0s
which is also known as machine code.

A computer program in binary looks like: 0010110101010101010101001010100001111111010101011

This looks like gibberish to a person, but the computer could be playing some music or running a
computer game - its all the same to the machine.

Machine Code is a 'Low Level Language'. A low level language creates instructions that directly control
the CPU of a computer.

Advantages of Machine Code

 Runs very fast compared to the code created by other types of programming language
 Controls the computer directly
 Each instruction only does one thing

Disadvantages of Machine Code

 It is specific to the CPU: each computer chip type has its own machine code
 Very difficult for a person to read machine code and understand the purpose of what it is doing
 Very slow to program in machine code as it instructs the CPU in most minute nit-picking detail

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 53 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Programming Languages 2210

Assembly language

As you have seen, Machine code is quite difficult to work with as a programmer.

So to make things a bit easier, a language called Assembly Language was developed. This uses English-
like commands that are easier to use.

For example the instruction to Add is

ADD A,B

The instruction to Subtract is

SUB A,B

and the instruction to move data from one part of the CPU to another is

MOV AL, EX

It is still a 'Low Level Language' because most of the instructions translate into only one Machine Code
instruction.

Before instructions written in Assembly Language can be used, they must be translated into machine
code by a programme called an Assembler.

Advantage over Machine Code

 Easier to remember the commands

 Easier to fix (debug) when the wrong instructions are written
 The same computer programme written in Assembly Language can be used over a range of
computers as an Assembler for each type of computer chip is available.

High level language

Assembly language is only one step up from Machine Code - it is a bit easier to use, but it is still difficult
to see what each part of programme is meant to be doing.

For example have a look at this set of Assembly Language instructions that may be a small part of a
computer programme:

ADD A,B

MOV B,C

LDA C

It is still hard to understand what the program is meant to be doing overall. Plenty of comments within the
program help but things could be easier.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 54 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Programming Languages 2210
This is where 'High Level Languages' come in. A high level language is designed to have all the handy
things that a programmer needs to write code quickly and correctly. It has commands such as PRINT,
GOTO, IF

IF Time = 3pm THEN

PRINT MyPaper.doc

GOTO END

A high level language is far easier to write than Assembly Language. It is also easier to fix because it is
more obvious when a mistake has been made.

Advantages of high level languages:

 Easier to understand what the program is meant to be doing

 Easier to fix (debug) mistakes
 Has commands such as "Print" to cut down on the amount of code that has to be written.
 Independent of the computer it needs to run on

A high level language has to be translated into Machine Code. This is the job of a program called the
'Compiler'. The next page explains more.

Examples of high level languages

Name of language About
BASIC A good language to learn programming as it contains most of the
main commands used in all other languages. (Can be a bit slow to
run though)
C++ Used by professionals to create all kinds of applications. Takes a lot
of effort to learn well.
FORTRAN Engineers and scientists love to use this language because it has
some very powerful mathematical commands
JAVA Very popular with programmers designing for the Internet.
HTML This is the most popular code used to create Web sites. Strictly
speaking this is not a computer language as the CPU does not run
the code directly. A web browser interprets the commands to create
the web page being viewed.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 55 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Programming Languages 2210

Translation programs

Eventually every computer programming language has to be converted into Machine Code so that the
computer can carry out instructions.

There are two ways of carrying out this translation.

Interpreter: One line at a time.

With this kind of computer program, the high level program is loaded and then each instruction is
converted into Machine Code and then run one line at a time. This type of language is called an
Interpreted Language.

It is the job of a program called the Interpreter to carry out this translation. BASIC is an interpreted
language.

Advantage over a compiled language:

 You can write one line of code and it can be immediately translated and run

Disadvantage over a compiled language

 Slow to run, as every single line has to be translated as you work

Compiler: Translate all the instructions in one go

The idea behind this is to take the high level language computer program and translate it into machine
code in one go. All the translated machine code is stored in a file called the 'object code' file.

It is the job of the 'Compiler' to convert a high level language into Machine Code

Advantage:

 It runs much faster than an interpreter because all the translation has been done before hand.

Disadvantage

 Any changes to the program means that the whole thing has to be compiled once again.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 56 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Programming Languages 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 57 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Computer Safety, Security and Ethics

Physical Security
Physical security is the protection of personnel, hardware, programs, networks, and data from physical
circumstances and events that could cause serious losses or damage to an enterprise, agency, or
institution. This includes protection from fire, natural disasters, burglary, theft and terrorism.

Fire, floods and lightning damage

Although thankfully a rare occurrence, fires and floods do happen. They can cause immense damage and
even total destruction of the computer equipment.

If you have been careless enough not to make a backup and store it somewhere other than the office,
then it is pretty likely that all of your data is sitting on the now damaged machine and cannot be retrieved.

Theft of equipment

Computers are expensive, attractive items and can be a prime target for thieves.

If your computer is stolen and you haven't made a backup of your data then all of your hard work will end
up walking out of the door with the thief.

The main physical security controls are as follows:

Controlling Physical Access

The objective with physical access controls is to stop unauthorised people getting near to computer
systems.

The key is to have a range of controls that include:

 Personnel (e.g. security) controlling human access

 Use of locks, key pads or car entry systems to sensitive computer locations
 Intruder alarms (detection)

Preventing Theft

Increasingly, computer equipment is smaller and lighter - which makes it easier to steal. So it makes
sense for such equipment to be:

 Locked away when not in use

 Marked with identification (e.g. bar code / security code)

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 58 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210
Physical Environment

The locations in which information systems are held also need to be protected. Measures include:

 Site preparation (e.g. materials that are fireproof)

 Detection equipment (e.g smoke detectors)
 Extinguishing equipment (e.g. sprinklers)
 Protection of power supplies (e.g. backup generator)

Risks on the Internet

With all activities that give us almost unlimited freedom, there are risks. Because the Internet is so easily
accessible to anyone, it can be a dangerous place. Know who you're dealing with or what you're getting
into. Predators, cyber criminals, bullies, and corrupt businesses will try to take advantage of the unwary
visitor.

Risk Prevention
Virus is a piece of program code within a data or Anti-virus software that identifies computer viruses
program file that copies itself and infects other fi and deals with them by not allowing them access to fi
les in the same or another computer. Sometimes les or by erasing them. It usually protects against
used loosely to mean all forms of malware. other forms of malware.

Spyware is software that can collect and relay Anti-spyware software can be installed on the
personal information without your knowledge. For network or at home to help protect computers against
example a key-logger can record and send all pop-ups, slow performance and security threats
keystrokes made on the compromised computer. caused by spyware and other unwanted software.
Some capture screen shots as well.

Sometimes spyware can change the

configuration of your computer without your
consent.

Hacking Unauthorised access to a computer  Perform required software updates for your
system. operating system and web browser.
 Install a firewall on your computer.
 Change your passwords often.

Pharming A hacking attack that intercepts  The attacker obscures the actual URL by
browser requests and redirects them to a fake overlaying a legitimate looking address or by
website where the attacker exposes the user to a using a similarly spelled URL. Check the
phishing attack. Web browser's address bar to make sure the
spelling is correct. For example, when you
type http://www.google.com, you should see
that address. But the address for a pharmed
site might be http://www.nsgoogle.com.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 59 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

 Check the http address. When you get to the

page where you're asked to enter personal
information, the http should change to https.
The "s" stands for secure.
 Verify the certificate of the site. It takes just a
few seconds to tell if a site you land on is
legitimate.
 Install an antivirus program from a trusted
security software provider to reduce your
exposure to pharming scams. Use a
personal firewall to protect your data from
hackers, viruses, worms, and Trojan horses.
 Download the latest security updates (or
patches) for your Web browser and operating
system.

Phishing A theft of ID data by deception carried Never, ever, click on links in emails - always go to
out by sending an email or other sort of message, the real site by typing in the URL directly into your
containing a hyperlink to a fake clone of a browser or search engine.
legitimate website which directs the user to enter
their ID data.

What is a Data Backup?

A data backup is the result of copying or archiving files and folders for the purpose of being able to
restore them in case of data loss.

Data loss can be caused by many things ranging from computer viruses to hardware failures to file
corruption to fire, flood, or theft (etc).

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 60 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210
Firewall

Firewall Software, possibly with separate hardware, that blocks unwanted communication with a computer
or LAN, through a WAN, especially the Internet; it stops viruses and unauthorised access to the system.

Encryption

The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security.
To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you
to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text ; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.

There are two main types of encryption: asymmetric encryption (also called public-key encryption)
and symmetric encryption.

Symmetric encryption

A type of encryption where the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the message. This differs
from asymmetric (or public-key) encryption, which uses one key to encrypt a message and another to
decrypt the message.

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is the standard security technology for establishing an encrypted link
between a web server and a browser. This link ensures that all data passed between the web server and
browsers remain private and integral. SSL is an industry standard and is used by millions of websites in
the protection of their online transactions with their customers.

Cookies

Cookies are usually small text files, given ID tags that are stored on your computer's browser directory or
program data subfolders. Cookies are created when you use your browser to visit a website that uses
cookies to keep track of your movements within the site, help you resume where you left off, remember
your registered login, theme selection, preferences, and other customization functions. The website
stores a corresponding file(with same ID tag)to the one they set in your browser and in this file they can
track and keep information on your movements within the site and any information you may have
voluntarily given while visiting the website, such as email address.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 61 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Computer Ethics
What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of taking another person's writing, conversation, song, or even idea and passing it off
as your own. This includes information from web pages, books, songs, television shows, email messages,
interviews, articles, artworks or any other medium.

Software Piracy

The unauthorized copying of software. Most retail programs are licensed for use at just one computer site
or for use by only one user at any time. By buying the software, you become a licensed user rather than
an owner. You are allowed to make copies of the program for backup purposes, but it is against the law to
give copies to friends and colleagues.

Free software

Free software is software that can be freely used, modified, and redistributed with only one restriction:
any redistributed version of the software must be distributed with the original terms of free use,
modification, and distribution (known as copyleft).

Freeware

Freeware (not to be confused with free software) is programming that is offered at no cost and is a
common class of small applications available for downloading and use in most operating systems.
Because it may be copyrighted, you may or may not be able to reuse it in programming you are
developing.

Shareware

Shareware is software that you can use on a trial basis before paying for it. Unlike freeware, shareware
often has limited functionality or may only be used for a limited time before requiring payment and
registration. Once you pay for a shareware program, the program is fully functional and the time limit is
removed.

Difference between Freeware and Shareware

Freeware is copyrighted computer software which is made available for use free of charge, for an
unlimited time. Authors of freeware often want to "give something to the community", but also want to
retain control of any future development of the software.

The term shareware refers to commercial software that is copyrighted, but which may be copied for others
for the purpose of their trying it out with the understanding that they will pay for it if they continue to use it.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 62 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Health and safety

Spending long periods using a computer can make workers susceptible to a range of preventable health
risks.

Health risk Prevention

Reduced physical exercise and circulation in Regular alternative tasks or short rest breaks.
the legs.

Poor posture can cause back, shoulder and Ensure that the chair supports the worker’s back
neck problems. and the keyboard and screen are at the right
height.

Sore eyes. Lack of exercise for focusing muscles Blink and look away from the screen regularly.
of the eye over their full range. Have regular eye tests. Avoid bright reflections
from the surface of the screen.

Repetitive strain injury (RSI). Use a padded wrist rest to support the hands and
regularly stretch wrist and arm muscles in different
ways.

Question:

Computer systems can introduce a number of health and safety issues in the office.

Five potential risks are shown below. Indicate by ticking the appropriate column whether the risk
is a health issue or a safety issue.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 63 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 64 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 65 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 66 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 67 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Safety, Security and Ethics 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 68 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Networks 2210

What is a network?
At home, your computer might be connected to its own printer and scanner. This works well as you are
the only person who will be using them. Much of the time though, they probably aren't being used and just
lie idle. A computer which isn't connected to a network is known as a 'stand-alone'.

In a school or an office, it would cost a lot of money for every computer to have its own printer and for the
majority of the time, like your printer at home, it wouldn't be used.

By joining computers together to form a network, they are able to share one printer. This means that more
money can be spent buying a better quality printer and that the printer is being used much more of the
time.

As well as sharing hardware, a network allows computers or users to share software and data.

A computer connected to a network is known as a 'work-station'

Local Area Network

When the computers are fairly close to one another say, in a single office or two buildings that are
separated by a road, they can be joined together either by cables or wireless means.

These computers then form a Local Area Network (LAN).

Once the computers are connected together into a LAN, many people (users) can share and use the
same resources at the same time. They can share files, software, hard disks and peripherals such as a
printer or CD-ROM. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other by e-mail. Data can be
transmitted very quickly between networked computers.

A file server is often used to store each person's data files. This means that people can log onto any
machine on the network and access their files. They are not restricted to just one machine. Another
advantage of having all of the files stored in one place is that a backup copy of every users files can be
made easily.

To log onto a LAN, you usually need a user name and password. The user name identifies you to the file
server so that it can 'serve' you the correct files. The password ensures that the user name really does
belong to you.

How can you tell whether a computer is networked to other computers?

 Usually a networked computer will allow you to send messages to a friend who is working on
another computer.
 You will probably see messages telling you that you are entering a networked system when you
logon.
 Sometimes you will have the choice to use a selection of printers.
 If you have a file server you are also likely to have some space on the server's disk reserved for
you to save your work.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 69 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Networks 2210

Wide Area Network

Many modern companies have offices, shops or factories in various locations around the country, and for
large corporations, across the world. Even though staff work in different places, they often need to be
able to access the same information no matter where they are.

It would not be possible to connect computers in different buildings together using the LAN cables.
Imagine how many roads would need to be dug up to lay cables between a building in London and one in
Birmingham.

Computers on LANs in one building can be connected to computers on LANs in another building usually
through the telephone system, often using a modem. They can also be connected via fibre optic cables,
microwave links or satellite.

By linking LANs together, the network is no longer local to one building, it is now spread over a wide area.
It is known as a Wide Area Network (WAN)

Did you know that the largest WAN in existence is the Internet?

Why are networks useful?

Programs can be shared - software packages can be installed onto the file server and accessed by all
individual workstations at the same time.

This reduces cost, maintenance and makes upgrades easier. You can access your work from any
workstation on the network.

Very handy if you have to change computer every time you go to a different classroom.

Data can be shared by all users at the same time. Many people can access or update the information
held on a database at the same time. Thus information is up to date and accurate.

Users can communicate with others on the network by sending messages and sharing files.

Individual workstations do not need a printer; one high quality printer can now be shared by everyone,
thus cutting costs. Networks provide security.

A user must have the correct Password and User ID in order to be able to access the information on the
network. Private areas on the network can be set up that allows each user to store their personal files.

The only other person who can access these files is the 'system administrator' who looks after the
network.

Disadvantages of a network
Networks can be expensive to set up. They often involve taking up floors and ceilings to lay
hundreds of meters of cables

The File Server needs to be a powerful computer, which often means that it is expensive.

Networks are vulnerable to security problems. Hackers, disgruntled employees or even

competitors might try to break into the system to read or damage crucial information. Much
effort is spent preventing unauthorised access to data and software.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 70 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Networks 2210

If the main File Server breaks down, then the whole system becomes useless and no-one can
carry on working.

Because networks are often complicated, they need expensive expert staff to look after them.

As the number of users increase on the network, the performance of the system can be
affected and things start to slow down.

On the whole, the advantages of networks outweigh the disadvantages. This is why they are so
commonly found in schools, offices and factories. Even home users are starting to use networks to
connect PCs around the house.

Bus Network (Bus Topology)

This is one method of connecting

computers together and is the simplest
one to connect together.

A single cable joins all of the workstations,

printer, file server and other components
together. At each end of the bus is a
'terminator'. This is a piece of hardware
which prevents signals bouncing back and
forth (echoes).

Advantages

 Easy to install
 Easy to add extra workstations
 Uses less cable than a Star network
 Best choice for temporary networks

Disadvantages

 If there is a problem with the central cable, the entire network stops working
 If there are a lot of workstations on the network, data can travel slowly.
 Data collisions can happen as the network becomes busy
 Low security - every workstation can see all of the data in the network
 Limited cable length and a maximum number of workstations

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 71 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Networks 2210

Ring Network (Ring Topology)

In a ring network layout, all of the computers are

connected to one another in a circle. The data passes
from one computer to the next one and then all the way
around the ring layout until it reaches the destination
computer.

Advantages

 Transmission of data is fairly simple as it only

travels in one direction
 No data collisions
 Extra computers can be added easily with little
effect on performance - although you have to
shut down the network to be able to do this.

Disadvantages

 If a single machine is switched off, the network

doesn't work
 If a cable breaks, the network doesn't work
 Data must pass through every computer until it reaches its destination. This can make it slower
than other network layouts.
 If there are any problems with the network, they can be difficult to identify the cause.

Star Network (Star Topology)

In a star network layout, each workstation is

connected by its own cable directly to the server.
Star networks are usually the layout of choice in
schools and offices because they tend to be the
most reliable of the topologies.

Advantages

 Star networks are very reliable. If one

connection fails, it does not affect other
users
 Very few data collisions as each
workstation has its own cable to the server
 Good security - no workstation can interact
with another without going through the
server first

Disadvantages

 The most expensive network layout to install because of the amount of cables needed
 Installing the network usually needs experts to set it up
 Extra hardware such as hubs and switches may be needed
 If the server crashes or stops working then nobody will be able to access their files or use the
network.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 72 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Networks 2210

Wireless Technology (WiFi)

Wireless technology (WiFi) allows connection of a computer to the Internet without the need for
connecting cables. A router (containing a modem and external aerial) is connected to a telephone line
and it is then possible for any computer within range to communicate with the router and allow Internet
access – the link between computer and router is completely wireless. The main advantage of doing this
is clearly the portability (i.e. can go anywhere within range since no wires are needed).

There are, however, a number of disadvantages:

 the range can be very limited

 possible interference from nearby electronic devices
 security issues (i.e. tapping illegally into WiFi networks)
 access speed/transfer rate is often slower using wireless systems

It isn’t just computers that can be linked without wires, various peripheral devices can be linked to a
computer system without the need for a physical, wired connection. For example:

 printers
 keyboards
 mouse
 digital cameras

Intranets

Many companies use intranets as well as the internet. The simple definition is “An intranet is a computer
network based on internet technology that is designed to meet the internal needs for sharing information
within a single organization/company”. The main reasons for doing this include:

 safer since there is less chance of external hacking or viruses

 it is possible to prevent employees from accessing unwanted web sites
 companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their needs only
 it is easier to send out “sensitive” messages to remain within the company only

Some comparisons between internet and intranet include:

 the INTERNET is INTERnational NETwork

 an INTRANET is INTernal Restricted Access NETwork
 the intranet only gives local information relevant to the company/organisation
 it is possible to block access to certain sites using the intranet
 it is not always necessary to have external modems when using intranets
 information for use on intranets is stored on local servers
 the internet can be accessed from anywhere
 the internet is available to anyone, whereas the intranet requires password entry
 the intranet is behind a firewall

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 73 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

The Internet and Communications

WHAT ARE PACKETS AND PROTOCOLS?

IP, TCP, HTTP, FTP, Protocols

Packets

A packet is a collection of data that is transmitted over a packet-switched network. Here is a simplified
diagram showing what a packet will typically contain:

Data may be split up into a number of packets. These packets are transmitted over a network and may
take different routes to their destination. When all the packets have arrived, the data is reassembled.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 74 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

Protocol

A protocol is an agreed-upon format which allows two devices to communicate. The protocol, put simply,
is a set of rules. These rules can include the following:

 handshaking, where two devices establish their readiness to communicate

 how the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message
 how the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message
 the type of error checking to be used
 agreement on the data compression method to be used

There are many standard protocols used with computer systems. Here is a table that illustrates the
protocols with which you need to be familiar:

Protocol Description

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Two protocols that combine to allow

Protocol/Internet Protocol) communication between computer systems
on a network. IP is a protocol that sets out the
format of packets and an addressing system.
TCP is a protocol that allows packets to be
sent and received between computer systems

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) HTTP is a protocol than can be used to

transfer multimedia web pages over the
Internet.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) FTP is a protocol that can be used when
copying a file from one location to another via
a network or the Internet. It is typically used
for the transfer of large files, as it allows
broken communications to resume
transferring a file rather than having to restart.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 75 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

The Internet and the World Wide Web

The Internet is a wide area network (WAN). The World Wide Web, abbreviated www, is a service
available over the Internet.

Necessary hardware to connect to the Internet

Most computer systems use a modem to connect to the Internet. A modem, the abbreviation of
modulator/demodulator, is a device which allows digital computer systems to communicate over analogue
systems, most commonly the telephone network. Traditionally, whilst a modem was in use, the telephone
line would be unavailable to make telephone calls.

Broadband modems were later released which allowed for faster data transfer and would also allow users
to make telephone calls over the same line at the same time.

A third common type of hardware used to connect to the Internet is a media converter, which allows
computer systems to connect to the Internet using fibre optic cable.

Typical data transfer speeds

 Modem: 56.6 Kbps

 Broadband modem: 8 – 24 Mbps
 Fibre optic: 100 Mbps

MAC addresses

A MAC address (media access control address), also known as a physical address or a hardware
address, is a unique hexadecimal number given to any communication device, such as a network
interface card. An example of a MAC address is 74:E1:B6:8E:18:77. The address is usually stored in a
communication devices’ ROM. Hexadecimal notation is used as it allows for over 281 trillion different
combinations of MAC address.

Routing tables store the MAC address of communication devices in computer systems on its network, as
the address is permanent and does not change like an IP address.

A computer system can have multiple network interface cards, each with its own unique MAC address.

INTERESTING FACT

Although MAC addresses are designed to be unique and unchangeable, some devices or
specialised software allow you to change your own MAC address. This is called MAC address
spoofing and can be used by hackers to trick computer systems into providing data .

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 76 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

IP addresses
An IP address is an address which is allocated to a computer system on a network, usually by a DHCP
server. Alternatively, you may assign your own IP address if you do not wish to rely on the services of a
DHCP server. An example of an IP address is 195.10.213.120.

It is used by the TCP/IP protocol to uniquely identify computer systems on a network, thus allowing
communication between them. In routing tables the corresponding IP address of a unique MAC address
is stored and updated as necessary.

How Domain Name System (DNS) servers and Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
work

A Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed database that matches IP addresses to computer system
resources.

One example of this is to match an IP address to a human friendly domain name. For example, if you
wanted to visit the Google search engine, the computer system on which the website is stored has an IP
address assigned to it; 173.194.34.191. Try typing this into the address bar of your web browser; you
should be able to view the website that you would be more familiar with when accessing the domain
name www.google.co.uk. Here your computer system sent a request to its DNS server for the IP address
that is mapped to the domain name www.google.co.uk. The DNS server returned the IP address
173.194.34.191, which allowed your computer system to communicate with the computer system where
the Google search engine is stored.

Of course, in reality, there are many different DNS servers located across the world. If your local DNS
server does not store the address of the resource you are requesting, it will pass the request along to
another higher level DNS server, such as your Internet Server Provider’s (ISP) DNS server. If again the
address is not found, you ISPs DNS server will pass the request on to a higher level DNS server which
may be the DNS server responsible for an entire zone, such as the .co.uk zone. This continues until the
address is found or the DNS query fails.

Another example where a DNS server is used is where a computer system, on joining a network, would
query the DNS server for the IP address of other useful computer systems, such as the logon server,
which stores the details of all usernames and passwords.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 77 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

Why HTML is important as a standard for web page creation

HTML, which is an abbreviation of Hyper Text Markup Language, is a standard used when creating web
pages.

Web standards, such as HTML, are important as the development of web pages is simplified as web
programmers will be able to understand another developer’s code. It is also important for the end users of
web pages as following standards ensures that different web browsers are able to display web pages in
the way in which they were intended.

The role of cookies

Cookies are data stored on a computer system. They allow websites to store a small amount of uniquely
identifying data on your computer system while you are visiting their website. It may be useful as the
website can then identify you without requesting that you identify yourself each time, i.e. by entering a
username and password.

Another use of a cookie would be when you wish to add items to a shopping basket over a period of time.
The cookie allows you to store this information between separate browsing sessions.

How search engines work

A search engine is an application that can be accessed over the Internet which can be used to search for
websites on a particular topic.

An index of topics will be built up by programs known as bots or crawlers. These programs visit websites
and record information about their content. Users wanting information about a topic will access a search
engine and search for their chosen topic by entering keywords that may be associated with the topic.

A search engine will then look through its index and return a list of websites that are associated with the
keywords.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 78 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

Use HTML to create a web page

HTML, which is an abbreviation of Hyper Text Markup Language, is one of the main programming
languages used when creating web pages. HTML code consists of tags enclosed in angle brackets, < and
>.

Use HTML tags and their closures

HTML tags commonly come in pairs, such as <html> and </html> or <b> and </b>. The first tag in a pair
is called the opening tag and the second tag is called the closing tag. Between these tags, programmers
can add text, more tags, comments and other types of text-based content.

The purpose of a web browser, such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome and Safari is to read HTML
code and render it on screen. The browser does not display the HTML tags, but instead uses the tags to
interpret the content of the page.

The text between the <html> and </html> tags describes the web page. The text between <body> and
</body> tags includes the contents of the web page.

The table below shows how unformatted text will look when placed within the commonly used formatting
tags.

Opening tag Closing tag Unformatted text Formatted text

<h1> </h1> Computer science
Computer science
<b> </b> Computer science Computer science
<i> </i> Computer science Computer science
<u> </u> Computer science Computer science
<big> </big> Computer science
Computer science
<small> </small> Computer science Computer science
<center> </center> Computer science Computer science

Other tags include the <p> tag, which can have a closing tag of </p>. This is the paragraph tag which
starts a new paragraph. When an element within a web page is hyperlinked, it is placed within the <a
href=”url”> and </a> tags. For example, <a href=”http://www.wjec.co.uk”>WJEC</a> will be displayed as
WJEC.

The <img> tag is slightly different, as it does not contain a closing tag. For example, <img src="logo.gif">
will display the image file logo.gif.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 79 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210
Here is an example of how original text is formatted using HTML tags.

Original text
For Sale
Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit
Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth v1.2 EDF Multipoint
Hands-free Speakerphone! Visit www.edfweb.com to see. Simply pair this
device to any Bluetooth enabled phone and talk hands-free today!

HTML
<html>
<body>
<h1><center>For Sale</center></h1>
<p> <b>Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit</b></p>
<p>Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth
v1.2 EDF Multipoint Hands-free Speakerphone!</p>
<p>Visit <a href="http://www.edfweb.com/”>www.edfweb.com</a>
to see.</p>
<p><i>Simply pair this device to any Bluetooth enabled phone
and talk hands-free today! </i></p>
</body>
</html>

Formatted web page

For Sale
Bluetooth Hands Free Car Kit
Make calls without wearing a headset with this Bluetooth v1.2 EDF Multipoint
Hands-free Speakerphone!
Visit www.edfweb.com to see.
Simply pair this device to any Bluetooth enabled phone and talk hands-free
today!

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 80 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Internet and Communications 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 81 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Common File Standards and Compression 2210

Common File Standards and Compression

Common file standards associated with the Internet, e.g. HTML, JPEG
A number of common file standards are associated with the Internet. Some of these include:

Common file standard Description

.HTML HTML, which is an abbreviation of Hyper Text Markup
Language, is one of the main programming languages used
when creating web pages
.JPEG A format used for storing compressed images. The file type uses
lossy compression and is favoured for its small file sizes that
allow for quick download speeds while maintaining reasonably
good quality
.PNG Another format used for storing compressed images. The file
type uses lossless compression and is favoured for excellent
quality and that they are generated using a non-copyrighted
algorithm
.FLA The format used to store flash multimedia. The files can contain
interactive games, videos and music
.MP3 The format used to store compressed audio. It uses lossy
compression and is favoured for its small file sizes that allow for
quick download speeds while maintaining reasonably good
quality

Compression and compression types (including lossy and lossless) for files to be transmitted via
the Internet

Compression is the process of making a file size smaller. This may be advantageous as it allows more
data to be stored on the disk and files may also be transferred more quickly. There are two primary
methods that are used to compress files stored on a computer system; these are lossy and lossless.

Lossless compression
Lossless compression uses an algorithm that compresses data into a form that may be decompressed at
a later time without any loss of data, returning the file into its exact original form. It is preferred to lossy
compression when the loss of any detail, for example in a computer program or a word-processed
document, could have a detrimental effect.

A simplified version of lossless compression on a word-processed document may to be to replace a

common string, such as ‘the’, with a token such as the symbol @. You will have learnt on page 21, that
one character takes 1 byte of memory; therefore, the string ‘the’ would take 3 bytes.

Original uncompressed text The word the, is the most frequently 71 characters (bytes)
used word in the English language.
Compressed text @ word @, is @ most frequently 63 characters (bytes)
used word in @ English language.

This is a 11% reduction in the file size!

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 82 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Common File Standards and Compression 2210

Lossy compression
Lossy compression is a data compression technique that compresses the file size by discarding some of
the data. The technique aims to reduce the amount of data that needs to be stored.

The different versions of the WJEC logo below show how much of the data can be discarded, and how
the quality of the images deteriorate as the data that made up the original is discarded. Typically, a
substantial amount of data can be discarded before the result is noticed by the user. The compression
ratio is calculated using the simple formula:

Lossy compression is also used to compress multimedia data, such as sound and video, especially in
applications that stream media over the Internet.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 83 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210

Von Neumann Model of a Computer

What is a computer?

Nevertheless despite their physical differences, all computers have the same basic function: to store and
execute a series of instructions.

Moreover, the type of hardware necessary to accomplish this, and how it is organized, has basically
remained the same throughout history. This internal hardware structure is called the computer's
architecture.

Von Neumann Model of a Computer

Although computers can have many different forms, there are four functional components that all
computers must have:

Input/Output (I/O)

Memory

A Control Unit

An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

This idea about how computers

should be built, called the von
Neumann Architecture after
mathematician John von
Neumann who proposed it in
1945, is still the basis for
computers today. Using these four
components, a von Neumann
computer will execute a series of
instructions, called a program, which
are stored in the computer's memory. This is called the stored program concept.

Input/Output (I/O)

The Input/Output (I/O) components of a computer are hardware devices that are responsible for getting
data from the computer to the user or from the user to the computer. Data going from the user to the
computer is called "input." The two main input devices are the mouse and the keyboard. With both of
these devices the user can transmit information (in letters or clicks) to the computer. These are not the
only types of input devices that are possible -- there are also graphics tablets, touch screens, and voice
recognition devices, among others.

Output devices are used to transmit data from the computer's memory to the user. The two output
devices almost every computer system has are the monitor and the printer.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 84 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210
Another common output device is a speaker system for sound. The specific input devices change over
time, but every computer must have input and output devices.

The remaining three components of the von Neumann model of a computer are found inside the system
unit.

MEMORY

Although a computer has several types of memory, the memory referred to in

the Von Neumann model is the main memory, also called RAM or Random
Access Memory. Main memory is used by the computer for storing a program
and its data while the program is running. What distinguishes a computer from
a calculator is the ability to run a stored program; main memory allows the
computer to do that.

RAM can be thought of as a sequence of boxes, called cells, each of which

can hold a certain amount of data. RAM is constructed from circuitry that can
hold data in the form of an electronic charge that is either high or low.
Conceptually, a high charge represents the number 1 and a low charge the
number 0.

RAM must be coded in binary - in terms of 0's and 1's. One of the high or low
charges stored in memory (one 0 or one 1) is called a bit and 8 bits is called a
byte. For every computer, each memory cell can hold a certain fixed number
of bits, usually 8.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 85 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210

CONTROL UNIT

Inside the computer, the remaining two

components of the von Neumann Architecture
are found on the CPU (Central Processing Unit)
chip. The control unit controls the sequencing
and timing of all operations. It contains a
"clock," that is actually a quartz crystal that
oscillates at a regular frequency when electrical
power is applied. The clock emits an electronic
signal for each oscillation. Each separate
operation is synchronized to the clock signal.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

Also on the CPU chip is circuitry for performing

arithmetic and logical calculations. This is called the
Arithmetic/Logic Unit or ALU for short. It can be
thought of as being similar to a calculator, except that, in addition to normal math, it can also do logical
(true/false) operations, such as comparing two numbers to see which one is larger. Logical operations are
important in computer programming.

How it all works

No matter what you are doing on a computer, it is always running one or more computer programs. A
computer program is just a series of computer instructions. At the most basic level, a computer instruction
may be something simple like adding two numbers and storing the result. Even complicated computer
programs at the deepest level, the computer just does one thing -- it executes one instruction after
another, over and over, millions of times every second.

In the next section we will see how a simplified model of a computer uses the basic hardware
components we have discussed (memory, the control unit, and the ALU) - and some we haven't
(registers, bus) - in order to execute instructions.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 86 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210

INTRODUCTION – THE COMPUTER MODEL

To illustrate how a computer works - how it executes one instruction - we will use a simplified model of a
computer, using the memory, control unit, and ALU components that we have already discussed. The
control unit and the ALU are both found on the CPU (central processing unit).

In addition to these main components, there are 3 smaller components within the CPU that require
explanation when demonstrating how a computer
executes an instruction.

A register is a small, fast unit of memory located on the

CPU, and used temporarily for storing data. Because the
registers are close to the ALU, they are made out of fast
memory, efficiently speeding up calculations. This model
shows 4 general-purpose registers, but computers usually
have 16 or more.

The computer model also needs a decoder - circuitry

that will take a computer instruction stored in main
memory in binary (as a long string of 0's and 1's) and
then convert it to signals that can execute an
instruction.

Transmitting data between the different

components is done using circuitry known as a
data bus or bus. One bus connects memory to the
CPU and another bus connects the relevant parts
of the CPU.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 87 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210

Machine and assembly language instructions

What distinguishes a computer from a calculator is that the computer stores its program, the instructions it
will be executing, in its own memory. Computer instructions are encoded and stored in memory as a
language called machine code or machine language.

However, there is another language called assembly language, which uses more English like words to tell
the computer what to do.

Basic steps of the instruction cycle

At its core, all the computer ever does is execute one instruction in memory after another, over and over.
Although there are many different possible (assembly language) instructions that the computer can
execute, the basic steps involved in executing an instruction are always the same, and they are called the
instruction cycle.

1. Fetch the instruction (transfer the instruction from main

memory to the decoder)

2. Decode the instruction (from machine language)

3. Execute the instruction (e.g., add, divide, load, store...)

4. Store the result (for instructions like ADD, place the

'answer' in the specified register.)

The control unit guides the computer's components

through this cycle to execute one instruction. When that
instruction is done, the cycle starts all over again with the
next instruction.

SUMMARY

Throughout their brief history, the physical appearance of

computers has changed dramatically, but their basic
function - to store and execute a series of instructions -
has remained the same. The von Neumann model of computer architecture characterizes computers as
having four functional units: I/O, Memory, Control Unit and ALU. Basically all the computer ever does is
repeat the four steps of the instruction cycle -- fetch, decode, execute and store -- over and over.

To view a series of animations on fetch execute cycle click the following link:

http://web.eecs.utk.edu/research/cs100modules/module1/index.html

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 88 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Von Neumann Model of a Computer 2210

Question:

Most modern processors work on fetch-decode-execute principle. This is also called Von
Neumann Architecture.

Explain the steps of fetch-decode-execute cycle:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________ [ 3 ]

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 89 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Data Transmission 2210

Serial and Parallel Transmission

Digital data transmission can occur in

two basic modes: serial or parallel. Data
within a computer system is transmitted
via parallel mode on buses with the width
of the parallel bus matched to the word
size of the computer system. Data
between computer systems is usually
transmitted in bit serial mode.
Consequently, it is necessary to make a
parallel-to-serial conversion at a
computer interface when sending data
from a computer system into a network
and a serial-to-parallel conversion at a
computer interface when receiving
information from a network. The type of
transmission mode used may also
depend upon distance and required data
rate.

Parallel Transmission

In parallel transmission, multiple bits (usually

8 bits or a byte/character) are sent
simultaneously on different channels (wires, frequency channels) within the same cable, or radio path,
and synchronized to a clock. Parallel devices have a wider data bus than serial devices and can therefore
transfer data in words of one or more bytes at a time. As a result, there is a speedup in parallel
transmission bit rate over serial transmission bit rate. However, this speedup is a tradeoff versus cost
since multiple wires cost more than a single wire, and as a parallel cable gets longer, the synchronization
timing between multiple channels becomes more sensitive to distance. The timing for parallel
transmission is provided by a constant clocking signal sent over a separate wire within the parallel cable;
thus parallel transmission is considered synchronous.

Serial Transmission

In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire) which reduces costs for wire
but also slows the speed of transmission. Also, for serial transmission, some overhead time is needed
since bits must be assembled and sent as a unit and then disassembled at the receiver.

Serial transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous transmission, groups of

bits are combined into frames and frames are sent continuously with or without data to be transmitted. In
asynchronous transmission, groups of bits are sent as independent units with start/stop flags and no data
link synchronization, to allow for arbitrary size gaps between frames. However, start/stop bits maintain
physical bit level synchronization once detected.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 90 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Data Transmission 2210

Applications

Serial transmission is between two computers or from a

computer to an external device located some distance
away. Parallel transmission either takes place within a
computer system (on a computer bus) or to an external
device located a close distance away.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 91 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Error Detection Methods 2210

Error Detection Methods

Check Digit

A check digit, also known as a checksum character, is the number located on the far right side of a bar
code. The purpose of a check digit is to verify that the information on the barcode has been entered
correctly.

Parity Check

A parity check is the process that ensures accurate data transmission between nodes during
communication. A parity bit is appended to the original data bits to create an even or odd bit number; the
number of bits with value one. The source then transmits this data via a link, and bits are checked and
verified at the destination. Data is considered accurate if the number of bits (even or odd) matches the
number transmitted from the source.

Parity checking, which was created to eliminate data communication errors, is a simple method of
network data verification and has an easy and understandable working mechanism.

As an example, if the original data is 1010001, there are three 1s. When even parity checking is used, a
parity bit with value 1 is added to the data’s left side to make the number of 1s even; transmitted data
becomes 11010001. However, if odd parity checking is used, then parity bit value is zero; 01010001.

If the original data contains an even number of 1s (1101001), then parity bit of value 1 is added to the
data’s left side to make the number of 1s odd, if odd parity checking is used and data transmitted
becomes 11101001. In case data is transmitted incorrectly, the parity bit value becomes incorrect; thus,
indicating error has occurred during transmission.

Checksum
A checksum is a count of the number of bits in a transmission unit that is included with the unit so that the
receiver can check to see whether the same number of bits arrived.

Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)

Automatic Repeat ReQuest (ARQ), also called Automatic Repeat Query, is an error-control protocol that
automatically initiates a call to retransmit any data packet or frame after receiving flawed or incorrect data.
When the transmitting device fails to receive an acknowledgement signal to confirm the data has been
received, it usually retransmits the data after a predefined timeout and repeats the process a
predetermined number of times until the transmitting device receives the acknowledgement.

Three main types of the ARQ are the Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ.

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 92 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Error Detection Methods 2210

Question:

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 93 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Error Detection Methods 2210

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 94 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Error Detection Methods 2210

Question:

Question:

Bytes of data transferred using a serial cable are checked for errors at the receiving end using
an even/odd parity checks.

a) Suppose you are using an even parity. What should the binary word “1010” look like after
you add a parity bit?

__________________________________________________________________ [ 1 ]

b) Suppose you are using an odd parity. What should the binary word “1010” look like after
you add the parity bit?

__________________________________________________________________ [ 1 ]

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 95 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 96 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 97 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 98 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 99 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 100 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 101 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 102 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 103 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 104 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 105 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 106 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 107 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 108 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 109 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 110 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 111 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 112 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 113 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 114 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 115 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 116 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 117 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 118 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 119 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Computer Science 2210

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 120 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas

 Source 2210

Source
The content in this revision guide has been taken (referred) from the following
sources:

 CIE Booklets – Computer Studies 7010

 Past Papers – Computer Studies 7010
 Past Papers – Computer Studies 0420 (IGCSE)
 Specimen Papers – Computer Science 2210
 CIE Teachers Resource Website (http://www.teachers.cie.org.uk/)
 Teach-ICT.com (http://www.teach-ict.com)
 BBC – GCSE ICT (http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/subjects/zqmtsbk)
 Webopedia: Online Tech Dictionary (http://www.webopedia.com/

www.MinhasRupsi.com Page No. 121 www.Facebook.com/CS.Minhas