16.

1 Reproduction in Plants & Humans

Topics
Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction where an organism can produce offspring

without the involvement of another organism.

Asexual reproduction only requires one parent organism.

The offspring produced through asexual reproduction are genetically identical to the parent
organism.
Asexual reproduction is a common method of reproduction in organisms like bacteria, fungi,
and plants.
It allows for rapid population growth as there is no need to find a mate or go through the
process of sexual reproduction.

female reproductive system

The female reproductive system is a complex system that includes organs such as the ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

The ovaries are responsible for producing eggs and female sex hormones.
The fallopian tubes serve as a pathway for the eggs to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
The uterus is a muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus.
The vagina is the canal that connects the uterus to the outside of the body and serves as the
birth canal.

Gametes and fertilisation

Gametes are specialized reproductive cells, with sperm in males and eggs in females, that
combine during fertilisation to form a zygote.

Fertilisation occurs when a sperm cell fertilises an egg cell, resulting in the genetic material
from both parents combining.
Gametes are haploid cells, meaning they have half the genetic material of somatic (body)
cells.
Fertilisation typically occurs in the fallopian tubes of females.
The zygote formed after fertilisation undergoes cell division and eventually develops into a
new organism.

Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a monthly process in females where the uterus prepares for a possible
pregnancy, involving hormonal changes and shedding of the uterine lining.

It typically lasts 28 days but can vary in length.

The cycle is divided into menstrual, follicular, ovulation, and luteal phases.
Hormones like estrogen and progesterone regulate the cycle.
Irregular cycles can indicate underlying health issues and should be discussed with a
healthcare provider.

Pregnancy and fetal development

Pregnancy is a complex process that involves the fertilization of an egg, implantation in the
uterus, and the development of a fetus over a 40-week period.

The placenta forms to provide nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and remove waste products.
Fetal development includes stages such as the formation of organs, limbs, and the
development of reflexes.
Hormones play a crucial role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating fetal growth.
Regular prenatal care is important to monitor the health of both the mother and the
developing fetus.

Sexual hormones in humans

Sexual hormones in humans regulate reproductive functions and secondary sexual

characteristics, such as estrogen and testosterone.

Important sexual hormones in females include estrogen and progesterone.

Testosterone is a primary male sexual hormone responsible for male reproductive
development and characteristics.
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland play key roles in controlling the release of sexual
hormones.
Imbalances in sexual hormone levels can lead to various reproductive and health issues.

sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections are infections transmitted through sexual contact, caused by
bacteria, viruses, or parasites. They can lead to serious health issues if untreated.

Common examples include chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, and human papillomavirus (HPV).
Transmission can occur through vaginal, anal, or oral sex as well as through sharing needles.
Prevention methods include correct and consistent condom use, regular testing, and
vaccination where available.
If left untreated, STIs can result in complications such as infertility, pelvic inflammatory
disease, and certain types of cancer.
Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a process involving the combination of genetic material from two parent
organisms to create offspring with varied genetic composition.

Sexual reproduction typically involves two parents, each contributing half of the offspring's
genetic material.
It promotes genetic diversity, enhancing a species' adaptability to changing environments.
Meiosis, a special form of cell division, facilitates sexual reproduction by producing haploid
gametes.
The process involves fertilization, where a sperm and an egg unite to form a zygote.

Key Terms
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS is a severe, late stage of HIV infection where the immune system is severely compromised,
making individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections and certain cancers.

HIV is the virus that causes AIDS by attacking the immune system's CD4 cells.
Symptoms may include rapid weight loss, recurring fever, night sweats, and chronic diarrhea.
AIDS can be diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HIV antibodies.
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the primary treatment for AIDS, helping manage the virus and
maintain the immune system.

Amniotic Sac

The amniotic sac is a membrane-filled structure that surrounds and protects the developing
embryo in the womb, providing cushioning and regulating temperature and pressure.

It is filled with amniotic fluid, which allows the fetus to move and provides a sterile
environment.
The sac helps prevent desiccation, protects against mechanical shocks, and aids in the
exchange of nutrients and waste between mother and fetus.
Rupture of the amniotic sac, known as the 'breaking of the water,' often signals the onset of
labor.
The amniotic sac is crucial for the development and survival of the fetus during pregnancy.

Binary fission

Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction in which a single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells.
 It is a common method of reproduction in prokaryotes, such as bacteria.
Binary fission involves the replication of the cell's DNA followed by the division of the
cytoplasm.
The process is rapid, allowing for exponential growth of the population.
Binary fission can be influenced by environmental factors, such as nutrient availability and
temperature.

bulbs

Bulbs are underground plant structures that store nutrients and energy, enabling plants to survive
adverse conditions and produce new growth.

Bulbs consist of modified leaves surrounding a central stem where the nutrients and energy
are stored.
Examples of plants that grow from bulbs include tulips, daffodils, and onions.
Bulbs can reproduce asexually by producing offsets, small bulbs that develop attached to the
parent bulb.
Planting depth and spacing are crucial for bulbs to grow and thrive, as they require specific
conditions to sprout.

Diploid nucleus

A diploid nucleus contains two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, providing a
complete set of genetic information.

Humans have diploid cells except for their gametes.

Diploid cells undergo mitosis to produce identical daughter cells.
Diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome.
Diploidy ensures genetic diversity and facilitates repair of damaged DNA.

Embryo

The term 'Embryo' refers to the early stage of development in multicellular organisms, typically
following fertilization and preceding birth or hatching.

The embryo undergoes rapid cell division and differentiation to form various tissues and
organs.
In humans, the embryonic stage lasts for the first eight weeks of pregnancy.
During embryogenesis, the embryo obtains nourishment through the placenta in mammals.
Environmental factors can influence the development of the embryo, leading to modifications
or abnormalities in its structure or function.

Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the process in which a sperm and an egg unite, resulting in the fusion of their
genetic material.

Fertilisation occurs during sexual reproduction.

It leads to the formation of a zygote, which develops into an embryo.
The process usually takes place internally in organisms.
Fertilisation can occur either externally or internally, depending on the species.

Fetus

A fetus is the stage of development in mammals between the embryonic stage and birth,
characterized by the formation of distinct organs and systems.

A fetus develops from an embryo and is capable of independent growth and maturation.
The length of the fetal stage varies among species, with humans having a gestational period
of around 9 months.
Fetuses receive oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta.
Fetal development includes the formation of vital organs such as the brain, heart, lungs, and
digestive system.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone released by the pituitary gland that plays a
crucial role in the regulation of the reproductive system.

FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles in females, which release
eggs during ovulation.
In males, FSH stimulates the production of sperm in the testes.
FSH levels increase at the start of the menstrual cycle in females and decrease during
pregnancy.
Abnormal levels of FSH can indicate fertility issues or hormonal imbalances.

Gametes

Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new organism.

They exist in two types: sperm (male) and ova (female).

Each gamete contains half the genetic information of a regular cell.
Gametes are produced through a process called meiosis.
Unlike normal cells, gametes have a single set of chromosomes.

Germination

Germination is the process in which a seed sprouts and begins to grow, usually triggered by a
combination of water, oxygen, and proper temperature.
 During germination, the seed absorbs water, causing it to swell and crack open.
Once the seed coat is cracked, a tiny root called the radicle emerges first.
The radicle grows downward into the soil to anchor the plant and absorb nutrients and water.
After the radicle, the shoot emerges, which contains the stem and leaves, and grows upwards
towards the light.

Haploid nucleus

Haploid nucleus refers to a cell nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes, representing
half the genetic material typically found in a cell.

During sexual reproduction, haploid nuclei from two different individuals fuse during
fertilization to form a diploid zygote.
Haploid cells are produced through the process of meiosis, where a diploid cell undergoes
two rounds of division to create four haploid cells.
Gametes, such as sperm and egg cells, are examples of haploid cells that come together to
create a new individual with a complete set of chromosomes.
Haploid nuclei are essential for genetic diversity and the continuation of species through the
mixing of genetic material during reproduction.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system, specifically
CD4 cells, leaving the body vulnerable to infections and diseases.

HIV is primarily transmitted through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, and from
mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding.
Antiretroviral therapy can effectively control HIV and help individuals live longer, healthier
lives.
HIV can progress to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) if left untreated, leading to
severe immune system damage.
Preventative measures such as safe sex practices, needle exchange programs, and early
testing can help reduce the spread of HIV.

Luteinising hormone (LH)

Luteinising hormone (LH) is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a key role in
regulating the reproductive system.

LH stimulates ovulation and the production of testosterone in males.

It is essential for the development of the corpus luteum in females after ovulation.
Levels of LH fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle.
Abnormal levels of LH can impact fertility and may indicate certain health conditions.
Menstruation

Menstruation is a natural process in which the lining of the uterus is shed, resulting in bleeding
from the vagina.

Menstruation occurs approximately every 28 days during the reproductive years of a woman.
It is regulated by hormones, particularly estrogen and progesterone.
Menstrual blood is a combination of blood, uterine tissue, and cervical mucus.
Cramping and mood swings are common symptoms of menstruation, caused by hormonal
changes.

Oestrogen

Oestrogen is a hormone primarily involved in the development and regulation of the female
reproductive system, playing a crucial role in menstruation, pregnancy, and bone health.

Oestrogen levels fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, peaking during ovulation.
Low oestrogen levels can lead to symptoms such as hot flashes and osteoporosis.
Oestrogen receptors are found in various tissues beyond reproductive organs, influencing
functions like metabolism and cognitive processes.
Factors like stress, diet, and exercise can impact oestrogen levels in the body.

Placenta

The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy. It provides oxygen and
nutrients to the developing fetus and removes waste products.

The placenta is formed from both maternal and fetal tissue.

The primary function of the placenta is to facilitate exchange of substances between the
mother and fetus.
The placenta also produces hormones that regulate pregnancy and fetal development.
In some cases, complications with the placenta can lead to pregnancy complications or
health issues for both the mother and baby.

Pollination

Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from the male reproductive organs to the
female reproductive organs in plants.

Pollen is produced by the stamen and transported to the pistil by wind, water, insects, or
animals.
The transfer of pollen can occur within the same flower (self-pollination) or between different
flowers (cross-pollination).
Pollination is essential for fertilization and the production of seeds and fruits in flowering
 plants.
In some plants, such as orchids, pollination relies on specific interactions with certain
pollinators, such as bees or moths.

Runners

Runners are horizontal stems that grow along the soil surface and can produce new plants where
nodes come in contact with the soil.

Runners aid in asexual reproduction by allowing plants to spread quickly and efficiently.
Examples of plants that produce runners include strawberries and spider plants.
Runners help plants colonize new areas and adapt to varying environmental conditions.
Some runners, like those of the strawberry plant, have specialized structures called stolons.

Self-pollination

Self-pollination refers to the process where the pollen from the anther is transferred to the
stigma on the same flower or within a single plant.

The main advantage of self-pollination is reproductive assurance as it does not rely on

external factors.
Self-pollination can lead to decreased genetic diversity and increased vulnerability to
environmental changes.
Some plants have mechanisms to prevent self-pollination, such as physical barriers or self-
incompatibility.
Self-pollination can occur in both flowering plants and non-flowering plants.

testosterone

Testosterone is a hormone primarily produced in the testicles in males and ovaries in females,
and is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Testosterone levels are typically higher in males than females.

Testosterone plays a crucial role in reproductive development and function.
Low testosterone levels can cause symptoms like reduced sex drive, fatigue, and decreased
muscle mass.
Testosterone can affect mood, cognitive function, and overall well-being.

tubers

Tubers are enlarged, underground plant stems that store nutrients and energy for plants.

Tubers serve as a food reservoir for plants during periods of dormancy or scarcity.
Examples of tubers include potatoes, yams, and dahlias.
 Tubers can sprout and grow into new plants under suitable conditions.
They are a form of asexual reproduction for certain plant species.

Umbilical cord

The umbilical cord is a flexible tube-like structure that connects a developing fetus to the
placenta, allowing for the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products.

The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein.

The arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the fetus to the placenta.
The vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus.
The umbilical cord is usually clamped and cut shortly after birth.

Zygote

A "Zygote" is the initial cell formed when two gamete cells unite via fertilization. It contains all
the genetic information necessary to form a new individual.

It's a diploid cell, meaning it has two sets of chromosomes.

A zygote undergoes mitosis, dividing and growing into an embryo.
Zygote's formation marks the start of a multi-stage process known as embryogenesis.
In human beings, a zygote is created after the sperm successfully fertilizes the ovum.