M-4

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Transistors generally come in two types. 1. Field effect transistor (FET) 2. Bipolar junction
transistor (BJT).

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Signal amplification, or amplifier usage, is a common use of a BJT ( bipolar junction
transistor), which is a three-terminal semiconductor device composed of combinations of p-
type and n-type semiconductors.
As we know this semiconductor device consists of the p-n junction and it is used or able to
amplify the signal or magnify the signal. Through this the current flows and basically it
contains silicon, they are also called bias resistor built-in transistors and their main
objective is that -as the small current flows between the base and emitter which can control
a large flow of current between the regions of collector and emitter terminals.
BJT consist of three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n-junctions that are
formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductors between two p-type
semiconductors. Transistors can be used to transfer input signals through the circuits having
lower to higher resistance. A BJT may also be implemented as a true solid-state switch in
electrical circuits and can also be used to increase the strength of a weak signal. symboll as
follows.
Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor
BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions i.e.
Base, Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions.

Bipolar transistors are manufactured in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as
separate components, usually in large quantities. The prime use or function of this type of
transistor is to amplify current. This makes them useful as switches or amplifiers. They have
a wide application in electronic devices like mobile phones, televisions, radio transmitters,
and industrial control.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

 Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

 Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as a switch such that
collector current is equal to the saturation current.
 Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector current is equal to zero.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

 PNP bipolar junction transistor

 NPN bipolar junction transistor
 PNP BJT
In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type
semiconductors. The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively
while the n-type semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below. The current
enters the transistor through the emitter such that the emitter-base junction is forward biased
and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

NPN BJT

In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type semiconductors.
The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the p-type
semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.
Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has the sign convention of positive while the
current that leaves the transistor has the sign convention of negative.
Function of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main

terminals. An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin p-

doped anode region and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions that
have a thin n- doped cathode region.

Applications of BJT
We know that a bipolar junction transistor is used as a switch, as an amplifier, as a filter, and
even as an oscillator. Below is the list of other applications of bipolar junction transistor:

 BJT is used as a detector or also known as a demodulator.

 BJT finds application in clipping circuits so that the waves can be shaped.

BJT operation modes

The transistor can be operated in three modes:

 Cut-off mode

 Saturation mode

 Active mode
In order to operate transistor in one of these regions, we have to supply dc voltage to the npn
or pnp transistor. Based on the polarity of the applied dc voltage, the transistor operates in
any one of these regions.

Applying dc voltage to the transistor is nothing but the biasing of transistor.

Cutoff mode
In the cutoff mode, both the junctions of the transistor (emitter to base and collector to base)
are reverse biased. In other words, if we assume two p-n junctions as two p-n junction diodes,
both the diodes are reverse biased in cutoff mode. We know that in reverse bias condition,
no current flows through the device.
Hence, no current flows through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is in off state and acts
like an open switch.
The cutoff mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch OFF application.

Saturation mode
In the saturation mode, both the junctions of the transistor (emitter to base and collector to
base) are forward biased. In other words, if we assume two p-n junctions as two p-n junction
diodes, both the diodes are forward biased in saturation mode. We know that in forward bias
condition, current flows through the device. Hence, electric current flows through the
transistor.
In saturation mode, free electrons (charge carriers) flows from emitter to base as well as from
collector to base. As a result, a huge current will flow to the base of transistor.
Therefore, the transistor in saturation mode will be in on state and acts like a closed switch.
The saturation mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch ON
application.
From the above discussion, we can say that by operating the transistor in saturation and cutoff
region, we can use the transistor as an ON/OFF switch.
Active mode
In the active mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased and another junction
(collector to base) is reverse biased. In other words, if we assume two p-n junctions as two p-
n junction diodes, one diode will be forward biased and another diode will be reverse biased.

The active mode of operation is used for the amplification of current.

From the above discussion, we can say that the transistor works as an ON/OFF switch in
saturation and cutoff modes whereas it works as an amplifier of current in active mode. Logic
circuits and switching circuits use BJT.
I-V Characteristics BJT
Common Base Configuration
The base of transistor is grounded in common base characteristics , with the emitter acting
as the input and the collector as the output. The emitter-base junction is biased forward,
As the collector current is always smaller than emitter current,
so the current gain (α) in common-emitter configuration is
always less than unity.

Common-Base configuration

whereas the junction between the collector and the base is reverse biased. Low voltage gain
but high current gain is offered by the CB arrangement. It is frequently employed in
impedance matching. It reverses the output signal's phase with respect to the input and
frequently utilized as a buffer between circuits with high and low impedance and in high-
frequency applications like RF amplifiers.
Characteristics curves
There are two important characteristics of a transistor.
Input characteristics- The curve drawn between emitter current and emitter – base
voltage for a given value of collector – base voltage is known as input characteristics. Input
characteristics of CB ΔVCB at constant:
Output characteristics - The curve drawn between collector current and
collector – base voltage, for a given value of emitter current is known as output
characteristics. Output characteristics of CB ΔI E at constant:

Common Emitter Configuration

Emitter of transistor is grounded in common-emitter characteristics , and the base serves as
input and the collector serves as output. The CE configuration is like the CB configuration,
it has a forward biased BE junction and a reverse biased CB junction. The voltages of CB
and CE configurations are related by:
Characteristics curves
Input Characteristics - Input characteristics refer to the curve between base current
and base-emitter voltage for a particular collector-emitter voltage value.

Output characteristics - The output characteristics for a given base current Ib are shown
by the curve formed between collector current (Ic ) and collector-emitter voltage (Vce).
Common-Collector Configuration (CC Configuration)
Common-collector (CC) configuration as the collector terminal of the transistor is
made as a common terminal. The input voltage is applied between base and
collector terminal of the transistor. The output is obtained between emitter and
collector terminal of the transistor. Common-collector terminal has a very high
input resistance but a low output resistance. Current gain in common-collector
configuration is denoted by Greek letter γ (gamma). It is defined as the ratio of
emitter current to the base current.
Mathematically, it is represented as:
γ = Emitter current / Base current

Common-Collector configuration

Relationship between α and ß and γ:

Mathematically, the relationship of γ with α and ß is represented as:

γ = 1 / 1-α
γ = 1+ß
where,
α = current gain in common-base configuration
ß = current gain in common-emitter configuration
γ = current gain in common-collector configuration
Comparison between CB, CE and CC configurations
CE CB CC
Characteristics configuration configuration configuration

Very high (750

Input resistance Low (50 KΩ) Very low (40 Ω)
KΩ)

Output resistance High (10 KΩ) Very high (1 MΩ) Low (50 Ω)

Less than unity

Current Gain High (100) High (100)
(0.98)

Applied between Applied between Applied between

Input voltage
base and emitter. emitter and base. base and collector.

Applied between Applied between Applied between

Output voltage `emitter and collector and emitter and
collector. emitter. ground.

Very large. Very less. Very large.

For Germanium For Germanium 5 For Germanium
Leakage current
500 µA and for µA and for silicon 500 µA and for
silicon 20 µA. 1 µA. silicon 20 µA.

Voltage Gain High (500) Small (150) Less than unity

Used for high- Used for

Used in amplifier
Applications frequency impedance
circuits.
applications. matching.

Amplification OF BJT
Common Base Amplifier and current gain
For a Common Base Amplifier the input is applied to the emitter terminal
while the output is taken from the collector terminal of the BJT transistor.
The Common Base Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT)
configuration where the base terminal of the transistor is a common terminal to both the input
and output signals, The common base configuration is less common as an amplifier than
compared to the more popular common emitter, (CE) or common collector, (CC)
configurations but is still used due to its unique input/output characteristics.
For the common base configuration to operate as an amplifier, the input signal is applied to
the emitter terminal and the output is taken from the collector terminal. The emitter current is
also the input current, and the collector current is also the output current, but as the transistor
is a three layer, two pn-junction device, it must be correctly biased for it to work as
a common base amplifier. That is the base-emitter junction is forward-biased. Consider the
basic common base amplifier configuration below.

Common Base Amplifier using NPN and PNP Transistor

The common base configuration that the input variables relate to the Emitter current IE , base-
emitter voltage VBE, collector current IC and collector-base voltage, VCB.
Since the emitter current, IE is also the input current, any changes to the input current will
create a corresponding change in the collector current, IC. For a common base amplifier
configuration, current gain, Ai is given as iOUT/iIN which itself is determined by the
formula IC/IE. The current gain for a CB configuration is called Alpha, ( α ). In a BJT
amplifier the emitter current is always greater than the collector current
IE = IB + IC,
current gain (α) of the amplifier must therefore be less than one (unity)
IC is always less than IE by the value of IB.
CB amplifier attenuates the current, with typical values of alpha ranging from between 0.980
to 0.995.
The electrical relationship between the three transistor currents can be shown to give the
expressions for alpha, α and Beta, β as shown.

In a BJT amplifier the emitter current is always greater than the collector current
IE = IB + IC,
current gain (α) of the amplifier must therefore be less than one (unity)
IC is always less than IE by the value of IB.
CB amplifier attenuates the current, with typical values of alpha ranging from between 0.980
to 0.995.
The electrical relationship between the three transistor currents can be shown to give the

expressions for alpha, α and Beta, β as shown.

Amplifier Current Gain

Therefore, if the Beta value of a standard bipolar junction transistor is 100, then the value of
Alpha would be given as: 100/101 = 0.99.

Characteristics of Common Base Amplifier

1. IE is not depends on VCB.
2. Configuration provicde voltage gain but not current gain.
3. CBconfigyration is used for high frequency application.
4. Configuration provide good stability increse in temperature.
5. VCB affect the IC at low voltage.at constant VEB.
6. VEB increses to increse the IE at constant VCB.
7. Out put resistance is ratio of change in colector base voltage ΔVCB to change in collector current
ΔIC at constant emitter current IE.

RO = ( ΔVCB / ΔIC )IE

8. In put resistance is ratio of change in emitter base voltage to change in emitter current at constant
collector base voltage VCB.

Rin = ( ΔVEB / ΔIE)VCB

Common Emitter Amplifier and current gain

The common emitter amplifier is a three basic single-stage bipolar junction transistor and is
used as a voltage amplifier. The input of this amplifier is taken from the base terminal, the
output is collected from the collector terminal and the emitter terminal is common for both
the terminals. Input voltage VBE is applied between base and emitter terminals and output
voltage VCE is applied across emitter and collector. The output current IC is taken across the
emitter and collector terminals. The input side is forward biased and the output side is reverse
biased.
Emitter base region acts like forward biased diode and so the depletion region is very small.
Emitter collector region acts like reverse biased diode and the depletion region is large. The
input current IB is measured in µA because the base region is very lightly doped. As shown

Circuit diagram NPN and PNP CE Amplification.

Current amplification factor β is change in collector current to change in base current is

ΔIc
callec base current amplification factor. β = ΔIB
Relation between β and α

Δ IC
α =
Δ IE

ΔIc
β = ΔIB ………………(1)

IE = IB +IC
ΔIE = ΔIB + ΔIC

ΔIB = ΔIE - ΔIC

ΔIc
β = ΔIE− ΔIC ……………..(2)

Equation 2 Devide by ΔIE

ΔIc/ ΔI E
β = ΔIE− ΔIC / ΔIE

By the definition of emitter current amplification.

α
Β=
1−α

Characteristics of CE Amplification
The characteristics of the common emitter configuration amplifier configuration are as
follows

1. The voltage gain value obtained for the common emitter amplifier is medium.
2. It also consists of the current gain in the medium range.
3. Because of both the voltage and the current gains the power gain value of this
configuration is referred to be high.
4. There is some resistance value at the inputs as well as the output but in this
configuration it is maintained at the medium value.
5. As the signals at the output generated because of the input signals applied are in 180
degree shift of the phase. These all the characteristics of the common emitter configuration
make it as a most widely used one among the two remaining configurations. As the signals of
input and the output are maintaining 180-degree phase shift.
Applications of CE

1. These amplifiers are preferably used as the current amplifier than a voltage amplifier
as it has more current gain than the voltage gain.
2. In the radio frequency circuitry this configuration is preferred.
3. For the lower values of noise and its amplification this configuration is preferred.

BJT as a Switch
A transistor is a semiconductor device has three terminals emitter-base and collector. In
different electronic devices and projects, it commonly used. There are many uses of this
electronic component but most common is it used as switch and amplifier. In the previous
tutorial, we have discussed with the BJT as amplifier with the detail.
 In the below figure the circuit shown explains the operation of BJT as a switch.
 In the first circuit, the transistor is in the cutoff region because the emitter-base
junction is not forward biased condition.
 In this state, there is no connection between emitter and collector of a transistor as
shown like an open switch.
 In the second circuit, a transistor is in a saturation state as both base-collector and
the base-emitter junction is in forward biased state.
 The value of base current is such large that it makes collector current such level
that transistor is in saturation state.
 In a saturation state, there is a short circuit between emitter and collector as it is
shown in a circuit like closes switch configuration.
 In real, a minor voltage loss across the transistor of up to some 10th of a volt
usually exits, that is the saturation voltage, VCE(sat).
It consist of two cases
1. Cutoff Mode
 The state where both junctions of transistor base-emitter and base-collector are in
reverses biased condition called a cutoff mode of a diode.
 In this case voltage across the base-emitter is less that does not allow current to
flow from collector to emitter.
 In this state, VCE is equal to the VCC.
VCE (cutoff) = VCC
2. Saturation Mode
 In this mode of operation, their base-emitter junction is in forward biased
condition due to that base current generated that results in the production of
collector current.
 The expression for saturation collector current is given here.
IC(sat)=VCC-VCE(sat)/RC
 As the value of VCE(sat) is less as compare to the VCC so it can be ignored.
 The minimum value of the base current required to generated saturation is given
here.
IB(min)= IC(sat)/ βDC
Usually, IB must be significantly larger than IB(min) to confirm that the transistor is
saturated.
Applications of Transistor as Switch.
 In below figure the circuit is shown that will on and off the LED.
 For instance, a square wave of cycle of two seconds is provided to the circuit as
input.
 When the magnitude of the square signal is at zero volts transistor is in the cutoff
region.
 Due to cutoff no current flows through collector the led will not glow.
 When the magnitude of the square signal is large transistor is a saturation region.
 This state makes led forward biased and current flows through led that glows it.
 Hence led remains on for one second and off for one second.
NUMERICAL