2024 - 25

CS -20 Network Technology and Administration

Bhavesh K. Hadiyal
HOD of Computer science
Department OMVVIM College
2024 - 25
 Unit – 1
Basics of
Network,
Network Models
And LAN Sharing
 Index
• Network concepts
o What is network?
o Use of network
• Network model: peer – to – peer, client – server
• Network Services
o File service,
o Print service,
o Comm. service,
o Data base service,
o Security service,
o Application service
• Network Access Methods
o CSMA / CD,
o CSMA / CA,
o Token passing,
o Polling
• Network Topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid
• Advanced Network Topologies Ethernet, CDDI, FDDI
• Communication Methods
o Unicasting,
o Multicasting,
o Broadcasting
• OSI reference model with 7 layers
• TCP/IP network model with 4 layers
Network concepts
● Computer networking is often an essential skill for many IT professionals, like network
engineers, systems administrators and network technicians.
● There are many industry terms, aspects and elements of computer networking, and
your depth of technical knowledge might help you secure an interview or offer during
a job search.
● According to Merriam-Webster, Network is usually an informally interconnected group
or association of different entities like a person, computers, radio stations, etc.

What is network?
 Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange
data and share resources with each other.
 A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices to
transmit and share information.
 "A Computer Network is defined as a set of two or more computing devices that are
linked together either via wired cables or wireless networks i.e., Wi-Fi with the
purpose of communicating, exchanging, sharing or distributing data, files and
resources."

Each of the devices on the network can be thought of as a node. Computing devices include
everything from a mobile phone to a server.
Computer Networks are built using a collection of hardware (such as routers, switches, hubs,
and so forth) and networking software (such as operating systems, firewalls, or corporate
applications).
Computer networking is like having a group of friends who all have phones and can call or
text each other. In computer networking, instead of phones, we have computers and instead
of phone lines, we use cables, Wi-Fi, or other methods to connect them.
When computers are connected to a network, they can share information and resources, like
files, printers, and internet connections. This allows them to communicate with each other
quickly and easily, just like friends talking on their phones.
In simple words, a computer network is a group of computers and other devices that are
connected together so they can communicate and share resources like files and printers. It
allows devices to work together, share information, and access the internet.

Use of network?
Computer networks are used in various ways to facilitate communication, resource sharing,
and collaboration. Here are some common uses:
Communication: Computer networks enable individuals and organizations to communicate
with each other using various methods such as email, messaging, and video conferencing
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Resource sharing: Networks allow users to share resources such as printers, scanners, and
files, which can improve efficiency and reduce costs.
Remote access: Networks enable users to access information and resources from anywhere
in the world, providing greater flexibility and convenience.
Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration by enabling users to work together on
projects, share ideas, and provide feedback in real time.
E-commerce: Computer networks are used extensively in e-commerce, enabling businesses
to sell products and services online and process payments securely.
Education: Networks are used in educational institutions to facilitate distance learning,
provide access to educational resources, and enable collaboration among students and
teachers.
Entertainment: Networks are used for entertainment purposes such as online gaming,
streaming movies and music, and social media.

There are multiple applications of computer networks including:

Business applications, Educational applications, Healthcare applications, Entertainment
applications, Military applications, scientific applications, Transportation applications,
Banking and finance applications.

Advantages of Uses of Computer Networks

 Improved communication and collaboration.
 Cost savings through resource sharing.
 Better data management and security.
 Increased flexibility with remote access.
 Enhanced productivity and efficiency
 Centralized Data Storage

Network model: peer – to – peer, client

– server
In computer networks, there are two main types called "client-server" and "peer-to-peer."
Both let computers connect to share things like files and programs. However, they work
differently from each other.

What Is Peer-To-Peer?
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized network architecture in which participants, called peers,
interact directly with each other without needing a central authority or server.
In a P2P network, each participant acts as both a client and a server, enabling them to share
resources and services directly with other peers. Here, all computers are equal.
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History of P2P Networks
 In the 1980s the first use of P2P networks occurred after personal computers were
introduced.
 In August 1988, the internet relay chat was the first P2P network built to share text and
chat.
 In June 1999, Napster was developed which was a file-sharing P2P software. It could be
used to share audio files as well. This software was shut down due to the illegal sharing of
files. But the concept of network sharing i.e P2P became popular.
 In June 2000, Gnutella was the first decentralized P2P file sharing network. This allowed
users to access files on other users’ computers via a designated folder.

Types of P2P Networks

Unstructured P2P networks: In this type of P2P network, each device is able to make an
equal contribution. This network is easy to build as devices can be connected randomly in the
network. But being unstructured, it becomes difficult to find content. For example, Napster,
Gnutella, etc.
Structured P2P networks: It is designed using software that creates a virtual layer in order to
put the nodes in a specific structure. These are not easy to set up but can give easy access to
users to the content. For example, P-Grid, Kademlia, etc.
Hybrid P2P networks: It combines the features of both P2P networks and client-server
architecture. An example of such a network is to find a node using the central server.

P2P Network Architecture

In the P2P network architecture, the
computers connect with each other in a
workgroup to share files, and access to
internet and printers.
Each computer in the network has the
same set of responsibilities and
capabilities.
Each device in the network serves as
both a client and server.
The architecture is useful in residential
areas, small offices, or small companies
where each computer act as an
independent workstation and stores the
data on its hard drive.
Each computer in the network has the
ability to share data with other computers in the network.
The architecture is usually composed of workgroups of 12 or more computers.
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Advantages of P2P Network
Easy to maintain: The network is easy to maintain because each node is independent of the
other.
Less costly: Since each node acts as a server, therefore the cost of the central server is saved.
Thus, there is no need to buy an expensive server.
No network manager: In a P2P network since each node manages his or her own computer,
thus there is no need for a network manager.
Adding nodes is easy: Adding, deleting, and repairing nodes in this network is easy.
Less network traffic: In a P2P network, there is less network traffic than in a client/ server
network.

Disadvantages of P2P Network

Data is vulnerable: Because of no central server, data is always vulnerable to getting lost
because of no backup.
Less secure: It becomes difficult to secure the complete network because each node is
independent.
Slow performance: In a P2P network, each computer is accessed by other computers in the
network which slows down the performance of the user.
Files hard to locate: In a P2P network, the files are not centrally stored, rather they are
stored on individual computers which makes it difficult to locate the files.

What is Client-Server?
In a client–server network, there is at least one dedicated central server that controls the
network, and a number of clients connect to the server to carry out specific tasks.
This is like a boss and employees setup. There's a main computer (server) that stores
information and manages resources.
Other computers (clients) connect to the server to access these resources, like files or
software.
It's structured and organized, like a company where everyone has a specific role.

History of Client-Server Networks

The client-server model emerged in the 1960s alongside the development of computer
networking. Initially, it involved mainframe computers serving multiple terminals.
By the 1980s, with the rise of LANs and PCs, it became decentralized, allowing PCs to act as
clients accessing resources from dedicated servers.
The standardization of protocols like TCP/IP in the 1980s and 1990s facilitated its widespread
adoption, especially with the growth of the internet and web servers.
Today, it continues to evolve with distributed computing technologies, enabling efficient
resource sharing and management across various networked environments.
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How does Client-Server Architecture work?
The basic steps of how Client-Server Architecture works are:
1) In the first step, client sends a request to the server using the network medium. The
request can be a query, a command, or a
message.
2) In the second step, the server receives
the request and processes it according to
its logic and data. The server may access
its own resources or other servers to fulfil
the request.
3) In the third step, server sends a
response back to the client using the
network medium. The response can be
data, an acknowledgement, or an error
message.
4) Lastly, client receives the response and displays it to the user or performs further actions
based on it.

Types of Client-Server Networks

One-Tier architecture: consists of a simple program running on a single computer without
requiring access to the network.
Two-Tier architecture: consists of the client, the server, and the protocol that links the two
tiers.
Three-Tier architecture: This architecture adds an additional layer between the client and
the server, known as the application server or middle tier.
N-Tier architecture: divides an application into logical layers, which run on separate
machines, improve scalability, and add latency from the additional network communication.
N-Tier architecture can be closed-layer, in which a layer can only communicate with the next
layer down, or open-layer, in which a layer can communicate with any layers below it.

Advantages of Client-Server Model

Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in client-server networks, i.e., all the data is
stored in a server.
Security: These networks are more secure as all the shared resources are centrally
administered. Data recovery is possible.
Performance: The use of the dedicated server increases the speed of sharing resources. This
increases the performance of the overall system.
Scalability: We can increase the number of clients and servers separately, i.e., the new
element can be added, or we can add a new node in a network at any time.
Capacity: The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.
Cost: Requires less maintenance cost.
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Disadvantages of Client-Server Model
Risk of viruses: Trojans, and worms if present in the Server or uploaded into the Server.
Attack: Servers are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks. Phishing or capturing login
credentials or other useful information of the user are common and MITM (Man in the
Middle) attacks are common.
Cheat: Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.

Network Services
A network service is a capability that facilitates a network operation.
It typically is provided by a server (which can be running one or more services), based on
protocols running at the application layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
of the network.
Network application layer provides data storage, manipulation, presentation, communication
or other capability which is often implemented using a client–server or peer-to-peer
architecture based on application layer network protocols.
Each service is usually provided by a server component running on one or more computers
(often a dedicated server computer offering multiple services) and accessed via a network
by client components running on other devices.
However, the client and server components can both be run on the same machine.

File Services
What Are File Services?
File services is a solution where files can be stored, managed, tracked, and shared with users
across the network.
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.

What Is the Role of File Services?

In the past, businesses used email attachments and USB devices to transfer files. But the
distributed nature of the new digital workplace coupled with the increasing size and type of
files made these file-sharing methods impractical.
File services solutions with appropriate file management and security software create global
file system services that replace these outdated file-sharing methods.

File Sharing: One of the reason which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing
enables its users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a specific
server, which is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can make its file
shared on its own computer and provides access to intended users.
File Transfer: This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer
or to multiple computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to
locate other users in the network and transfers files.
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What Are the Different Types of File Servers?
There are two types of file servers: Dedicated and Non-dedicated.
Dedicated servers are used only as file servers.
Non-dedicated servers have multipurpose uses such as being database servers as well as file
servers.

What Is the Importance of File Services?

 Enable anytime, anywhere access to global files through a cloud-based platform
 Improve security with robust data protection against unauthorized access, modifications,
or copying of files
 Increase productivity by allowing multiple users to collaborate on the same file
simultaneously
 Assure users up-to-date access to the latest version of files by imposing strict version
controls over them

Print Services
What Are Print Services?
A network print service typically refers to a system or software application that allows
multiple users within a network to access and use shared printers.

Shared Printers: Printers can be connected to a network (wired or wireless) so that they are
accessible to multiple users. This eliminates the need for individual printers for each user.
These services are designed to manage and facilitate printing tasks across different devices
and users within an organization or a networked environment.

What Is the Role of Print Services?

Printer Sharing: Allows multiple users to connect to and use a shared printer over the
network.
Print Queue Management: Manages the print jobs queued up for each printer, ensuring they
are processed in the order they are received.
Driver Management: Provides and manages printer drivers so that users can easily install
and use printers without needing to manually configure drivers.
Security: Implements security measures to control access to printers and ensure that only
authorized users can print documents.
Monitoring and Reporting: Monitors printer usage, tracks printing costs, and generates
reports for administrators to manage printing resources efficiently.

The advantages of printer sharing are:

Fewer printers are needed, and less money is spent on printers and supplies.
Reduced maintenance: There are fewer machines to maintain, and fewer people spending
time fiddling with printers.
Access to special printers: Very high-quality colour printers and very high-speed printers are
expensive and needed only occasionally. Sharing these printers makes the best use of
expensive resources.
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What Are the Different Types of Print Servers?
There are two techniques commonly used for sharing printers on a corporate network.
1. One technique is to use the sharing services provided by Samba. This is the technique
preferred by Windows clients.
2. The other approach is to use the traditional UNIX lpr command and an lpd server.

Communication Services
What Are Communication Services?
A network communication service refers to any system or software application that
facilitates communication between devices, users, or applications within a networked
environment. These services are essential for enabling reliable and efficient communication
across different types of networks, ranging from local area networks (LANs) to wide area
networks (WANs) and the internet.

What Is the Role of Communication Service?

 Connect People: Facilitate phone calls, emails, and messages.
 Boost Productivity: Enable teamwork and remote work.
 Share Information: Distribute news, updates, and educational content.
 Enhance Customer Service: Provide support and gather feedback.
 Ensure Security: Protect data and control access.
 Support Learning: Offer online courses and training.

What Are the Different Types of Communication Services?

Email: Electronic mail is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or more
email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs.
Social Networking: Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy
peoples, can find other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share
thoughts, pictures, and videos.
Internet Chat: Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. These
days, voice chat and video chat are very common.
Discussion Boards: Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with
same interests. It enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be
seen by all other users. Other may respond as well.
Remote Access: This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote
computer.

The advantages of Communication Service:

Global Connectivity: Connects people and devices anywhere in the world.
Real-Time Collaboration: Enables instant messaging, video calls, and file sharing for
teamwork.
Cost Savings: Reduces travel and communication costs with tools like VoIP and video
conferencing.
Flexibility: Allows remote work and access from various devices.
Scalability: Easily adjusts to growing or changing needs.
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Database service
What is Database Service (DBaaS)?
Like SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS of cloud computing, we can consider DBaaS (also known as
Managed Database Service) as a cloud computing service. It allows users associated with
database activities to access and use a cloud database system without purchasing it.
[Cloud computing has three main cloud service models: IaaS (infrastructure as a service),
PaaS (platform as a service), and SaaS (software as a service).]

The advantages of Database Service:

 Store Data: Keep large amounts of information organized.
 Retrieve Data: Quickly find and access needed information.
 Manage Data: Maintain and update data efficiently.
 Secure Data: Protect data from unauthorized access.
 Analyze Data: Generate reports and insights for decision-making.
 Backup Data: Save copies to prevent loss and recover if needed.
 Optimize Performance: Improve speed and efficiency of data access.
 Integrate Systems: Connect with other software and services.

What Are the Different Types of Database Service?

Relational Databases: Store data in structured tables with relationships (e.g., MySQL,
PostgreSQL).
NoSQL Databases: Handle flexible or unstructured data (e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).
Document Databases: Store data in documents (e.g., MongoDB).
Key-Value Stores: Store data as key-value pairs (e.g., Redis).
Column-Family Stores: Store data in columns (e.g., Cassandra).
Graph Databases: Manage data with relationships (e.g., Neo4j).
Cloud Databases: Hosted on cloud platforms for scalability and remote access (e.g., Amazon
RDS, Google Cloud SQL).
In-Memory Databases: Store data in RAM for faster access (e.g., Redis).

Security service
What Are Security Services?
Network security services are measures and tools designed to protect computer networks
from unauthorized access, attacks, and other security threats. They ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and network resources.

The advantages of Security Service:

Protects Data: Keeps sensitive information safe from unauthorized access and breaches.
Prevents Attacks: Guards against malware, viruses, and hacking attempts.
Ensures Privacy: Secures communications and data transmissions, especially over the
internet.
Maintains Integrity: Ensures that data is accurate and unaltered during storage and
transmission.
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Controls Access: Manages who can access network resources, preventing unauthorized use.
Enhances Trust: Builds confidence among users and customers by demonstrating
commitment to security.

What Are the Different Types of Security service?

Firewalls: Block unauthorized access.
Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDPS): Detect and stop threats.
VPNs: Encrypt data for secure connections.
Encryption: Scramble data to keep it private.
Access Control: Manage who can access resources.
Anti-Malware: Remove harmful software.
Network Monitoring: Track and manage network activity.
SIEM: Analyze and respond to security events.
Data Loss Prevention (DLP): Prevent unauthorized data leaks

Application service
What Are Application Services?
A network application service refers to a software application that provides functionalities
over a network, typically the internet or a local area network (LAN).
These services leverage network protocols to communicate between clients and servers and
often involve processes like data exchange, resource sharing, and real-time interaction.

The advantages of Application Services:

Accessibility: Access applications from anywhere with an internet connection.
Scalability: Easily scale resources up or down based on demand.
Cost Efficiency: Reduce costs with subscription-based models instead of large upfront
investments.
Flexibility: Use various applications tailored to specific needs without managing physical
hardware.
Disaster Recovery: Benefit from built-in backup and recovery solutions provided by the
service.
Security: Leverage advanced security measures implemented by service providers.
Integration: Easily integrate with other applications and services to streamline processes.
Automatic Updates: Receive the latest features and improvements automatically.

What Are the Different Types of Application Services?

Web Services: Allow applications to communicate and share data over the internet (e.g.,
APIs for weather data).
Cloud Services: Provide scalable resources and applications via the internet (e.g., cloud
storage like Google Drive, cloud computing like AWS).
Database Services: Manage and provide access to databases (e.g., managed databases like
Amazon RDS).
Messaging and Communication Services: Facilitate communication through email, chat, or
video (e.g., Gmail, Slack, Zoom).
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File Storage and Sharing Services: Offer online storage and file sharing capabilities (e.g.,
Dropbox, OneDrive).
Security Services: Protect data and applications through identity management and
encryption (e.g., firewall services, encryption tools).
Backup and Recovery Services: Ensure data is backed up and can be restored if lost (e.g.,
cloud backup solutions).

Network Access Methods

Network access methods are techniques and protocols used to manage how devices on a
network gain access to and transmit data over the network medium. They ensure that
multiple devices can share the network resource effectively without interfering with each
other.

Purpose of Network Access Methods:

Manage Access: Control how devices access the shared communication medium.
Avoid Collisions: Prevent or handle situations where multiple devices attempt to use the
network simultaneously, which can lead to data collisions.
Ensure Efficient Communication: Optimize data transfer and maintain network performance.

Common Network Access Methods:

 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
 CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
 Token Passing
 Polling
 Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS)

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple

Access with Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a network protocol used
to manage how multiple devices access and transmit data on a shared communication
medium, primarily in traditional wired Ethernet networks.

In CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) Access Method, every host
has equal access to the wire and can place data on the wire when the wire is free from
traffic. When a host want to place data on the wire, it will “sense” the wire to find whether
there is a signal already on the wire.
If there is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is no traffic, it will
place the data in the medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same
instance, they will collide with each other, destroying the data.
If the data is destroyed during transmission, the data will need to be retransmitted.
After collision, each host will wait for a small interval of time and again the data will be
retransmitted, to avoid collision again.
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How CSMA/CD Works:
Carrier Sense:
Before a device sends data, it listens to
the network to check if the
communication medium is currently in
use (i.e., if there is a signal on the
network). If the medium is clear, the
device can proceed to transmit data.
Collision Detection:
While transmitting, the device
continues to listen to the network to
ensure that no other devices are
transmitting simultaneously. If another
device starts transmitting and a collision
occurs (both devices' signals interfere
with each other), the collision is
detected by the devices.
Collision Handling:
Abort Transmission: When a collision is
detected, the transmitting devices stop
sending data immediately.
Send Jamming Signal: The devices send
a jamming signal to ensure that all
devices on the network are aware of
the collision.
Random Backoff: After detecting a
collision, each device waits for a
random period before attempting to
retransmit. This random delay helps reduce the chance of repeated collisions when multiple
devices retry simultaneously.

Advantages of CSMA/CD
Simple and widely used: CSMA/CD is a widely used protocol for Ethernet networks, and its
simplicity makes it easy to implement and use.
Fairness: In a CSMA/CD network, all devices have equal access to the transmission medium,
which ensures fairness in data transmission.
Efficiency: CSMA/CD allows for efficient use of the transmission medium by preventing
unnecessary collisions and reducing network congestion.

Disadvantages of CSMA/CD
Limited Scalability: CSMA/CD has limitations in terms of scalability, and it may not be
suitable for large networks with a high number of devices.
Vulnerability to Collisions: While CSMA/CD can detect collisions, it cannot prevent them
from occurring. Collisions can lead to data corruption, retransmission delays, and reduced
network performance.
Inefficient Use of Bandwidth: CSMA/CD uses a random backoff algorithm that can result in
inefficient use of network bandwidth if a device continually experiences collisions.
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CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance)
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) is a network protocol used
primarily in wireless networks (such as Wi-Fi) to manage how multiple devices share the
communication medium and avoid collisions. Unlike CSMA/CD, which detects collisions after
they occur, CSMA/CA aims to prevent collisions before they happen.

In CSMA/CA, before a host sends real data on the wire it will “sense” the wire to check if the
wire is free. If the wire is free, it will send a piece of “dummy” data on the wire to see
whether it collides with any other data. If it does not collide, the host will assume that the
real data also will not collide.

How CSMA/CA Works:

Carrier Sense:
Listening: Before transmitting data,
a device listens to the network (or
channel) to check if it is currently
in use (i.e., if the channel is clear).
If the channel is busy, the device
waits until it becomes free.
Collision Avoidance:
Backoff Mechanism: If the channel
is clear, the device does not
transmit immediately. Instead, it
waits for a random period (called a
backoff time) to further reduce the
chance of collision with other
devices that might also be waiting
to transmit.
Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to
Send (CTS): To avoid collisions, a
device may first send an RTS frame
to the network, asking for
permission to transmit. The
network then replies with a CTS
frame if the channel is clear,
indicating that the device can
proceed with its transmission. This
exchange helps manage access and avoid collisions by reserving the channel for the
requesting device.
Acknowledgment (ACK):
Confirmation: After transmitting data, the sending device waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiving device. The ACK confirms that the data was received successfully. If the
sender does not receive an ACK, it assumes the transmission failed and may retry after
another backoff period.
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Advantages of CSMA/CA:
Collision Prevention: Reduces the chances of data collisions before they happen.
Efficient Wireless Use: Manages wireless network traffic well, improving overall performance.
Reliable Transmission: Uses acknowledgments to confirm that data is received correctly.
Handles Many Devices: Works effectively in networks with multiple devices.

Disadvantages of CSMA/CA:
Increased Delay: Adds extra wait time due to backoff and RTS/CTS processes.
Overhead: Extra control frames (RTS/CTS) can reduce network efficiency.
Hidden Node Problem: May still face interference issues if devices are out of range of each other.
Complexity: More complex to implement and manage compared to simpler methods.

Difference between CSMA CA and CSMA CD

No CSMA CD CSMA CA
1. It is the type of CSMA to detect the It is the type of CSMA to avoid collision on
collision on a shared channel. a shared channel.
2. It is the collision detection protocol. It is the collision avoidance protocol.
3. It is used in 802.3 Ethernet network cable. It is used in the 802.11 Ethernet network.
4. It works in wired networks. It works in wireless networks.
5. It is effective after collision detection on a It is effective before collision detection on
network. a network.
6. Whenever a data packet conflicts in a Whereas the CSMA CA waits until the
shared channel, it resends the data frame. channel is busy and does not recover after
a collision.
7. It minimizes the recovery time. It minimizes the risk of collision.
8. The efficiency of CSMA CD is high as The efficiency of CSMA CA is similar to
compared to CSMA. CSMA.
9. It is more popular than the CSMA CA It is less popular than CSMA CD.
protocol.

Token Passing
Token Passing is a network access method used to manage how devices access a shared
communication medium.
It ensures that only one device can transmit data at a time, thus preventing collisions.
In token passing, when a host want to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an
empty packet.
The token is circling the network in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data,
it should wait for the token.
When the token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token from the
network, fill it with data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the
network.

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How Token Passing Works:
Token Circulation: A special data packet called a token circulates around the network in a
predefined sequence. Only the device that holds the token is allowed to transmit data.
Transmission: When a device wants to send data, it waits until it receives the token.
Once it has the token, the device sends its data and then passes the token to the next device
in the sequence.
Token Passing: After transmitting, the device either passes the token directly to the next
device or after a short delay.
Collision Prevention: Since only one device can hold the token and transmit at any given
time, collisions are avoided.

Advantages of Token Passing:

Collision-Free: Eliminates collisions by controlling access to the medium.
Fairness: Each device gets a turn to transmit, ensuring equitable access.
Predictable Performance: Provides consistent network performance due to orderly access.

Disadvantages of Token Passing:

Token Loss: If the token is lost or damaged, the network can become inoperative until a new
token is introduced.
Overhead: Managing and circulating the token adds overhead to the network.
Single Point of Failure: The token represents a single point of failure; if the token is lost,
network access is disrupted.

Polling
In a computer network, there is a primary station or controller (teacher) and all other
stations are secondary (students), the primary station sends a message to each station.
The message which is sent by the primary station consists of the address of the station which
is selected for granting access.
In simple terms, polling in networking is like checking in regularly with a device or server to
see if it has any new information or needs attention.

How Token Polling Works:

Regular Intervals: A network device or system periodically sends out a request to check the
status of another device or server. This is done at regular time intervals.
Status Check: The polling device or system asks the target device if it has any new data,
updates, or if it needs attention.
Response: The target device responds with the current status or any relevant information. If
there is no new data, the response nothing has changed, called Poll Reject or NAK (negative
acknowledgment).
Action: Based on the response, the polling device or system takes appropriate actions, such
as processing new data, handling errors, or simply waiting until the next poll.
Repeat: This process repeats at set intervals, ensuring that the polling device stays updated
about the status of the target device.
Polling helps maintain communication and monitor devices efficiently.
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Advantages of Polling:
o The maximum and minimum access time and data rates on the channel are fixed predictable.
o It has maximum efficiency and bandwidth.
o No slot is wasted in polling.
o There is assignment of priority to ensure faster access from some secondary.

Disadvantages of Polling:
o Inefficient: Can waste resources by checking devices even when there’s no new data.
o Slower Response: Delays in detecting changes because of fixed intervals.
o High Overhead: Uses up more bandwidth and processing power.

Network Topologies: Bus, Ring, Star,

Mesh, Tree, Hybrid
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes, etc.) in a
network. It determines how devices in the network are connected and how they
communicate with each other.
Network topology is used to describe the physical and logical structure of a network.
It maps the way different nodes on a network--including switches and routers--are placed
and interconnected, as well as how data flows.
a) Physical topology: - Describes the actual layout of the network transmission media.
b) Logical topology: - Describes the logical pathway a signal follows as is passes among the
network nodes.

Topologies: Bus
Bus topology, alternatively known as line topology, is a type of network topology where all
devices on a network are connected to a single cable, called a bus or backbone.
This cable serves as a shared communication line, allowing all devices (computers, printers,
etc.) to receive the same signal simultaneously.

How It Works:
Central Cable: All devices (nodes) are connected to a single central cable.
Data Transmission: Data sent by any device travels along the central cable and can be
received by all other devices.
Terminators: At each end of the central cable, there are terminators that prevent the signal
from bouncing back and causing interference.

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Advantages:
Cost-Effective: Requires less cable compared to other topologies, making it cheaper to set
up.
Easy to Implement: Simple design and straightforward installation.
Scalability: Adding new devices is relatively easy by connecting them to the central cable.

Disadvantages:
Single Point of Failure: If the central cable fails, the entire network goes down.
Performance Issues: As more devices are added, network performance can degrade due to
increased data collisions and traffic.
Difficult Troubleshooting: Identifying and fixing problems can be challenging because the
entire network relies on the central cable.

Topologies: Ring
Ring topology is a closed-loop network where all devices, such as computers and printers, are
connected in a circular (ring) structure.
In this topology, each device is connected to two other devices, one on either side, forming a
single continuous pathway for data transmission.
The data is sent from one device to another based on their ring node's neighbouring node.

How It Works:
Circular Connection: Devices are arranged in a circle. Each device has a connection to its two
neighbouring devices, forming a continuous loop.
Data Transmission: Data travels in one
direction (or both directions in a dual ring
topology) around the ring. When a device
sends data, it passes through each device
until it reaches its intended destination.
Token Passing: In some ring topologies, a
"token" (a special data packet) circulates
around the ring. Only the device holding the
token can send data, which helps avoid
collisions.
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Advantages:
Predictable Performance: Since data travels in a set direction, it avoids collisions and can
provide consistent performance.
Easy to Troubleshoot: Problems can often be isolated to a specific segment of the ring.
Enhanced Reliability: In a dual ring setup, data can travel in both directions, providing
redundancy and improving network reliability.

Disadvantages:
Single Point of Failure: In a single ring setup, if one device or connection fails, it can disrupt
the entire network.
Network Downtime: Adding or removing devices can be more complex and may require
temporarily shutting down the network.
Latency: Data must pass through each device in the ring, which can introduce latency,
especially in large networks.

Topologies: Star
Star topology is a network topology in which each network component is physically connected
to a central node such as a router, hub or switch. It’s most popular Network Topology.
In a star topology, all nodes (devices like computers, printers, etc.) are connected to a central
hub or switch. The central hub acts as a repeater for data flow and is responsible for directing
the data to the appropriate node.
Star topology can either be active or passive.
In an active star topology, the central hub or switch is a powered device that performs
significant processing and management of network traffic.
In a passive star topology, the central hub is a simple, non-powered device that only provides
physical connections between the network devices.

How Star Topology Works:

Central Hub/Switch: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.
Data Transmission: When a device wants to send data, it goes through the hub, which then
sends it to the correct destination.
Adding/Removing Devices: You can easily add or remove devices without affecting the rest
of the network.
Fault Tolerance: If a device or its cable fails, it doesn’t affect the other devices, but if the hub
fails, the whole network goes down.
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Advantages:
Easy to Install: Simple to set up and manage.
Better Performance: Less data collision because the hub or switch handles traffic.
Fault Isolation: Only one device or connection is affected if a problem occurs.
Scalable: Easy to add or remove devices.

Disadvantages:
Hub Failure: If the central hub fails, the whole network stops working.
Cost: Requires more cables and a central hub, which can be more expensive.
Cable Length: The length of cables from the hub to devices can be limited.

Topologies: Mesh
Mesh topology is a type of networking in which all the computers are inter-connected to
each other. In Mesh Topology, the connections between devices take place randomly. The
connected nodes can be computers, switches, hubs, or any other devices.
Mesh topology is a network setup where each device (node) is directly connected to every
other device in the network.
Mesh topology can either be Full Mesh or Partial Mesh
Full Mesh: Every device has a direct connection to every other device.
Partial Mesh: Some devices are connected to all others, while others are only connected to
some.

How It Works:
Direct Connections: In a full mesh network, every device has a direct link to every other
device, allowing data to be transmitted along multiple paths.
Routing: If one connection fails, data can be rerouted through alternative paths, enhancing
network reliability.

Advantages:
High Reliability: Multiple paths for data mean the network is robust. If one connection fails,
data can travel through other routes.
Fault Tolerance: Network issues or failures affect only specific connections, not the whole
network.
Scalability: Adding new devices is easier in a partial mesh network and does not disrupt
existing connections.
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Disadvantages:
Cost: Requires a lot of cabling and hardware for full mesh, making it expensive.
Complexity: Setting up and managing a mesh network is complex due to the large number of
connections.
Maintenance: More connections mean more potential points of failure, which can
complicate network maintenance.

Topologies: Tree
A tree topology is a sort of structure in which each node is related to the others in a
hierarchy. In a topological hierarchy, there are at least three distinct levels.
Sometimes it is also called hierarchical topology as in this topology, all elements are arranged
like the branches of a tree.
Tree topology is a network design where devices are arranged in a hierarchical structure,
resembling a tree with branches.
It combines characteristics of both star and bus topologies.
Tree topologies are commonly used to arrange data in databases and workstations in
corporate networks.
In a tree topology, any two linked nodes can only have one mutual connection, hence there
can only be one link between them.

Structure:
Root Node: The top-level device, often a powerful switch or hub.
Branches: Intermediate nodes that connect to the root node and other nodes.
Leaves: End devices (like computers, printers) connected at the end of the branches.

How It Works:
Hierarchy: Devices are organized in a hierarchy with a central root node (or root switch)
connected to one or more secondary nodes (branches), which in turn connect to further
nodes.
Central Connection: The central root node is often a hub or switch that manages and routes
network traffic. It connects to other hubs or switches that further branch out to connect
other devices.
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Advantages:
Scalability: Easy to add new devices or branches without affecting the rest of the network.
Manageability: Hierarchical structure allows for organized management and segmentation
of network traffic.
Isolation of Problems: Problems in one branch do not typically affect the other branches,
making troubleshooting easier.

Disadvantages:
Dependency on Root Node: If the central root node fails, the entire network can be affected.
Complexity: Requires careful planning and management of the hierarchical structure.
Cost: More expensive than simpler topologies due to the need for multiple hubs or switches
and more cabling.

Topologies: Hybrid
A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a combination of two or more
network topologies, such as mesh, Star, bus, Tree or ring topology.
Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like the
performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their location.
This hybrid topology makes use of standards such as Wi-Fi and Ethernet for performing its
different operations.
The functioning of hybrid topology depends upon various types of hybrid routers used such
as switches and hubs as they can easily connect the devices that are connected over wired or
wireless networks.

Types of Hybrid Topologies:

Star-Bus Hybrid: Devices are organized in a star topology where each star network is
connected to a central bus.
Star-Mesh Hybrid: Central hubs or switches in a star configuration are connected using mesh
links.
Star-Ring Hybrid: Devices are organized in star topologies, with each star network connected
in a ring fashion.
Ect… ect…
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Advanced Network Topologies
Ethernet, CDDI, FDDI
Ethernet:
Ethernet is a widely-used networking technology for local area networks (LANs) that defines
how data is transmitted between devices on a network.
It includes a set of standards and protocols for connecting devices and facilitating
communication.

History and Evolution: Developed in the 1970s by Xerox Corporation, Ethernet became
standardized as IEEE 802.3.
Evolution: Over time, Ethernet has evolved to support higher speeds, from the original 10
Mbps to 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps (10 Gigabit Ethernet), and even higher speeds
like 100 Gbps and 400 Gbps.
Ethernet Standards: IEEE 802.3 is the formal standard that defines Ethernet technology. It
includes various types of Ethernet for different speeds and media
Ethernet Frame: Ethernet frames consist of a header, payload, and trailer. The header
includes source and destination MAC addresses, while the trailer contains error-checking
data.
Ethernet frames can be from 64 to 1,518 bytes in size, with a maximum frame size of 1,518
bytes.
Twisted Pair Cables: Commonly used in modern Ethernet networks. Examples include Cat5e,
Cat6, and Cat6a.
Fiber Optic Cables: Used for high-speed and long-distance connections. Examples include
single-mode and multi-mode fibers.
Protocols and Features: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):
Used in older Ethernet standards to manage data transmission and avoid collisions. Modern
Ethernet over switches typically doesn’t use CSMA/CD.

CDDI
CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface) is a type of network connection that was used to
send data quickly over copper cables.
It worked at speeds of 100 megabits per second, which was faster than older technologies.
Copper data distribution interface (CDDI) is an implementation of fiber distributed data
interface (FDDI) networking.
CDDI is officially called TP-PMD (Twisted-Pair Physical Medium Dependent) and is a data
transmission standard. CDDI uses either STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) or UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair) copper wire
Speed and Media: CDDI supported data rates of up to 100 Mbps, which was a significant
upgrade over the 10 Mbps speeds of traditional Ethernet. It achieved this over twisted-pair
copper cabling.
Topology: Like FDDI, CDDI used a dual-ring topology, providing redundancy and high
availability in the network. If one ring failed, the other could continue to carry traffic,
reducing the likelihood of network outages.
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CDDI also Uses the same protocols and constructs as FDDI, but uses copper wire as the
medium.
CDDI is not widely applied due to the decrease in the price of fiber optic installation,
This network can support thousands of users or terminals as well as cover a wide
geographical
area.
Copper cables are no longer widely used because they can only stretch as far as 100 meters,
compared to 1,000 meters for fiber optic cables. CDDI is commonly implemented in a wide
geographical area.

FDDI
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a
type of network technology that uses fiber
optic cables to send data very quickly. It was
designed for high-speed data transfer in local
area networks (LANs) and could handle
speeds of up to 100 megabits per second
(Mbps).
It is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for
transmission of data in local area network
(LAN) over fiber optic cables. It is applicable
in large LANs that can extend up to 200
kilometers in diameter.
Speed: It supports data transfer speeds of up
to 100 megabits per second (Mbps), which
was quite fast at the time it was introduced.
Media: Fiber optics can transmit data over
longer distances and with higher speeds
compared to copper.
Topology: FDDI networks are typically set up
in a dual-ring configuration. This means there
are two rings of fiber cables running in
opposite directions. If one ring fails or is cut,
the other ring can continue to carry the data,
providing redundancy and increased
reliability.
FDDI was commonly used in backbone networks to connect different parts of a larger
network and was known for its high performance and robustness.
Frame Format
The frame format of FDDI is similar to that of token bus as shown in the following diagram −

Communication Methods
In networking, communication methods are the various techniques and protocols used to
transfer data between devices. These methods ensure that data is transmitted efficiently and
accurately across networks.
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Components of Data Communication:
A communication system is made up of the following components:
Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to
another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
Sender: It is simply a device
that sends data messages. It
can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video
camera, or workstation, etc.
Receiver: It is a device that
receives messages. It can be a
computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
Transmission Medium /
Communication Channels:
Communication channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a
message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a
meaningless conversation.
Casting in computer networks
means transmitting data
(stream of packets) over a
network. Following are the
different types of casting used
in networking −
Unicast transmission
Multicast transmission
Broadcast transmission

Unicasting
Unicast is a type of information transfer and it is used when there is a participation of single
sender and single recipient. So, in short, you can term it as a one-to-one mapping.
Definition: Sending data from one device to a specific, single device.
Since the data is sent directly to one device, unicast is efficient when the data is needed by
only one recipient. It minimizes network traffic compared to broadcasting, which sends the
same data to all devices on the network.
Use Case: Used for direct communication between two devices, such as a client sending a
request to a web server.
Protocols:
Unicast is commonly used in various network protocols, including TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in IP networks.
Example: A computer sending an email to another computer over the internet.
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Multicasting
Multicasting has one/more senders and multiple recipients participate in data transfer traffic.
In multicasting traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast and broadcast.
Definition: Sending data from one device to a group of specific devices.
Multicast uses special group addresses to identify the group of devices that should receive
the data.
Multicast is efficient in scenarios where the same data needs to be distributed to multiple
recipients. Instead of sending multiple copies of the data (as in unicast), the sender sends a
single copy to the multicast group, and network devices manage the distribution to group
members.
Use Case: Efficient for sending the same data to multiple devices without broadcasting to the
entire network.
Protocols:
Multicast relies on various protocols to manage the distribution of data. For IP multicast,
protocols such as IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) and PIM (Protocol
Independent Multicast) are used.
Example: Streaming a video to multiple users who have subscribed to the stream.

Broadcasting
In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or more senders to all the
receivers within the same network or in other networks.
Definition: Sending data to all devices in a network segment.
n broadcast communication, the data packet is addressed to a special broadcast address that
is recognized by all devices on the network segment.
Broadcasts are confined to the local network segment or subnet. Routers do not forward
broadcast packets to other network segments, which helps contain broadcast traffic.
Use Case: Used in networks where all devices need to receive the same information, like in
Ethernet LANs.
Protocols:
Broadcast is commonly used in various network protocols, such as ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol), which is used to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network.
Example: A router sending an ARP request to all devices on a local network to find the MAC
address associated with an IP address.

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