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DATA STRUCTURES WITH C
PROGRAMMING
 DATA STRUCTURES WITH C
PROGRAMMING

Dr. Anil Kumar Yadav and Vinod Kumar Yadav

ARCLER
P r e s s

www.arclerpress.com
Data Structures with C Programming
Dr. Anil Kumar Yadav and Vinod Kumar Yadav

Arcler Press
2010 Winston Park Drive,
2nd Floor
Oakville, ON L6H 5R7
Canada
www.arclerpress.com
Tel: 001-289-291-7705
        001-905-616-2116
Fax: 001-289-291-7601
Email: [email protected]

e-book Edition 2019

ISBN: 978-1-77361-658-2 (e-book)

This book contains information obtained from highly regarded resources. Reprinted material
sources are indicated and copyright remains with the original owners. Copyright for images and
other graphics remains with the original owners as indicated. A Wide variety of references are
listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data. Authors or Editors or Publish-
ers are not responsible for the accuracy of the information in the published chapters or conse-
quences of their use. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or grievance to the
persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or thoughts in
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not been obtained. If any copyright holder has not been acknowledged, please write to us so we
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© 2019 Arcler Press

ISBN: 978-1-77361-337-6 (Hardcover)

Arcler Press publishes wide variety of books and eBooks. For more information about
Arcler Press and its products, visit our website at www.arclerpress.com
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Anil Kumar Yadav has done his B.Tech (CSE), M.Tech (I.T)
and PhD (Computer Science and Engineering) in the area of Machine
Learning specialization in Reinforcement Learning and Artificial
Intelligence. He has filed patent on topic Machine Learning, “Method
for Reinforcement Learning,”. He has been teaching data structures and
Artificial intelligence over the last 13 years at under graduate and post
graduate levels. With over a decade of teaching experience in the
engineering institutions, he has exemplified his work at various
designations. His research interests include data structures, deep
learning , machine learning algorithms specially reinforcement
learning, computational intelligence, computer vision and image
processing, brain computer/machine interface, intelligent informatics, soft-
computing in modeling and control, cognitive science. He has presented
papers at national and international conferences and published several
papers in international journals and also attended several workshops. He is
also a reviewer of some of the international journal and conferences.
Vinod Kumar Yadav has done his B.Tech (I.T), M.Tech (CSE). His area
of interest is Data mining, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. He
has been teaching data structures over the last 7 years at under graduate and
post graduate levels. He is also GATE Qualified in Information Technology
in 2007. He has published many papers at national, international conferences
and international Journals. He also attended several national workshops.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures.................................................................................................xi
Preface.................................................................................................... ....xvii

Chapter 1 Data Structures.......................................................................................... 1

1.1. Introduction......................................................................................... 2
1.2. Data Structure Basic Terminology........................................................ 2
1.3. Data Structure...................................................................................... 3
1.4. Introduction To Algorithm.................................................................... 8
1.5. Basic Concept of Function................................................................. 13
1.6. Basic Concept of Pointers.................................................................. 19
1.7. Introduction To Structure.................................................................... 22
1.8. Dynamic Memory Allocation In Data Structure................................. 28

Chapter 2 Array........................................................................................................ 35
2.1. Introduction....................................................................................... 36
2.2. Application of Array........................................................................... 36
2.3. Definition of Array............................................................................. 37
2.4. Representation of Array...................................................................... 37
2.5. Ordered List....................................................................................... 56
2.6. Sparse Matrices.................................................................................. 57
2.7. Garbage Collection............................................................................ 60

Chapter 3 Recursion................................................................................................. 63
3.1. Introduction....................................................................................... 64
3.2. Recursion.......................................................................................... 64
3.3. Tower of Hanoi ................................................................................. 72
3.4. Backtracking ..................................................................................... 74
Chapter 4 Stack........................................................................................................ 77
4.1. Introduction....................................................................................... 78
4.2. Definition of Stack............................................................................. 78
4.3. Operations on Stack.......................................................................... 80
4.4. Disadvantages of Stack...................................................................... 94
4.5. Applications of Stack......................................................................... 94
4.6. Expressions (Polish Notation)............................................................. 95
4.7. Evaluation of Postfix Expression......................................................... 98
4.8. Decimal To Binary Conversion........................................................... 99
4.9. Reversing The String......................................................................... 102

Chapter 5 Queue.................................................................................................... 105

5.1. Introduction..................................................................................... 106
5.2. Definition And Structure of Queue.................................................. 106
5.3. Operations on Queue...................................................................... 106
5.4. Circular Queue................................................................................ 114
5.5. D-Queue (Double Ended Queue).................................................... 119
5.6. Priority Queues................................................................................ 124
5.7. Application of Queue...................................................................... 128

Chapter 6 Linked List.............................................................................................. 129

6.1. Introduction..................................................................................... 130
6.2. Definition And Structure of Linked List............................................ 130
6.3. Characteristics of Linked List............................................................ 134
6.4. Types of Linked List.......................................................................... 135
6.5 Polynomial Representation of Linked List.......................................... 158

Chapter 7 Tree........................................................................................................ 161

7.1. Introduction..................................................................................... 162
7.2. Definition of Trees........................................................................... 162
7.3. Binary Tree...................................................................................... 165
7.4. Binary Tree Representation.............................................................. 169
7.5. Binary Tree Traversal........................................................................ 172
7.6. Binary Search Tree (BST).................................................................. 179
7.7. Height Balanced (AVL) Tree............................................................. 196

viii
Chapter 8 Graph..................................................................................................... 213
8.1. Introduction..................................................................................... 214
8.2. Definition of Graph......................................................................... 214
8.3. Representation of Graphs................................................................. 221
8.4. Graph Traversal................................................................................ 224
8.5. Spanning Tree.................................................................................. 229
8.6. Shortest Path Problem...................................................................... 240
8.7. Application Of Graph...................................................................... 243

Chapter 9 Sorting.................................................................................................... 245

9.1. Introduction..................................................................................... 246
9.2. Types of Sorting............................................................................... 246
9.3. Basic Terms of Sorting...................................................................... 246
9.4. Sorting Techniques........................................................................... 247

Chapter 10 Searching and Hashing........................................................................... 291

10.1. Introduction................................................................................... 292
10.2. Searching ...................................................................................... 292
10.3. Hashing......................................................................................... 296
10.4. Collision........................................................................................ 300
10.5. Collision Handling Method ........................................................... 301
10.6. Rehashing...................................................................................... 306
10.7. Application of Hashing.................................................................. 307

Index...................................................................................................... 309

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Part of abstract data type.

Figure 1.2 Classification of data structures.
Figure 1.3 One-dimensional array.
Figure 1.4 Stack data structure
Figure 1.5 Queue structure.
Figure 1.6 Representation of link list.
Figure 1.7 Tree data structure.
Figure 1.8 A graph.
Figure 1.9 Big O notation.
Figure 1.10 Ω Notation.
Figure 1.11 ‘Ө’ Notation
Figure 1.12 Output a user-defined function.
Figure 1.13 Classification of function argument.
Figure 1.14 Output Call by Value to Pass Arguments.
Figure 1.15 Output of Call by Reference to Pass Arguments.
Figure 1.16 Output of Accessing variable through Pointers.
Figure 1.17 Output of Null Pointers.
Figure 1.18 Output of Structure Initialization.
Figure 1.19 Output structure pointer
Figure 1.20 Output of an Array of Structure.
Figure 1.21 Output of malloc and free function.
Figure 1.22 Output of calloc and free function.
Figure 1.23 Output of realloc Function.
Figure 2.1 One-dimensional Array.
Figure 2.2 Array initialization and accessing.
Figure 2.3 Output of Program Greater Number.

xi
Figure 2.4 Output of Program 2.3.
Figure 2.5 Array positions.
Figure 2.6 3 x 4 array two-dimensional.
Figure 2.7 Row major store in an array.
Figure 2.8 Column major store in an array.
Figure 2.9 Output of Program 2.4.
Figure 2.10 Output of Program 2.5
Figure 2.11 Output of Searching.
Figure 2.12 Output of Program Insertion.
Figure 2.13 Output of Program Deletion.
Figure 2.14 Output of Program Deletion.
Figure 2.15 Polynomial representation.
Figure 2.16 Sparse matrix.
Figure 2.17 Output of Sparse Matrix or not.
Figure 3.1 Output of a Factorial number Using Iteration Method.
Figure 3.2 Output of a Factorial number Using Recursion Method.
Figure 3.3 Output of Fibonacci Series.
Figure 3.4 Output for Check Prime number.
Figure 3.5 Initial Setup of Tower of Hanoi
Figure 3.6 After applying first Step position of Tower
Figure 3.7 After applying second step position of tower
Figure 3.8 After applying third step position of tower.
Figure 3.9 After applying fourth step position of tower.
Figure 3.10 Tree Example.
Figure 4.1 Stack Containing Items.
Figure 4.2 Stack using a 1-dimensional array.
Figure 4.3 Stack empty condition
Figure 4.4 Stack full condition.
Figure 4.5 Performing Push Operation.
Figure 4.6 Performing Pop Operation.
Figure 4.7 Stack Operation.

xii
Figure 4.8 Output Example 4.1.
Figure 4.9 Output of stack operation using linked list.
Figure 4.10 Output of Decimal to Binary
Figure 4.11 Output Reverse a String.
Figure 5.1 Queue structure.
Figure 5.2 Array Implementation of Queue.
Figure 5.3 (a) Queue in Memory.
Figure 5.3 (b) Queue after deleting the first element.
Figure 5.3 (c) Queue after inserting an element.
Figure 5.4 Output of Queue Operations.
Figure 5.5 Output of Queue operation using Linked List.
Figure 5.6 Linear Queue.
Figure 5.7 Circular Queue.
Figure 5.8 Output of Circular Queue Operations
Figure 5.9 D-Queue.
Figure 5.10 (a) Input-restricted D-queue.
Figure 5.10 (b) Output-restricted D-queue.
Figure 5.11 Output of D-Queue Operations.
Figure 5.12 Output of Priority Queue.
Figure 6.1 Structure of a Node
Figure 6.2 Representation of link list.
Figure 6.3 Output of Linked List.
Figure 6.4 A singly-linked list containing three integer values.
Figure 6.5 Output of Single linked list operations.
Figure 6.6 Output of Circular Linked List Operations.
Figure 6.7 Doubly Linked List.
Figure 6.8 Output of Doubly linked list Operations.
Figure 6.9 Structure of a polynomial node.
Figure 6.10 List structure of polynomial.
Figure 6.11 Linked representation of a polynomial two variable.
Figure 7.1 Tree.
Figure 7.2 a, b and c represent a forest.

xiii
Figure 7.3 An example of Tree.
Figure 7.4 Binary tree.
Figure 7.5 Strictly Binary Tree
Figure 7.6 Almost Complete.
Figure 7.7 Complete Binary Tree.
Figure 7.8 Extended Binary Tree.
Figure 7.9 (a) Left -skewed binary tree (b) Right – skewed binary tree.
Figure 7.10 General Tree.
Figure 7.11 Expression Tree.
Figure 7.12 Sequential representation of a binary tree.
Figure 7.13 Structure of a node binary tree.
Figure 7.14 Linked List Representation.
Figure 7.15 Binary Tree (a) and (b).
Figure 7.16 Binary Tree (a) and (b).
Figure 7.17 Binary Tree (a) and (b).
Figure 7.18 Finally Binary Tree.
Figure 7.19 Computing pointer in a binary tree.
Figure 7.20 A threaded binary tree.
Figure 7.21 Binary Search Tree.
Figure 7.22 Binary Search Tree.
Figure 7.23 Before deletion.
Figure 7.24 After deletion.
Figure 7.25 Before deletion.
Figure 7.26 After deletion of a node from the tree.
Figure 7.27 Before deletion.
Figure 7.28 After the deletion of a node from the tree.
Figure 7.29 Red-Black Tree.
Figure 7.30 AVL tree.
Figure 7.31 Not an AVL tree.
Figure 7.32 Classification of Rotation.
Figure 7.33 Balanced AVL search tree.
Figure 7.34 AVL search tree after performing LL rotation.

xiv
Figure 7.35 Balanced AVL search tree.
Figure 7.36 AVL search tree after performing RR rotation
Figure 7.37 Balanced AVL search tree.
Figure 7.38 AVL search tree after performing LR rotation.
Figure 7.39 Balanced AVL search tree.
Figure 7.40 AVL search tree after performing RL rotation.
Figure 7.41 AVL tree Exercise of 7.4
Figure 7.42 Weight Balance Tree.
Figure 8.1 Simple Graph.
Figure 8.2 A Directed Graph.
Figure 8.3 An Undirected Graph.
Figure 8.4 A Complete Graph.
Figure 8.5 A Sub Graph.
Figure 8.6 A connected graph.
Figure 8.7 A Multigraph.
Figure 8.8 A Graph with four Vertices.
Figure 8.9 A directed graph with four Vertices.
Figure 8.10 A Null Graph.
Figure 8.11 An Isomorphic Graph.
Figure 8.12 A Homeomorphic Graph.
Figure 8.13 An Undirected Graph.
Figure 8.14 A Directed Graph.
Figure 8.15 Linked list representation of Figure 8.14.
Figure 8.16 An Undirected Graph.
Figure 8.17 Linked list of Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.18 Graph with six vertices.
Figure 8.19 An undirected graph.
Figure 8.20 An undirected graph.
Figure 8.21 An undirected graph.
Figure 8.22(a) Undirected Graph.
Figure 8.22(b) Spanning Tree.
Figure 8.23 Undirected Graph.

xv
Figure 8.24 Minimum spanning tree Graph of 8.23.
Figure 8.25 Undirected Graph G.
Figure 8.26 A Minimum Spanning tree of Figure 8.25.
Figure 8.27 Undirected Graph G.
Figure 8.28 Undirected Graph G.
Figure 8.29 A Minimum Spanning tree of Figure 8.27
Figure 8.30 Unweighted graph
Figure 8.31 A Graph.
Figure 9.1 Output of Bubble Sort.
Figure 9.2 Output of Insertion Sort.
Figure 9.3 Output of Selection Sort.
Figure 9.4 Output of Merge Sort element.
Figure 9.5 Output of merge sort for two unsorted list.
Figure 9.6 Quick Sort.
Figure 9.7 Output of Quick Sort element.
Figure 9.8 Output of Heap Sort.
Figure 9.9 Output of Radix sort elements.
Figure 10.1 Output for Binary search.
Figure 10.2 A small phone directory book as a hash table.
Figure 10.3 Chaining.
Figure 10.4 Rehashing.

xvi
PREFACE

The significant role of Data Structures is famous for Computer Science and
Engineering. This book is about the structure, actions and the principle of a
different data type that help improve the ability to write an efficient algorithm,
program and Analysis algorithm and program complexity. In this book, we
present the fundamental concepts, operations, and algorithms for different types
of data structures. This makes an understanding of this subject more lucid and
makes it more interesting. This book, intended for the first course in the data
structure at the junior or senior undergraduate level.
This book prepared according to the syllabus of various Universities and
conceived as a textbook for the course of Bachelor of Engineering or Technology
of different branches of computer science. The contents of the book have been
thoroughly organized and spread over ten chapters. Each chapter begins with
the basics and describes with syntax, diagrams, and examples. Each concept
of data structure has implemented in the C programming language. The book
not only covers the scope of the subject but also explains the philosophy of the
subject.
We trust the textbook would meet the requirements of both the teachers and
the students. We would very much appreciate receiving any suggestions for
improvement in the book from teachers, students, and other readers.
We wish to express our deep thanks to all those who helped in making this book
a reality.
We express our gratitude to our publisher and the team of publications that have
taken great pains in publishing the book with speed and accuracy.
 1
CHAPTER

DATA STRUCTURES

CONTENTS
1.1. Introduction......................................................................................... 2
1.2. Data Structure Basic Terminology........................................................ 2
1.3. Data Structure...................................................................................... 3
1.4. Introduction To Algorithm.................................................................... 8
1.5. Basic Concept of Function................................................................. 13
1.6. Basic Concept of Pointers.................................................................. 19
1.7. Introduction To Structure.................................................................... 22
1.8. Dynamic Memory Allocation In Data Structure................................. 28
2 Data Structures with C Programming

1.1. INTRODUCTION
In the Computer Programming or Software development, Data Structures is
one of the most valuable roles for computer engineers. Use of appropriate
data structures enables a computer system to perform its task more efficiently,
by influencing the ability of computers to store and retrieve data from any
location in its memory. A data structure is a method of how storing data on
a computer so that it can be used efficiently. In Computer Programming we
are using different types of data to perform, store, access and sent data and
information. Computers cannot do without data, so organizing that data is
very important. If that data is not organized effectively, it is very difficult to
perform any task on that data. If it is organized effectively then any operation
can be performed easily on that data.

1.2. DATA STRUCTURE BASIC TERMINOLOGY

1.2.1. Data and Data Types

Data are a group of specific facts, numbers, character, and figures. A data item
refers to a single unit of values. Data is an unprocessed form of information.
Data is plural and datum is singular form. Data items that are divided into
subitems are called group items; those are not called elementary items. For
examples, an employee’s name may divide into three subitems: first name,
middle and last name. Data is numerical, character, symbols or any other
kind of information. A Data Types consists of a set of values and a set of
operations. A data type is a name which refers to kinds of data that variables
may hold in the programming language. The data is stored in the memory
at some location. By using the name of the variable, one can access the data
from that memory location easily. For example in ‘C’ language, the data
types are int (integer value), float (decimal value), char (character), double
(real value of large range) etc. Data types divided into categories: Built-in
data types (Primitive Data) and User define data types (Non-primitive
Data). Generally, a programming language supports a set of built-in data
types and allow the user to define a new type those are called user-defined
data types.
Information: Information is related to an attribute or a set of attributes
of an object. Examples are the number of students in a class, length of the
room, and the component of a computer. The fundamental component of
information is the Data; “Information is a collection of data. When data
 Data Structures 3

are processed or organized it gives meaningful and logical knowledge it

becomes information.”
Abstract Data Type: The abstract data type is a triple of D-Set of
domains, F-Set of functions, A-Axioms in which only what is to be done is
mentioned but how is to be done is not mentioned. At ADT, all the all the
implementation details are hidden.
In short: ADT = Type + Function Names + Behaviors of Each
function
An abstract data type can declare the data type and without explanation
operations to how it will be implemented. Applications that use the data type
are unaware of implementation; they only make use of the operations that
defined abstractly. If we want to change implementations, we have to do is
rewrite the operations. No matter how large our application is, the cost of
changing implementations is the same. The abstract data type is written with
the help of the instances and operations.
Implementation: The part that implements the abstract data type.
These two pieces are completely independent. It should be possible
to take the implementation developed for one application and use it for a
completely different application with no changes.

Figure 1.1: Part of abstract data type.

1.3. DATA STRUCTURE

Definition: The data structure can be defined as the organization of data
or elements and all possible operations, which are required for those set of
data. It is a logical or mathematical representation and organization of any
data is known as a data structure. Some of the data structures are arrays,
stacks, queues, linked lists, trees, and graphs, etc.
4 Data Structures with C Programming

“The well-organized collection of data and all feasible operations on

data is called a data structure.”
Data Structure = Organized data (mathematical or logical) + Accept-
able operations

1.3.1. Basic Operation of Data Structures

The following operations play a major role in data processing on data
structures:
• Traversing: Accessing each record exactly once so that certain
items in the record may be processed. This process is also called
visiting the record.
• Inserting: adding a new record to the structure.
• Deleting: Removing a record from the structure.
• Searching: Finding the location of record with a given key value,
or finding the locations of all records which satisfy one or more
conditions.
• Sorting: Arranging the records in some logical order.
• Merging: Combining the records in two different files into a
single file.

1.3.2. Classification of Data Structures

Figure 1.2: Classification of data structures.

The data structures are generally divided into two categories.
1. Primitive Data type: These are basic data that are directly
operated upon machine instructions. These have different
 Data Structures 5

representations on different computers. Such as int, float, char,

double which are defined by programming language itself.
a) Integer Data Type: This type of data is used to store the
integer value in a variable. The value should not contain
any fraction data.
Example: int a;
a = 10; is acceptable but
a = 10.05 is not acceptable.
b) Float Data Type: This type of data is used to store the
real values in a variable. The value may have some
fractional or decimal data.
Example: float a;
a = 10; is acceptable but it will be interpreted as a = 10.0
a = 10.05 is acceptable.
c) Character Data Type: This type of data is used to store
some text or alphabets in a variable. The character is
always written within single quotes.
Example: char answer;
answer = “T”;
d) Double Data Type: This type of data is used to store the
numeric value in the variable. It is same as of float data
type but the capability of this data type is larger than the
float data type size.
Example: double a;
a = 10.0000000100
2. Non-Primitive Data type: These are more sophisticated data,
which are derived from the primitive data. The user defines
data emphasize the structuring of a group of homogeneous or
heterogeneous data items.
Linear Data Structure: Linear data structures are the data
structures in which data is arranged or accessed (read or write) in
straight sequence or the consecutive way one by one in a list.
Examples: Arrays, Stacks, Queues, and List.
a) Array: it is a collection of all the elements with similar
data types. The array is the collection of a finite number
of homogenous data element such that the elements
of the array are referenced respectively by an index
6 Data Structures with C Programming

set consisting of ‘n’ consecutive numbers and stored

respectively in successive memory locations.
Example: int A[4]; The computer reserved four storage locations as
shown below:

Figure 1.3: One-dimensional array.

b) Stack: it is a data structure which follows last in first out
(LIFO) mechanism. It means the first element will insert
is to remove the last one. Example: if a stack of elements
40, 60, 80, and 100. Here 20 will be the bottommost
element and 100 will be the topmost element in a stack.
A stack is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure: 1.4: Stack data structure.

Figure 1.5: Queue structure.

c) Queue: It is a data structure, which follows, first in first
out (FIFO) mechanism. It means the first element inserted
is the first one to remove. Queue uses two variables rear
and front.
d) Linked List: A linked list is a set of nodes where each
node has two fields: an information or data and link or
next address field. The ‘data’ field store actual piece of
 Data Structures 7

information, which may be an integer, a character, a

string or even a large record and ‘link’ field is used to
point to next node. Hence link list of integer 20, 40, 60,
80 is shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Representation of link list.

Non-Linear data structures: Non-Linear data structures are the data
in which data may be arranged in unordered or hierarchical manner; for
example, Trees, Graphs.
a) Tree: it is a non-linear data structure in which data are
arranged in a sorted sequence. It is used to represent the
hierarchical relationship of several data items.

Figure 1.7: Tree data structure.

b) Graph: A graph is a non-linear data structure which
consists of set of nodes called vertices V and set of edges
E which links vertices. From Figure 1.8, V (G) = {1, 2, 3,
4,5,6}, E(G) = {(1,2),(2,1),(2,3), (3,2), (1,4), (4,1), (4,5),
(5,4), (5,6), (6,5), (3,6),(6,3)}

Figure 1.8: A graph.

8 Data Structures with C Programming

1.4. INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHM

An algorithm is composed of a finite set of steps, each of which may require
one or more operations. An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that, if
followed, accomplished a particular task. Example: The algorithm makes
the sum of two numbers 20 and 30.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Store 20 into X and 30 into Y.
Step 3: Calculate SUM = X + Y.
Step 4: Print the value of SUM.
Step 5: Stop.
Basic Characteristics of An algorithm:
• Input: an algorithm should have zero or more inputs are externally
supplied.
• Output: At least one quantity is produced.
• Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
• Finiteness: if we trace out the instructions of the algorithm, then
for all cases, the algorithm terminates after a finite number of
steps.
• Effectiveness: Every instruction must be very basic so that it can
be carried out, in principle, by a person using only a pencil and
paper.
A program is the expression of an algorithm in a programming language.
Sometimes words such as procedure, function, and subroutine are used
synonymously for the program.
Program = Data structure + Algorithms

1.4.1. Analysis of Programs

The analysis of the program does not mean simply working of the program,
but to check whether for all possible situations program works or not. The
analysis also involves working of the program efficiently. Efficiency in the
sense,
1. The program requires less amount of storage space.
2. The programs get executed in very less amount of time.
 Data Structures 9

The time and space are factors which determine the efficiencies of the
program. The time required for execution of the program cannot be computed
in terms of seconds because of the following factors.
1. The hardware of the machine.
2. The amount of time required by each machine instruction.
3. The amount of time required by the compilers to execute the
instruction.
4. The instruction set.

1.4.2. Complexity of an Algorithm

The analysis of algorithms is a major task in computer science. In order to
compare algorithms, there must be some criteria for the major effects of
algorithms. The algorithm can be evaluated by a variety of criteria. The rate
of growth of the time or space required to solve larger and larger instance of
a program. There are three conditions for complexity theory is as follows:
• Worst case: The worst-case time complexity is the function
defined by the maximum amount of time needed by the algorithm
for an input of size, ‘n.’ Therefore, it is a function which defined
by the maximum number of steps taken for any instance that size
‘n.’
• Average case: The average case time complexity is the execution
of an algorithm having typical input data of size ‘n.’ Therefore, it
is a function which defined by the average number of steps taken
for any instance that size ‘n.’
• Best case: The best case time complexity is the minimum
amount of time that an algorithm requires for an input of size ‘n.’
Therefore, it is a function which defined by the minimum number
of steps taken for any instance that size ‘n.’
Space Complexity: The space complexity of a program is the amount
of memory it needs to run to completion. The space needed by a program is
the sum of the following components-
• A fixed part that includes space for the code, space for simple
variable and fixed size component variables.
• The variable part that consists of the space needed by the
component variable where size is dependent on the particular
problem.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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the law of righteousness, has not attained to the law of righteousness.
Wherefore? because they sought it not by faith, but as it were by the works
of the law; for they stumbled at that stumbling stone. Romans 9:32. And
Jesus said unto the man who brought his son to him, to get the devil who
tormented him, cast out, If you canst believe, all things are possible to him
that believeth. Mark, 9:23. These with a multitude of other scriptures, which
might be quoted, plainly set forth the light in which the Saviour, as well as
the Former Day Saints, viewed the plan of salvation.—That it was a system
of faith—it begins with faith, and continues by faith; and every blessing
which is obtained, in relation to it, is the effect of faith, whether it pertains
to this life or that which is to come.—To this, all the revelations of God
bear witness. If there were children of promise, they were the effects of
faith: not even the Saviour of the world excepted: Blessed is she that
believed, said Elizabeth to Mary, when she went to visit her;—for there
shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord;
Luke, 1:45: Nor was the birth of John the Baptist the less a matter of faith;
for in order that his father Zacharias might believe he was struck dumb.
And through the whole history of the scheme of life and salvation, it is a
matter of faith: every man received according to his faith: according as his
faith was, so were his blessings and privileges; and nothing was withheld
from him when his faith was sufficient to receive it. He could stop the
mouths of lions, quench the violence of fire, escape the edge of the sword,
wax valiant in fight, and put to flight the armies of the aliens; women could,
by their faith, receive their dead children to life again; in a word, there was
nothing impossible with them who had faith. All things were in subjection
to the Former Day Saints, according as their faith was—By their faith they
could obtain heavenly visions, the ministering of angels, have knowledge of
the spirits of just men made perfect, of the general assembly and church of
the first born, whose names are written in heaven, of God the judge of all,
of Jesus the Mediator of the new covenant, and become familiar with the
third heavens, see and hear things which were not only unutterable, but
were unlawful to utter. Peter, in view of the power of faith, 2nd epistle,
1:1,2 and 3, says to the Former Day Saints: grace and peace be multiplied
unto you, through the knowledge of God, and of Jesus our Lord, according
as his divine power hath given unto us all things that pertain unto life and
godliness, through the knowledge of him that hath called us unto glory and
virtue. In the first epistle, 1:3,4 and 5, he says, Blessed be the God and
Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who according to his abundant mercy, hath
begotten us again unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from
the dead, to an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled, and that fadeth not
away, reserved in heaven for you, who are kept by the power of God
through faith unto salvation, ready to be revealed in the last time.

18. These sayings put together, show the apostle's views most clearly, so as
to admit of no mistake on the mind of any individual. He says that all things
that pertain to life and godliness were given unto them through the
knowledge of God and our Saviour Jesus Christ. And if the question is
asked, how were they to obtain the knowledge of God? (for there is a great
difference between believing in God and knowing him: knowledge implies
more than faith. And notice, that all things that pertain to life and godliness
were given through the knowledge of God;) the answer is given, through
faith they were to obtain this knowledge; and, having power by faith to
obtain the knowledge of God, they could with it obtain all other things
which pertain to life and godliness.

19. By these sayings of the Apostle we learn, that it was by obtaining a

knowledge of God, that men got the knowledge of all things which pertain
to life and godliness, and this knowledge was the effect of faith. So that all
things which pertain to life and godliness are the effects of faith.

20. From this we may extend as far as any circumstances may require
whether on earth or in heaven, and we will find it the testimony of all
inspired men, or heavenly messengers, that all things that pertain to life and
godliness are the effects of faith and nothing else; all learning, wisdom and
prudence fail, and every thing else as a means of salvation but faith. This is
the reason that the fishermen of Galilee could teach the world—because
they sought by faith and by faith obtained. And this is the reason that Paul
counted all things but filth and dross—what he formerly called his gain he
called his loss; yea, and he counted all things but loss for the excellency of
the knowledge of Christ Jesus the Lord. Phil 3:7,8,9 & 10. Because, to
obtain the faith by which he could enjoy the knowledge of Christ Jesus the
Lord, he had to suffer the loss of all things: this is the reason that the
Former Day Saints knew more, and understood more of heaven, and of
heavenly things than all others beside, because this information is the effect
of faith—to be obtained by no other means. And this is the reason, that men,
as soon as they lose their faith, run into strifes, contentions, darkness, and
difficulties; for the knowledge which tends to life disappears with faith, but
returns when faith returns; for when faith comes, it brings its train of
attendants with it—apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, teachers, gifts,
wisdom, knowledge, miracles, healings, tongues, interpretation of tongues,
&c. All these appear when faith appears on the earth, and disappear when it
disappears from the earth. For these are the effects of faith, and always
have, and always will, attend it. For where faith is, there will the knowledge
of God be also, with all things which pertain thereto revelations, visions,
and dreams, as well as every other necessary thing, in order that the
possessors of faith may be perfected and obtain salvation; for God must
change, otherwise faith will prevail with him. And he who possesses it will,
through it, obtain all necessary knowledge and wisdom, until he shall know
God, and the Lord Jesus Christ, whom he has sent: whom to know is eternal
life: Amen.
 Transcriber's Note
This version of the Lectures on Faith is meant to match the relevant portion
of the 1835 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants. Scans are available, for
example, at http://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/doctrine-
and-covenants-1835/13
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LECTURES ON
FAITH ***

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