COA Unit 1 RGPV
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unzilas2004COA Unit 1 RGPV
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unzilas2004Unit 1
Definition of Computer Organization and Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
omputerorganizationreferstotheoperationalaspectsofacomputersystem,focusingon
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how various hardware components interact and work together to achieve functionality. It
dealswiththeimplementationofthecomputerarchitectureandincludesdetailslikecontrol
signals,memorytypes,anddatapathways.Essentially,computerorganizationisaboutthe
"how" of a system's functioning.
Key elements in computer organization include:
.
1 CPU Organization: The structure of the central processing unit, including control
units, registers, and execution units.
2. Memory Hierarchy: The arrangement of memory in levels of speed and capacity
(cache, RAM, and hard drives).
3. Input/Output (I/O) Systems: The mechanism for interfacing external devices with
the computer.
4. Data Path and Control Signals: How data moves through the system and how
control is maintained during execution.
Computer Architecture
omputerarchitecturereferstothedesignandconceptualstructureofacomputersystem.
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Itinvolvesthefunctionalbehaviorofacomputerandfocusesonthelogicandspecifications
thatdefinethecapabilitiesandperformanceofthesystem.Computerarchitectureprovides
a blueprint for designing computer systems, ensuringtheymeetdesiredperformanceand
operational requirements.
Key aspects of computer architecture include:
.
1 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The set of instructionsa computer can execute.
2. Microarchitecture: The way an ISA is implemented ina particular processor.
3. System Design: IncludesallhardwarecomponentsliketheCPU,memory,andI/O,
as well as network and storage elements.
Differences Between Computer Organization and Computer Architecture
Aspect Computer Organization Computer Architecture
Definition ocuses on how components D
F efines the design, capabilities,
of a computer system are and functions of a computer
connected and work together. system.
evel
L eals with the lower-level O
D perates at a higher abstraction
Abstraction details of the system, such as level, providing a blueprint for
hardware implementation. system functionality and
performance.
Focus Area C
oncerned with the physical C oncerned with the logical and
components and their functional design, including ISA
interconnections. and performance.
xamples
E PU organization, memory Instruction sets, performance
C
Topics hierarchy, bus systems, and analysis, system scalability, and
register-level operations. processor design principles.
Scope arrower scope, focusing on B
N roader scope, focusing on
implementation and efficiency. design and innovation.
Output escribes how the system S
D pecifies what functionality the
achieves functionality. system should achieve.
Interaction rganization
O supports A
rchitecture guides organization
architecture by determining by specifying system
how to implement the requirements.
architecture.
Example to Clarify the Distinction
Imagine designing a car:
● Architecture defines the car's capabilities (e.g., maximum speed, seatingcapacity,
engine type). It specifies what the car should be able to do.
● Organizationdealswiththeinternalmechanismsthatmakethecarfunctional(e.g.,
the transmission system, engine connections, fuel injection).
xplain architecture of computer system, basic principles of computer
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architecture, Structure of desktop system in detail, Functional and structural
views of computer system
Architecture of a Computer System
he architecture of a computer system refers to the logical structure and functional
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behavior of the hardware, software, and communication protocols that define the
functionality of the computer. It encompasses the design principles of the processor,
memory, input/output devices, and interconnection systems.
At its core, computer architecture is divided into three key areas:
.
1 InstructionSetArchitecture(ISA):Definesthesetofinstructionstheprocessorcan
execute.
2. Microarchitecture:Describes how the ISA is implementedin hardware.
3. System Design: Includes the memory hierarchy, I/O subsystems, and
communication protocols.
Basic Principles of Computer Architecture
.
1 Performance Optimization:
○ Focus on enhancing speed through techniques such as pipelining, caching, and
parallel processing.
○ Reduce latency and improve throughput.
2. Scalability:
○ Systemsmustbedesignedtoscalewithincreasingworkloadsandadvancementsin
technology.
3. Modularity:
○ Breaking the system into independent modules (e.g., CPU, memory, I/O) foreasier
design, debugging, and upgrades.
4. Compatibility:
○ Maintain backward compatibility to support older software and hardware.
5. Energy Efficiency:
○ Optimize power consumption, especially in portable and embedded devices.
6. Cost Efficiency:
○ Strike a balance between performance and the cost of manufacturing.
7. Reliability:
○ Incorporate error-checking and fault-tolerance mechanisms.
Structure of a Desktop System
desktop system consists of multiple subsystems working together to perform
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computational tasks. Its structure can be divided into the following major components:
1. Processor (CPU)
● The central processing unit executes instructions from programs.
● Components:
○ Control Unit (CU): Manages the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and I/O
devices.
○ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):Performs arithmetic andlogical operations.
○ Registers:Provide temporary storage for instructionsand data.
2. Memory
● Divided into:
○ Primary Memory (RAM):Volatile storage for immediateaccess by the CPU.
○ Secondary Memory (HDD/SSD):Non-volatile storage forlong-term data storage.
○ Cache Memory: High-speed memory located within the CPU for frequently
accessed data.
3. Input/Output Devices
● evices that allow interaction with the system.
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● Input: Keyboard, mouse, scanner.
● Output: Monitor, printer, speakers.
4. Motherboard
● Aprintedcircuitboardthatinterconnectsallcomponentsofthesystem,includingthe
CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
5. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
● Converts electrical power to the appropriate voltage and current levels required by
the computer.
6. Bus Systems
● Interconnection pathways for data and control signals.
● Types:
○ Data Bus:Transfers data between components.
○ Address Bus:Specifies memory locations.
○ Control Bus:Carries control signals to coordinateoperations.
7. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):
● andles rendering of images and videos.
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● Modern desktops often include a dedicated GPU for gaming or design tasks.
Functional View of a Computer System
he functional view describes how a computer performs its operations by breakingitinto
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functional units:
.
1 Input Unit:
○ Accepts data and instructions from the user.
○ Converts input into a form usable by the computer.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
○ Performs all computations and controls the flow of data.
○ Sub-units:
■ Control Unit:Directs the system.
■ ALU:Executes mathematical and logical operations.
3. Memory Unit:
○ Stores data and instructions.
○ Types:
■ Primary memory for active processes.
■ Secondary memory for permanent storage.
4. Output Unit:
○ Converts processed data into human-readable form.
○ Example: Displays on a monitor, prints on paper.
5. Storage Unit:
○ Long-term and short-term data storage capabilities.
6. Communication Unit:
○ Handles data exchange with other systems or networks.
Structural View of a Computer System
he structural view focuses on the hardware components and their physical
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interconnections:
.
1 rocessor (CPU):
P
○ The physical chip that performs computation.
○ Interacts with memory and I/O subsystems through buses.
2. Memory Hierarchy:
○ Organized for speed and efficiency.
○ Registers → Cache → RAM → Secondary Storage.
3. Input/Output Devices:
○ Include ports, controllers, and interfaces for external devices.
.
4 Motherboard:
○ Hosts the CPU, memory, and I/O controllers.
○ Acts as the backbone for data flow.
5. Power Supply:
○ Provides the energy needed for all components.
6. Bus Architecture:
○ Facilitates communication between components.
○ Divided into internal buses (CPU to memory) and external buses (CPU to
peripherals).
General register organization
General Register Organization in a Computer System
eneral register organization refers totheuseofasetofregisterswithintheCPUtohold
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dataandaddressesthatareusedintheexecutionofinstructions.Registersaresmall,fast
storage locations within the processor, and they play a crucial role in the processingand
execution of instructions.
Inmostcomputers,thegeneralregisterorganizationispartoftheprocessor'sarchitecture.
Registers are used to hold operands, intermediate results, addresses, and other data
during the execution of programs.
1. What are Registers?
egisters are small, fast storage units located within the CPU, typically much faster than
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RAMorcachememory.TheyholdthevaluesthattheCPUisactivelyprocessingorneeds
to access quickly. These values can include data, instructions, memory addresses, or
control information.
Registers are typically organized into:
● ata Registers:Hold data to be operated on.
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● Address Registers:Hold memory addresses.
● Control Registers:Manage CPU operations like status,flags, and control signals.
2. Types of Registers in General Register Organization
In a general register organization, the CPU has several types of registers, which are
categorized as follows:
1. Data Registers
heseregistersholdtheactualdatathatisbeingprocessedbytheCPU.Theystorevalues
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such as operands (numbers or characters) for arithmetic or logical operations.
● Accumulator (AC):Often used for intermediate resultsduring arithmetic operations.
● General-purpose Registers (GPRs): These registers are available for use by the
programmer or compiler. In many systems, the CPU contains multiple general-purpose
registers (like R1, R2, R3, etc.) that can be used to store data temporarily during
processing.
2. Address Registers
hese registers store memory addresses that point to locations in RAM orothermemory
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areas. They are crucial for memory addressing and data fetching.
● ProgramCounter(PC):Holdstheaddressofthenextinstructiontobeexecuted.It
is updated automatically after each instruction fetch.
● Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address in memorywheredataisto
be fetched or written.
● Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack in memory, which is used for
storing temporary data during function calls and subroutines.
3. Control Registers
ontrol registers manage the operation oftheCPUandcontroltheflowofdatawithinthe
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system. They are often used for managing CPU status, interrupt handling, andexecution
control.
● Instruction Register (IR): Holds the instruction currently being executed by the
CPU.
● Status Register (SR) or Flags Register: Holds condition flags like zero, carry,
overflow, and negative, which are updated based on the results of operations and affect
future instruction execution.
3. Register Organization in the CPU
A typical CPU in general register organization has the following components:
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
● The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations using data stored in registers.
● It takes data from the general-purposeregisters,processesit,andplacestheresult
back in a register or memory.
2. Register File
● The register file is a collection of registers that provides a pool of general-purpose
and special-purpose registers.
● ItcanbeaccesseddirectlybytheALU,controlunit,oranypartoftheprocessorthat
requires temporary data storage.
3. Control Unit (CU)
● The control unit coordinates the use of registers and ensures that data is properly
moved between registers, memory, and I/O devices.
● It generates the necessary control signals to select the appropriate registers and
instructs the ALU to perform specific operations on the data in those registers.
4. The Role of General Registers in Instruction Execution
Ingeneralregisterorganization,registersarecriticalforinstructionexecution.Thestepsin
executing an instruction typically involve the following:
.
1 Fetching the Instruction:
○ The Program Counter(PC)holdstheaddressofthenextinstructiontobefetched.
The instruction is loaded into theInstruction Register(IR).
2. Decoding the Instruction:
○ The control unit decodes the instruction and determines which registers will be
involved in the execution.
3. Executing the Instruction:
○ The data from one or more general-purpose registers is passed to the Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU)for processing.
○ The ALU performs the required operation (addition, subtraction, comparison, etc.).
○ Theresultoftheoperationisthenstoredinaregister(e.g.,theAccumulator(AC)or
a general-purpose register).
4. Updating Registers:
○ TheProgramCounter(PC)isupdatedtopointtothenextinstruction,andtheresult
of the ALU operation is stored in a register for later use.
5. Advantages of General Register Organization
.
1 peed
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2. Reduced Memory Access
3. Flexibility
4. Efficient Use of Resources
6. Example of General Register Organization
In a hypothetical processor, the following registers might be used in general register
organization:
● R1, R2, R3 (General Purpose Registers): Used forholdingtemporarydataduring
computation.
● AC (Accumulator):Stores the result of arithmeticoperations.
● PC (Program Counter):Holds the address of the nextinstruction.
● MAR(MemoryAddressRegister):Storestheaddressofmemoryduringdatafetch
or write.
● IR (Instruction Register):Holds the current instructionbeing executed.
● SP (Stack Pointer):Points to the top of the stackduring function calls and returns.
A simple instruction cycle might involve:
● ThePC,fetching the address of the next instruction.
● TheIRholding the fetched instruction.
● The AC and R1, being used by the ALU to perform anadditionoperation,withthe
result being stored inR2.
● ThePCbeing updated for the next instruction.
Stack Organization in a Computer System
tackorganizationreferstoaspecializedwayoforganizingmemoryanddatamanagement
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in a computer system where data is stored and accessed in a specific order known as
Last-In, First-Out (LIFO). The stack is a linear data structure used for storing data
temporarily, and it is particularly useful for managing function calls, local variables, and
expressions in a processor. The stack is essential in many computational tasks such as
recursion, subroutine calls, and interrupt handling.
1. What is a Stack?
stack isaregionofmemorythatoperatesontheprincipleofLIFO(Last-In,First-Out).
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This means that the most recently stored data is the first to be retrieved. Stacks are
dynamic in nature, meaning that they grow and shrink as data is pushed (added) and
popped (removed).
In a typical stack organization, the data storedisnotretrievedbyitspositionbutratherin
the order it was added and removed, following the LIFO rule.
2. Structure of the Stack Organization
hestackorganizationisoftenimplementedusingastackpointer(SP),whichisaregister
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that holds the memory address of the top of the stack. Here's how the stack operates:
● StackPointer(SP):Aregisterthatpointstothecurrenttopofthestack.Itisupdated
every time an element is pushed onto or popped from the stack.
● StackFrame:Aportionofthestackallocatedforaparticularfunctionorsubroutine.
It contains the function's return address, local variables, and other control information.
● Stack Base:The lower end of the stack, where memoryallocation begins.
● Top of Stack:The top end of the stack, where datais pushed and popped.
3. Stack Operations in a Computer System
1. Push Operation:
he push operation adds an element to the top of the stack. This involves the following
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steps:
● hestackpointer(SP)isdecremented(inagrowing-downstack)topointtothenew
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top.
● The value to be pushed is stored in the memory location pointed to by the SP.
2. Pop Operation:
The pop operation removes an element from the top of the stack. This involves:
● The value at the memory location pointed to by the SP is retrieved.
● Thestackpointer(SP)isincremented(inagrowing-downstack)topointtothenext
element.
3. Peek/Top Operation:
hisoperationretrievesthevaluefromthetopofthestackwithoutmodifyingthestack.The
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stack pointer is not changed during this operation.
4. Stack Overflow and Underflow:
● Overflow occurs when a push operation isattemptedonafullstack(i.e.,whenthe
stack exceeds its allocated memory space).
● Underflowoccurswhenapopoperationisattemptedonanemptystack(i.e.,when
the stack pointer points to an invalid or non-existent memory location).
4. Uses of Stack Organization
Stack organization plays an important role in several computational tasks:
1. Function Calls and Recursion:
● Function Calls: When a function is called, itsreturnaddressandotherinformation
suchaslocalvariablesarepushedontothestack.Thisallowstheprogramtoreturntothe
correct location after the function finishes execution.
● Recursion: In recursive functions, each function call pushes the current function's
state (return address, parameters, and local variables) onto the stack. As each call is
made, the stack grows, and as the function exits, the stack shrinks.
2. Expression Evaluation:
● Stacks are used for evaluating expressions, particularly in postfix (Reverse Polish
notation) and infix expressions. Operators are pushed and popped from the stack to
ensure proper order of operations.
3. Interrupt Handling:
● The stack is used to save the state of a processor when an interrupt occurs. The
current program state, including the program counter (PC) and other register values, is
pushed onto the stack. After the interrupt is handled, thestateisrestoredfromthestack,
and the program continues from where it left off.
4. Context Switching:
● In multi-tasking systems, when the operating system switches from one task to
another,thecurrentstateoftheCPU(includingregisters,programcounter,etc.)issavedto
thestack.Thisallowsthesystemtoresumeexecutionoftasksfromtheexactpointwhere
they were interrupted.
5. Stack Frames and Procedure Calls:
● Stack frames are used in the stack organization to manage the localvariablesand
controlinformationofproceduresorfunctions.Whenafunctioniscalled,anewstackframe
is pushed onto the stack, and it is popped when the function returns.
5. Stack Organization in Assembly Language
Inassemblylanguageprogramming,stackoperationsareoftenimplementedusingspecific
PUSH
instructionslike POP
, CALL
,and .Hereisanexampleofhowastackmightbeusedin
assembly language:
ssembly
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Copy code
PUSH AX
; Push the contents of AX register onto the stack
PUSH BX
; Push the contents of BX register onto the stack
CALL MyFunction ; Call a function, which will use the stack
POP
BX ;
Pop
the
top
element
from
the
stack
into
the
BX
register
POP
AX ;
Pop
the
top
element
from
the
stack
into
the
AX
register
6. Advantages of Stack Organization
.
1 Efficient Memory Use: The stack efficiently uses memory, allocating and
deallocating memory dynamically as required by function calls and local variables.
2. Simplicity in Function Calls: The stack simplifies the implementation of function
calls, especially with nested and recursive calls.
3. Easy Context Switching: In multi-tasking systems, stacks make context switching
between processes easy and fast.
4. Security: The use of the stack pointer helps to prevent the overwriting of memory
that is not allocated to the stack, enhancing system stability.
Instruction Formats in a Computer System
In a computer system, an instruction format refers to the way in which instructions are
structured in memory. Each instruction is typically represented as a binary code that the
computer's central processingunit(CPU)candecodeandexecute.Thestructureofthese
instructions is vital for understanding how the CPU processes data, controls operations,
and interacts with memory and I/O devices.
Instruction formats determine how various fields in an instruction (such as the operation
code,operandaddresses,etc.)areorganized.Thenumberofbitsinaninstructionandthe
size of the various fields in the format are crucial in defining the architecture of the system.
1. Components of an Instruction Format
n instruction is generally divided into several fields. These fields are used to convey
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varioustypesofinformationthattheCPUrequiresfortheexecutionoftheinstruction.The
primary components of an instruction format include:
1.1. Operation Code (Opcode)
● Opcode istheportionoftheinstructionthatspecifiestheoperationtobeperformed
by the CPU. It defines the type of operation, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
loading data from memory, or branching.
● The size of the opcode field depends on the number of operations the CPU can
perform. For example, if the CPU supports 16 different instructions, a4-bitopcodewould
be sufficient (since 24=162^4 = 1624=16).
1.2. Operand(s)
● Operands are the valuesoraddressesuponwhichtheoperationisperformed.The
operands can be data values, registers, or memory addresses.
● Insomeinstructionformats,theremaybemorethanoneoperandfield,especiallyfor
operations like addition or subtraction, where two or more data values are needed.
● The operand can also include addressing mode information, which tells the CPU
how to interpret or locate the operand (e.g., direct, indirect, indexed addressing).
1.3. Addressing Mode
● The addressing mode field specifies how theoperandistobelocatedoraccessed.
The CPU may need to retrieve data from memory, a register, or an immediate value.
1.4. Address Field(s)
● Theaddressfieldspecifieswheretheoperandresides.Itcouldbeamemoryaddress
or the number of a register that holds the operand.
● In complex instructions, multiple address fields might be used, for example, in
memory-to-memory operations or for multi-operand instructions.
1.5. Mode Field
● Somesystemsincludeamodefield,whichspecifiesthekindofdatatheinstruction
will operate on (e.g., 16-bit, 32-bit, or floating-point data).
1.6. Register Specifier
● This specifies which register is involved in the operation. In some systems,
instructions directly reference specific registers for operations, such as an arithmetic
operation on data held in register R1.
2. Types of Instruction Formats
Instructionformatscanvarydependingonthecomputerarchitecture.Thenumberoffields,
their size, and their order can differ from one system to another. The most common
instruction formats include:
2.1. Single Address Instruction Format
In a single-address instruction format, the instruction has only one operand field, and
the second operand is implicitly defined (often in a register). This format is common in
accumulator-based architectures.
● xample:
E ADD R1
○ Opcode:ADD
○ Operand:R1 (the value in register R1 is added tothe accumulator)
In this format, the instruction works with a specific accumulator, and only one operand
needs to be specified.
2.2. Two-Address Instruction Format
Inatwo-addressinstructionformat,therearetwooperandfields.Oneoftheoperandsis
typically a register, and the result of the operation is stored in one of the operand locations.
● xample:
E ADD R1, R2
○ Opcode:ADD
○ perand 1:R1 (first operand)
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○ Operand 2:R2 (second operand, result stored in R1)
hisformatallowsformoreflexibilityinoperations,asitenablestheresultofanoperation
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to be directly placed in a register or memory location.
2.3. Three-Address Instruction Format
In a three-address instruction format, three operand fields are included, allowingmore
complex operations involving multiple operands. This format is common in modern RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computing) architectures.
● xample:
E ADD R1, R2, R3
○ Opcode:ADD
○ Operand 1:R1 (first operand)
○ Operand 2:R2 (second operand)
○ Operand 3:R3 (destination register for the result)
his format allows operations between multiple registers or memory locations, providing
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more flexibility in the kinds of operations that can be executed in a single instruction.
2.4. Zero-Address Instruction Format
In a zero-address instruction format, there are no explicit operand fields in the
instruction. Instead, the operands are assumed to be located on thestack.Thisformatis
typicallyusedinstack-basedarchitectures,wherethestackpointerimplicitlyprovidesthe
operands.
● xample:
E PUSHor
POP(used in stack-based operations)
○ Opcode:PUSH or POP
○ Operand(s):None explicitly, as the operands are onthe stack
his format is efficient for operations involving the stack, as the CPU can simply pushor
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pop values without needing to specify registers or memory addresses.
4. Example of Instruction Format
Let’s consider a hypothetical computer with a 16-bit instruction format:
● 0001for ADD).
pcode (4 bits):Defines the operation (e.g.,
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● Operand 1 (6 bits):The first operand, such as a registernumber.
● Operand 2 (6 bits): The second operand, such as another register or a memory
address.
An example instruction might look like this in binary:
0001 000000 000100
● 0001
: Opcode for ADD
● 000000
R0(first operand)
: Register
● 000100
R1(second operand)
: Register
he instruction adds the contents of register
T R0and
R1
, and stores the result in a
destination register, depending on the architecture.
5. Advantages of Using Multiple Instruction Formats
.
1 Flexibility: Multiple address formats allow a range of operations, from simple
operations using just one operand to complex operations involving multiple operands.
2. Efficiency: By providing a compact and flexible format, CPUs can process more
instructions per clock cycle, improving the overall performance of the system.
3. Scalability: Different instruction formats can be designed to optimize for different
types of tasks or computational models (e.g., stack-based operations, RISC, CISC).
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) in a Computer System
he Arithmetic and LogicUnit(ALU)isacrucialcomponentoftheCentralProcessing
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Unit (CPU), responsible for executing arithmetic andlogicaloperations.Theseoperations
form the backbone of most computations that occur in a computer system. The ALU
operates on data stored in registers and performs operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and comparison
operations.
1. Functionality of ALU
The ALU performs the following types of operations:
1.1. Arithmetic Operations
hese are operations typically involved in basic mathematical computations. The most
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common arithmetic operations performed by an ALU are:
● ddition:Adds two operands.
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● Subtraction:Subtracts one operand from another.
● Multiplication:Multiplies two operands.
● Division:Divides one operand by another.
In most cases, the ALU performs the addition and subtraction operations directly.
Multiplication and division are often handled by specialized units within the ALU or CPU,
especially in modern systems with more advanced processor architectures.
1.2. Logical Operations
hese operations involve manipulating binary values andperforminglogictests.Common
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logical operations include:
● AND:Returns a 1 if both bits are 1; otherwise, itreturns 0.
● OR:Returns a 1 if at least one of the bits is 1;otherwise, it returns 0.
● XOR (Exclusive OR): Returns a 1ifthebitsaredifferent(oneis0andtheotheris
1); otherwise, it returns 0.
● NOT:Inverts the bits (i.e., changes 1 to 0 and 0to 1).
1.3. Comparison Operations
omparison operations are used to compare two operands, and they typically produce a
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Boolean result (true or false). Common comparison operations include:
● quality check (==):Checks if the two operands areequal.
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● Less than (<):Checks if the first operand is lessthan the second.
● Greater than (>):Checks if the first operand is greaterthan the second.
● Less than or equal to (<=) / Greater than or equal to (>=).
hese comparison results are often used for decision-making processes in control flow,
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such as conditional branching.
1.4. Shift Operations
hiftoperationsinvolveshiftingthebitsofanumberleftorright.Theseoperationsareused
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formultiplicationanddivisionbypowersoftwo,orforbitmanipulation.Therearetwotypes
of shift operations:
● Logical Shift: Shifts bits either left or right, and fills the vacant bit positions with
zeros.
● Arithmetic Shift: Shifts bits similarly, but for right shifts, the sign bit (for signed
numbers) is retained.
2. Components of an ALU
The ALU consists of several key components that help it perform operations:
2.1. Input Registers
heALUusesregisterstostoretheoperandsitoperateson.Thesearetemporarystorage
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locationsthatholddatabeforeandduringprocessing.Thenumberofregistersdependson
the ALU design and the number of operations it needs to support.
● A and B Registers:These registers hold the two operandsfor the operation.
● Flags:Thesearespecial-purposeregistersthatstoretheresultsofoperations,such
as carry, zero, negative, and overflow flags.
2.2. Control Unit
he ControlUnit(CU)coordinatestheoperationoftheALUbysendingcontrolsignalsto
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select the operationtobeperformed.TheCUreceivesinputsfromtheinstructionregister,
decodes the opcode, and activates the corresponding operation in the ALU.
● The control unit also manages how the input data is routed to the correct operand
registers and how the result is returned.
2.3. Arithmetic Logic Circuit
his is the core component of the ALU where the actual computation takes place. It
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implements the logic gates and circuits that perform arithmetic and logical operations. It
processes the data from the registers according to the selected operation.
2.4. Output Register
fter the operation is performed, the result isplacedinanoutputregister.Theresultmay
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be passed to another part of the CPU, or it may be written back to memory.
2.5. Flags
he ALU sets various flags based on the result of the operation, which can affect future
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decisions in program flow. Some common flags are:
● Zero Flag (ZF):Set if the result of the operationis zero.
● Carry Flag (CF): Set if anoperationresultsinacarryoutofthemostsignificantbit
(useful in addition).
● Sign Flag (SF):Set if the result is negative.
● OverflowFlag(OF):Setifanoverflowoccursduringanoperation(e.g.,addingtwo
large numbers in a fixed-width register).
3. Types of ALUs
There are two main types of ALUs based on the architecture:
3.1. Simple ALU
simple ALU typically handles basic operations like addition, subtraction, and logical
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operations.Itmayincludeafewregistersandcircuitstoperformasmallsetofinstructions
efficiently. Simple ALUs are commonly found in simpler or older computer systems.
3.2. Complex ALU
complex ALU can handle a wider range of operations, suchasmultiplication,division,
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and more sophisticated bitwise operations. These ALUs are often found in modern
processors that use RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) or CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computing) architectures. These processors are capable of performing
more operations with fewer instruction cycles, increasing overall performance.
4. ALU Operations and Their Execution
The execution of an ALU operation involves several steps:
.
1 Fetch: The CPU fetches the instruction from memory. This instruction contains the
operation code (opcode) and operands.
2. Decode:Theinstructionisdecodedbythecontrolunit,whichidentifiestheoperation
to be performed (e.g., ADD, SUB).
3. Execute:ThecontrolunitsendsthecorrespondingsignaltotheALUtoperformthe
operation.TheALUreceivestheoperands,performsthecomputation,andstorestheresult
in the appropriate register.
4. Store/Write Back: The result is stored back in a register, memory, or another
location as required by the operation.
5. ALU Example: Simple Arithmetic Operations
Consider the following simple arithmetic operation using the ALU:
● ADD R1, R2, R3(where R1, R2, and R3 are registers)
Instruction:
his instruction tells the ALU to add the contents of registers R1 and R2, and store the
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result in R3.
● The ALU receives the values from R1 and R2 (let’s say R1 contains 5 and R2
contains 7).
● It performs the addition operation: 5 + 7 = 12 .
● The result, 12, is stored in R3.
● TheALUmightsetthezeroflag(ZF)to0becausetheresultisnotzeroandclearthe
carry flag (CF) if there is no carry out.
6. Importance of ALU in a CPU
he ALU is essentialforcarryingoutthefundamentaltasksinaCPU.WithouttheALU,a
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processor wouldnotbeabletoperformcalculations,makedecisionsbasedonconditions,
or handle data manipulation. Some reasons the ALU is critical include:
● rithmetic and Logic Operations
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● Decision Making
● Speed
● Efficiency
I/O System in Computer Architecture
heInput/Output(I/O)systemisacriticalcomponentofcomputerarchitecturethatallows
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the CPU to interact with the outside world. The I/O system facilitates communication
between the computer and externaldevices,suchaskeyboards,monitors,printers,disks,
and network interfaces. It enables the computer to receive input data, process it, and
produceoutput,makingitpossibleforthesystemtoperformmeaningfultasksinreal-world
applications.
1. Components of the I/O System
he I/O system consistsofseveralcomponentsthatworktogethertohandledatatransfer
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between the CPU and external devices. These components include:
1.1. I/O Devices
hese arephysicalcomponentsthatserveastheinterfacebetweenthecomputerandthe
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external world. They can be categorized into two main types:
● Input Devices: These devices send data to the computer. Common examples
include:
○ Keyboard
○ Mouse
○ Scanner
○ Microphone
● OutputDevices:Thesedevicesreceivedatafromthecomputerandpresentittothe
user. Examples include:
○ Monitor
○ Printer
○ Speakers
○ Projector
ome devices are both input and output devices, such as touchscreen displays or
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network interfaces.
1.2. I/O Controllers
I/O controllers are specialized circuits or chips that manage communication between the
CPU and peripheral devices. They act as intermediaries, controlling the flow of data
between the devices and the system. They are responsible for:
● ending commandsto the devices
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● Receiving datafrom devices and transmitting it tothe CPU
● Buffering datato handle different speeds betweenthe CPU and peripherals
ontrollers can be built into individual devices or part of a larger system,suchasaDisk
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Controller,Network Interface Controller (NIC), orUSB controller.
1.3. I/O Ports
I/O ports are physical connectors onthecomputerthatallowcommunicationwithexternal
devices.Theseportsenabledatatobetransmittedbetweenthecomputerandperipherals.
Common types of I/O ports include:
● Serial Ports: These ports transmit data one bit at a time over a single line (e.g.,
RS-232).
● Parallel Ports: These ports transmit multiple bits at once over multiple lines (e.g.,
older printer ports).
● USB Ports: Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports allow connection to a wide range of
devices, such as keyboards, mice, and storage devices.
● Network Ports: These are used for communication over networks (e.g., Ethernet
ports, Wi-Fi adapters).
1.4. Device Drivers
evice drivers aresoftwarecomponentsthatenabletheoperatingsystem(OS)tointeract
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with hardware devices. A driver acts as a translator between the high-level instructions
from the OS and the low-level commands understood by the hardware.
● Drivers are often provided by the device manufacturer and are essential for proper
functioning of devices.
● The operating system uses drivers to send data and commands tothedevice,and
the driver handles the specifics of how to control the device hardware.
2. I/O Communication Methods
here are different methods through which I/O communication takes place between the
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CPU and peripheral devices:
2.1. Programmed I/O (PIO)
In Programmed I/O, the CPU is actively involved in the transfer of data between I/O
devicesandmemory.TheCPUexecutesaseriesofinstructionstoreadorwritedatatoan
I/O device.
● Characteristics:
○ The CPU waits for the I/O operation to complete before proceeding to the next task.
○ The CPU is busy during the entire transfer, making it inefficient for large or
time-sensitive operations.
○ This method is simple but can cause delays, especially when multiple I/O devices
need attention.
● Example: Reading data from a keyboard or sending data to a printer involves a
series of CPU instructions that handle the I/O operations.
2.2. Interrupt-Driven I/O
InInterrupt-DrivenI/O,theCPUisnotdirectlyinvolvedintheI/Ooperation.Instead,when
a device needs attention (e.g., when it has data to send or is ready to receive data), it
sendsaninterruptsignaltotheCPU.TheCPUsuspendsitscurrenttask,savesitsstate,
and executes a special routine (called an interrupt handler) to deal with the I/O request.
● Characteristics:
○ The CPU does not needtowaitfortheI/Ooperationtofinish,allowingittoperform
other tasks.
○ Interrupts allow multiple devices to share the CPU efficiently.
○ However,excessiveinterruptscancauseoverheadandreduceefficiency,particularly
when many devices are involved.
● Example: Akeyboardinterruptoccurswhenakeyispressed.Theinterrupthandler
will read the pressed key, allowing the program to respond.
2.3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
In Direct Memory Access, the I/O controller can transfer data directly between an I/O
device and memorywithoutinvolvingtheCPU.TheDMAcontrollermanagesthistransfer,
freeing the CPUtoperformothertasks.Oncethetransferiscomplete,theDMAcontroller
sends an interrupt to the CPU.
● Characteristics:
○ DMA significantly improves data transfer speeds, as the CPU is notinvolvedinthe
data transfer process.
○ DMA is ideal for large data transfers, such as reading/writing from disk drives or
transferring data to/from memory for graphics processing.
○ The CPU is only involved in initiating and terminating the DMA transfer.
● Example: Transferring large amounts of data from a hard drive to memory using
DMA, without involving the CPU in the process.
2.4. Memory-Mapped I/O
In Memory-Mapped I/O, I/O devices are mapped into the computer's address space,
making them appear as if they were part of the system's memory. Both memory and I/O
operations can be performed using the same instructions.
● Characteristics:
○ TheI/Odevicesaretreatedlikememorylocations,sonospecialI/Oinstructionsare
needed to read or write data.
○ Thismethodsimplifiesprogrammingbutrequirescarefulmanagementofthememory
address space to avoid conflicts between memory and I/O addresses.
● Example:Ingraphicssystems,thevideomemorymaybememory-mapped,allowing
the CPU to directly write data to the screen buffer.
3. I/O System Performance Factors
he performance of the I/O system is crucial to the overall system performance. The
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following factors affect I/O performance:
3.1. Data Transfer Rate
he speed at which data can be transferred between the CPU and I/O devices, often
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measuredinbytespersecond(Bps).Fastertransferratesimprovetheresponsivenessand
efficiency of the system.
3.2. Latency
atencyisthedelaybetweentheinitiationofanI/Orequestanditscompletion.Low-latency
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systems can respond quickly to I/O requests, which is essential in real-time applications.
3.3. Bandwidth
andwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time. High
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bandwidthisespeciallyimportantforapplicationsthatdealwithlargevolumesofdata,such
as video streaming or database processing.
3.4. I/O Queuing and Scheduling
ffective queuing and scheduling mechanisms ensure that multiple I/O requests are
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handled efficiently. Operating systems use algorithms to prioritize I/O requests based on
factors such as urgency and resource availability.
4. I/O System and Bus Structure
he I/O system interacts with the CPU and memory through the system bus, whichisa
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collection of communication pathways used for data transfer. The bus structure connects
the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
hebusstructureplaysanimportantroleindeterminingtheefficiencyofI/Ooperations,as
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faster bus speeds allow quicker data transfer between the CPU and peripheral devices.
Bus and structure
1. What is a Bus?
bus in computer architecture is a collection of wires or traces on a motherboard that
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serves as a communication channel between different components of the system. These
components include the CPU, memory, I/O devices, and other peripheral devices. A bus
c onsists of multiple lines that carry different types of information, and it allows datatobe
transferred from one part of the system to another.
he bus system reduces the need for dedicated connections between components,
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simplifyingthedesignandreducingtheamountofwiringneededinacomputer.Busescan
be shared among multiple devices, allowing for a more flexible and cost-effective way to
interconnect system components.
2. Types of Buses
In a computer system, there are typically three types of buses:
2.1. Data Bus
hedatabuscarriestheactualdatabeingtransferredbetweentheCPU,memory,andI/O
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devices.Thedatabusisbi-directional,meaningitcansendandreceivedata.Thewidthof
thedatabus(i.e.,thenumberoflinesithas)determineshowmuchdatacanbetransferred
at once. For example, a 32-bit data bus can transfer 32 bits (4 bytes) of data at a time,
while a 64-bit data bus can transfer 64 bits (8 bytes) of data at a time.
● Functionality:Thedatabusfacilitatestheflowofdatabetweensystemcomponents,
whether it's reading from memory, writing to memory, or communicating with peripheral
devices.
● Speed: The speed of data transfer depends on the width of the data bus and the
clock speed of the system.
2.2. Address Bus
headdressbusisresponsibleforcarryingthememoryaddressestoandfromtheCPU.
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It is unidirectional, meaning it only sends addresses from the CPU to memory or I/O
devices. The width of the address bus determines the maximum addressable memory in
thesystem.Forexample,a32-bitaddressbuscanaddressupto4GBofmemory,whilea
64-bit address bus can address significantly more memory.
● Functionality: The address bus carries the addresses of data that needs to be
accessedinmemoryorfromI/Odevices.Itisusedduringmemoryreadorwriteoperations,
where the CPU specifies the memory location from which to fetch data orwheretostore
data.
● Addressing Limitations: The number oflinesintheaddressbussetsthelimitson
how much memory the system can access.
2.3. Control Bus
he control bus carries controlsignalsthatmanageandcoordinatetheoperationsofthe
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system. These signals dictate the type of operationbeingperformed,suchasread,write,
interrupt, or halt. The control bus is crucial for synchronizing the activities of the CPU,
memory, and I/O devices.
● Functionality: The control bus manages the timing and sequencing of data
transfers. It includes signals such as:
○ Read/Write (R/W): Indicates whethertheCPUisreadingfromorwritingtomemory
or I/O devices.
○ Clock Signals:Synchronizes operations across thesystem.
○ Interrupt Signals: Alerts the CPU about the occurrence of events that need
attention.
○ Bus Request and Bus Grant Signals: Used when a device needs to access the
bus.
3. Bus Architecture
computer system’s bus architecturereferstothedesignandstructureofhowthebuses
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interact with the components. Buses can vary in terms of data transferspeed,buswidth,
and the method by which devices access the bus.
3.1. Single Bus Architecture
Inasinglebusarchitecture,thereisonebusthatconnectsallcomponentsinthesystem
(CPU, memory, andI/Odevices).Thisbusissharedbyalldevicesforreadingandwriting
data, sending addresses, and controlling operations.
● Advantages:Simplicity, fewer physical connections,and reduced cost.
● Disadvantages: The bus can become a bottleneck, as all devices must share the
same bus, leading to potential performance issues when multiple devices attempt to
communicate simultaneously.
3.2. Multiple Bus Architecture
In a multiple bus architecture, therearemultiplebusesinthesystem,suchasseparate
buses for the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. This allows for parallel communication
between different components, improving data transfer speeds and reducing bottlenecks.
● Advantages: Better performance and parallelism, as multiple devices can
communicate at once over different buses.
● Disadvantages: Increased complexity and cost due to additional buses and bus
management.
3.3. Hybrid Bus Architecture
hybrid bus architecture combines both single and multiple bus designs to optimize
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performance and cost. For example, a system may have a dedicated bus for memory
access and a separate bus for I/O devices, allowing for more efficient communication
between components.
4. Bus Timing and Synchronization
us timing and synchronization refer to how data is transferred over the bus and
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coordinatedbetweendevices.Thisinvolvesmanagingtheclockcycles,controlsignals,and
data transfer rates to ensure that data is transferred correctly.
4.1. Synchronous Bus
synchronous bus relies on a clock signal to synchronize the data transfer between
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components. Data is transferred in sync with the clock pulses, which ensures that all
devices on the bus are operating at the same speed.
● Advantages: Easier to design and control, as all devices use the same timing
reference.
● Disadvantages: Performance is limited by the speed of the clock signal, and all
devices must operate within the same timing constraints.
4.2. Asynchronous Bus
nasynchronousbusdoesnotrelyonaclocksignal.Instead,datatransferoccursbased
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on control signals that inform the devices when data is available or when an operation
should occur. This allows devices to operate at different speeds.
● Advantages: More flexible, as devices with different speeds can communicate
without being constrained by a single clock.
● Disadvantages: More complex to design, as the system must handle timing
differences between devices.
4.3. Isochronous Bus
nisochronousbusensuresthatdataistransferredatafixedrate,whichisimportantfor
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real-time applications where the timing of data transfer is critical, such as in multimedia
processing or video streaming.
● Advantages: Guarantees consistent data transfer rates for time-sensitive
applications.
● Disadvantages: Not ideal for general-purpose systems due to its rigid timing
constraints.
AddressingModes in Computer Architecture
ddressingmodesaremechanismsusedbyacomputersystemtodeterminetheoperand
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for an instruction. An operand refers to the data that is being operated upon by an
instruction. In computer architecture, addressing modes define how the address of the
operand is determined during the execution of an instruction. They provide the CPUwith
flexibility and efficiency in accessing memory and performing operations.
he addressing mode used in an instruction determines how the operand is located.
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Dependingontheaddressingmode,theoperandcanbeatafixedlocation,specifiedbyan
immediate value, or computed using various combinations of registers and memory
addresses.
1. Types of Addressing Modes
here are several types of addressing modes, each with different methods of calculating
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the address of the operand. Here are the most common addressing modes with examples:
1.1. Immediate Addressing Mode
In the immediate addressing mode, the operand is specified directly in the instruction
itself.Thereisnoneedtoaccessmemorytofetchtheoperand.Theoperandisprovidedas
part of the instruction.
ormat:
F
Operand = Constant_value
Example:
MOV A, #5
● Here, the instruction
MOV
A,
#5means that the value 5 is moved directly into
r egister A. The
#symbol indicates that the operand is an immediate value and not a
memory address.
● Advantages:
○ Simple and fast because there is no need to fetch data from memory.
○ Used for operations involving constants.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited to the size of the operand that can be specified in the instruction.
1.2. Register Addressing Mode
In register addressing mode, the operand is stored in a register, and the instruction
specifies which register to use. The operand is fetched directly from the specified register.
ormat:
F
Operand = Register
Example:
MOV A, B
● Here, the value stored in register
Bis movedintoregister
A.Thisaddressingmode
does not require memory access because the operand is already in a register.
● Advantages:
○ Fast because registers are small and located inside the CPU.
○ No memory access needed, reducing time and complexity.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited by the number of registers in the CPU.
○ Only applicable when operands are already stored in registers.
1.3. Direct Addressing Mode
Indirectaddressingmode,theoperandislocatedataspecificmemoryaddress,andthe
instruction contains the memory address of theoperand.Theaddressisdirectlyspecified
in the instruction.
ormat:
F
Operand = [Address]
Example:
MOV A, [5000]
● MOV
Here,theinstruction A,
[5000]meansthatthedataatmemorylocation
5000
is moved into register A
. The address5000is specifieddirectly in the instruction.
● Advantages:
○ Simple to use.
○ Allows direct access to specific memory locations.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited flexibility, as the operand is always located at a fixed address.
○ The size of the address is limited by the instruction set (e.g., 16-bit or 32-bit
address).
1.4. Indirect Addressing Mode
In indirect addressing mode, the instruction provides the address of amemorylocation
that contains the actual address of the operand. The operand is located at the memory
address specified by thecontentofaregisterormemorylocation.Thismodeallowsmore
flexible memory addressing.
ormat:
F
Operand = [Contents of Register]
Example:
MOV A, [R1]
● MOV
Inthiscase,theinstruction A,
[R1]meansthattheoperandisatthememory
ddress stored in register
a R1, and the value fromthat address is moved into register A.
● Advantages:
○ Provides flexibility by allowing dynamic addressing.
○ Enables efficient handling of arrays and linked lists.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires two memory accesses: one to fetch the address and another tofetchthe
operand.
1.5. Register Indirect Addressing Mode
egister indirect addressing mode is a variation of indirect addressing where the
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operand’smemoryaddressisstoredinaregister,andthecontentoftheregisterisusedas
the address. This mode allows for faster access to memory because it uses the CPU’s
registers.
ormat:
F
Operand = [Register]
Example:
MOV A, [R2]
● R2istransferred
Here,thevaluestoredinthememorylocationpointedtobyregister
to register A R2holds the address ofthe operand.
. The register
● Advantages:
○ Provides flexibility in accessing memory locations.
○ Typically faster than direct memory addressing.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires a register to hold the address of the operand.
1.6. Displacement Addressing Mode (Indexed Addressing)
In displacement (or indexed) addressingmode,theeffectiveaddressoftheoperandis
calculated by adding a constant (displacement) valuetothecontentsofaregister.Thisis
commonly used in accessing arrays or structures.
ormat:
F
Operand = [Base Register + Displacement]
Example:
MOV A, [R1 + 4]
● Here, the value at the memory address calculated by adding
4to the content of
register
R1is moved into register
A
. This is useful for accessing elements in an array,
here the base address is stored in
w R1and the offsetis
4
.
● Advantages:
○ Efficient for accessing arrays or data structures.
○ Allows quick access to sequential memory locations.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires an additional arithmetic calculation to determine the effective address.
Conclusion
ddressingmodesareafundamentalpartofcomputerarchitecture,astheydeterminehow
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the operands of an instruction are accessed. By using different addressing modes, a
processor can efficiently handle a wide variety of operations. The choice of addressing
modecanaffectthespeed,flexibility,andcomplexityofasystem,anditplaysacrucialrole
in optimizing the performance of a computer system.
In summary, addressing modeslikeimmediate,register,direct,indirect,displacement,
relative, and register-relative allow the CPU to access data in different ways, providing
flexibility in program execution and memory management.
Instruction Types, Format of Microinstruction in Computer Architecture, Fetch and
Execution Cycle
In computer architecture, instructions are the basic operations that the CPU performs,
includingarithmeticoperations,datamovement,andcontroloperations.Theseinstructions
are stored in memory and are executed sequentially,unlessdirectedotherwisebycontrol
instructions (such as jumps or branches). Understanding the types of instructions, the
format of micro-instructions, andthefetch-executecycleiscrucialforcomprehendinghow
the CPU processes information.
1. Instruction Types in Computer Architecture
Instructions can be classified into different types based ontheirfunctionality.Thesetypes
are generally defined in the instruction set architecture (ISA) of a computer. The primary
categories of instructions are:
1.1. Data Transfer Instructions
hese instructions move data between registers, memory, and I/O devices without
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modifying the data itself. They are used for storing, loading, or transferring data.
● xamples:
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○ MOV
: Move data from one location to another.
○ LOAD
: Load data from memory to a register.
○ STORE
: Store data from a register to memory.
○ PUSH
: Push data onto the stack.
○ POP
: Pop data from the stack.
1.2. Arithmetic Instructions
rithmetic instructions perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
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multiplication, and division on the operands.
● xamples:
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○ ADD
: Add two operands.
○ SUB
: Subtract one operand from another.
○ MUL
: Multiply two operands.
○ DIV
: Divide one operand by another.
1.3. Logical Instructions
ogical instructions perform bitwise operations on operands. These operations include
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AND, OR, NOT, and XOR, and they are used for comparison and conditional operations.
● xamples:
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○ AND
: Perform bitwise AND on two operands.
○ OR
: Perform bitwise OR on two operands.
○ XOR
: Perform bitwise XOR on two operands.
○ NOT
: Invert the bits of the operand.
1.4. Control Instructions
ontrol instructions are used to alter the sequence of instruction execution.Theychange
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the flow of control by jumping to different parts of the program or by halting execution.
● xamples:
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○ JMP
: Jump to a specified memory address (unconditionaljump).
○ BEQ
: Branch if equal (conditional jump based on comparison).
○ NOP
: No operation (does nothing but consumes a clockcycle).
○ HALT
: Stop program execution.
1.5. Input/Output Instructions
hese instructions are used to interact with I/O devices, such as reading data from input
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devices or sending data to output devices.
● xamples:
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○ IN
: Read data from an input device into a register.
○ OUT
: Write data from a register to an output device.
1.6. Shift and Rotate Instructions
hiftandrotateinstructionsmanipulatebitsinregistersbyshiftingthemleftorright(inthe
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case of shift) or rotating them in a circular manner (in the case of rotate).
● xamples:
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○ SHL(Shift Left): Shift bits of a register to theleft, filling with zeros.
○ SHR(Shift Right): Shift bits of a register to the right.
○ ROL(Rotate Left): Rotate bits of a register left, moving bits from the leftendtothe
right end.
○ ROR(Rotate Right): Rotate bits of a register right.
2. Format of Micro-Instruction
micro-instruction is a low-level instruction used to control the internal operations of a
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CPU. Micro-instructions specify the exact sequence of operations to be executed by the
control unit. These are part of the microprogramming approach, where a sequence of
micro-instructions is executed to implement higher-level machine instructions. The format
of a micro-instruction typically consists of several fields, each of which controls different
aspects of the CPU’s internal operations.
2.1. Micro-Instruction Fields
Micro-instructions are usually broken down into the following fields:
.
1 Opcode Field: Specifies the operation to be performed by the micro-instruction,
such as reading from memory, writing to a register, or performing a logical operation.
2. Operand Field: Specifies the registers or memory locations involved in the
operation.
3. Control Field: Contains control signals that trigger specificactionswithintheCPU,
such as enabling or disabling specific circuits (ALU, memory access, etc.).
4. Next Address Field: Determines thenextmicro-instructiontoexecute.Thiscanbe
used to implement jumps or branches in the microprogram.
2.2. Example of Micro-Instruction Format
MOV
Considerthemicro-instructionforanoperationlike A,
B B
,wheredatafromregister
A
is moved into register.
● pcode Field:Specifies the "move" operation.
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● Operand Field: Contains references to the source anddestinationregisters(
Aand
B
).
● Control Field:Contains signals to read from register Band write to register
A.
● Next Address Field: Determines the next micro-instruction to execute after
completing this one.
he exactnumberofbitsineachfieldwilldependonthespecificarchitectureoftheCPU.
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In some cases, micro-instructions can be 16 bits, 32 bits, or more.
3. Fetch and Execution Cycle
he fetch-execute cycle (also known as the instruction cycle) is the fundamental
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process by which the CPU executes a program. It consists of two main phases:
.
1 FetchPhase:Theinstructionisfetchedfrommemoryandloadedintotheinstruction
register.
2. Execute Phase: The CPU decodes the instructionandperformsthecorresponding
operation.
hefetch-executecyclerepeatscontinuouslyastheCPUexecutesaprogram.Thespecific
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steps involved in the fetch-execute cycle are as follows:
3.1. Fetch Phase
The fetch phase is responsible for obtaining the instruction from memory.
.
1 PC (Program Counter) to MAR (Memory Address Register):
○ The PC holds the address of thenextinstructiontobeexecuted.Itistransferredto
theMAR, which holds the address of the memory locationto be accessed.
2. Memory Read:
○ TheinstructionatthememoryaddressspecifiedbytheMARisfetchedfrommemory
and placed into theMDR(Memory Data Register).
3. Instruction Register:
○ The instruction is then transferred from the MDR to the IR (Instruction Register),
where it will be decoded.
4. Increment PC:
○ ThePCis incremented to point to the address of thenext instruction.
3.2. Decode Phase
uring the decode phase, the instruction is decoded to determine the operation and the
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operands involved.
.
1 Decoding Instruction:
○ The instruction in the IR is decoded by the control unit to determine the type of
operation to perform (e.g., add, move, branch).
2. Fetching Operands:
○ If the instruction involves operands (e.g., registers or memory), the control unit
ensures that the appropriate operands are fetched.
3.3. Execute Phase
In the execute phase, the actual operation specified by the instruction is performed.
.
1 ALU Operation:
○ If the instruction involves arithmetic orlogicaloperations,theALU(ArithmeticLogic
Unit) performs the operation on the operands.
2. Memory Write/Read:
○ If the instruction involves memory access, data may be written to or read from
memory.
3. Update Program State:
○ The program state (e.g., program counter, flags, registers) is updated as necessary.
3.4. Cycle Repeat
nce the execute phase is completed, the fetch-execute cycle repeats for the next
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instruction. The process is continuous and forms the heart of program execution.
Hardwired Control Unit and Microprogrammed Control Unit
In computer architecture, the Control Unit (CU) is a crucial component of the CPU
responsible for managing and directing the operations of the processor. The control unit
generates control signals that control the data flow between various components of the
CPU, such as registers, the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), and memory. There are two
primary types of control units in computer architecture: hardwired control units and
microprogrammed control units. These two approachesdifferinhowtheygeneratethe
control signals needed to execute instructions.
1. Hardwired Control Unit
hardwired control unit generates control signals through fixed logic circuits, such as
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gates, flip-flops, and multiplexers. It is called "hardwired" because its control signals are
generatedbyapredeterminedsetoflogiccircuits,anditsbehaviorisdeterminedduringthe
designphase.Inessence,thecontrolsignalsaredirectlytiedtothespecificinstructionset
and the machine’s architecture.
1.1. Operation of Hardwired Control Unit
he hardwired control unit worksbyinterpretingthebinaryinstructionreceivedfromthe
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instruction register (IR) and generating the corresponding control signals. The instruction
typically consists oftwoparts:theopcode(operationcode)andtheoperand.Thecontrol
unit decodes the opcode and generates signals to perform the required operation.
● The control signals are generated using combinational logic, which is hardwired
based on the instruction set of the machine.
● The instruction format (which may include operation codes for data transfer,
arithmetic, and control operations) directly influences the controlsignalsgeneratedbythe
CU.
● The controlunitisfastbecauseitisdesignedusingafixedsetoflogicgates,which
makes it suitable for simple and high-performance systems.
1.2. Components of Hardwired Control Unit
.
1 Instruction Decoder:
○ The instruction decoder is responsible for decoding the opcode of the instruction
stored in the instruction register (IR).
2. Combinational Logic Circuits:
○ These logic circuits generate control signals based on the decoded opcode. They
may include AND gates, OR gates, multiplexers, and flip-flops.
3. Control Signals:
○ The control signals produced are directed to various parts of the CPU (e.g., ALU,
registers, buses) to execute the required operation.
1.3. Advantages of Hardwired Control Unit
.
1 Speed:Thehardwiredapproachisfasterbecausethecontrolsignalsaregenerated
using fixed, predetermined logic circuits.
2. Simplicity:Hardwiredcontrolunitsarerelativelysimpletodesignandarewell-suited
for simple processors with a small instruction set.
3. Efficiency: The execution of instructions is efficient because control signals are
directly generated through combinational logic.
1.4. Disadvantages of Hardwired Control Unit
.
1 Lack of Flexibility: Since the control signals are hardwired, modifying the control
unitoraddingnewinstructionstothesystemisdifficult.Tochangethebehavior,newlogic
circuits need to be designed and physically modified.
2. ComplexitywithComplexInstructionSets:Astheinstructionsetincreasesinsize
and complexity, designing a hardwired control unit becomes increasingly complex and
unwieldy.
.
3 Scalability Issues: It becomes harder to scale for complex systems and modern
processors that require extensive programmability.
2. Microprogrammed Control Unit
microprogrammedcontrolunitisanalternativeapproachtogeneratingcontrolsignals.
A
Instead of using hardwired logic circuits, the microprogrammed control unit uses a set of
instructions, known as micro-operations ormicroinstructions,storedinmemory.These
microinstructions are executed in sequence to produce the necessary control signals for
each machine-level instruction.
2.1. Operation of Microprogrammed Control Unit
In a microprogrammed control unit, instructions (calledmicro-operations)arestoredina
control memory, which is typically read-only memory (ROM) or programmable read-only
memory (PROM). Each machine instruction corresponds to a sequence of
microinstructions that control the internal workings of the CPU.
● Control Memory: The microinstructions are stored in control memory, which
contains the program to generate the control signals for the processor.
● Microinstruction Fetch: When a machine-level instruction is executed, the control
unit fetches the corresponding microinstructions from control memory.
● Execution of Microinstructions: The microinstructions are then executed one by
one, and the control signals are generated to control the CPU's operations.
ach microinstruction consists of multiple fields, including the operation to be performed
E
and the address of the next microinstruction to be fetched.
2.2. Components of Microprogrammed Control Unit
.
1 Control Memory:
○ Thisiswheremicroinstructionsarestored.ControlmemorycanbeROMorasimilar
memory structure.
2. Microprogram Counter (MPC):
○ TheMPCholds the address of the next microinstructionto be fetched.
3. Microinstruction Register (MIR):
○ The MIR holds the currently fetched microinstruction and provides the necessary
control signals.
4. Sequencer:
○ The sequencerisresponsibleforcontrollingthesequenceoffetchingandexecuting
microinstructions. It decides whether the next microinstruction should be sequential or
based on a branch condition.
5. Control Signals:
○ The control signals generated by the microinstructions are used to perform the
operations required by the machine instruction.
2.3. Advantages of Microprogrammed Control Unit
.
1 Flexibility: Microprogrammed control units are highly flexible and can be easily
modified. To change or add new functionality,thecontrolmemorycanbeupdatedwithout
needing to redesign the hardware.
2. Easier to Design: Since microinstructions are stored in memory, designing the
control unit is simpler. Complex systems can be controlled by modifying microprograms
rather than changing hardware.
3. Extensibility: Microprogramming is ideal for processors with complex instruction
sets or processors that require frequent updates.
2.4. Disadvantages of Microprogrammed Control Unit
.
1 Slower Operation: Microprogrammed control units are typically slower than
hardwired control units because they require multiple memory accesses (for fetching
microinstructions) and the additional overhead of executing microprograms.
2. Complexity of Control Memory: The design and management of control memory
can become complex, particularly for systems with a large number of instructions.
3. Cost: The need for additional memory to store microinstructions increases the
overall cost of the system.
3. Comparison between Hardwired Control Unit and Microprogrammed Control Unit
Feature Hardwired Control Unit Microprogrammed Control Unit
Speed aster due to direct logic
F lower due to memory accesses for
S
circuit control. fetching microinstructions.
ComplexitySimpler for small ore complex design, especially for
M
instruction sets. large instruction sets.
Flexibility L
ess flexible, difficult to ighly flexible, easy to modify by
H
modify after design. changing the microprogram.
Scalability L
ess scalableforcomplex calable and well-suited for complex
S
instruction sets. processors and instruction sets.
Cost ower cost due to no
L igher cost due to additional control
H
need for extra memory. memory (ROM/PROM).
Design TimeFaster design for simpler onger design time, especially for
L
systems. complex systems.
Microprogram Sequencer
Microprogram Sequencer (MPS) is a critical component of a microprogrammed
A
control unit in computer architecture. Its primary function is to control the sequence of
microinstructions during the execution of a machine-level instruction. The sequencer
determinestheflowofthemicroprogramanddirectswhichmicroinstructionistobefetched
next, either sequentially or based on specific conditions.
In essence, the microprogram sequencer ensures that the control unit operates in an
orderly sequence, executing each microinstruction in the correct order to carry out a
machine-level instruction. This is an essential part of the microprogrammed control
system, where instructions are executed by a sequenceoflow-leveloperationsknownas
micro-operationsormicroinstructions.
1. Function of Microprogram Sequencer
he Microprogram Sequencer is responsiblefordeterminingthenextmicroinstructionto
T
be executed. It works by controlling the Microprogram Counter (MPC), which holds the
address of the next microinstruction. The sequencer can either:
.
1 Increment the Microprogram Counter (MPC) to fetch the next microinstruction
sequentially.
2. Branch the controlflowbasedontheconditionspecifiedinthemicroinstructionor
some other control logic.
he sequencer generates the control signals necessary to updatetheMPCandfetchthe
T
appropriate microinstruction.
2. Components of the Microprogram Sequencer
hemicroprogramsequencerconsistsofseveralcomponentsthatworktogethertoensure
T
the correct sequence of operations in the microprogram:
2.1. Microprogram Counter (MPC)
● The MPC holds the address of the next microinstruction to be fetched from the
control memory.
● ItissimilartotheProgramCounter(PC)inatraditionalCPU,butinsteadofpointing
to machine-level instructions, it points to the next microinstruction in the microprogram.
2.2. Next Address Generator
● TheNextAddressGeneratorisresponsiblefordeterminingthenextaddressforthe
MPC. It can either:
○ Incrementthe MPC to fetch the next sequential microinstruction.
○ BranchtheMPCtoanewaddressbasedonaspecificcondition,suchasajumpor
a conditional branch.
2.3. Control Logic
● The Control Logic in the sequencer generates the necessary signals to direct the
flow of the microprogram.
● It decides whether the next microinstruction should be fetched sequentially or
whether the MPC should jumptoadifferentaddress.Thesedecisionsareoftenbasedon
theoutcomeofapreviousmicroinstructionorspecificcontrolflags(likeconditioncodesor
status bits).
2.4. Branch Address Logic
● This logic handles the branching of the microprogram, where the next
microinstruction may not be sequential.
● It takes inputs from condition codes, flags, or the instruction beingexecuted,andif
the branch condition is met, it provides a new address to the MPC.
3. Operation of Microprogram Sequencer
hen a machine-level instruction is executed, the control unit fetches the corresponding
W
microinstructions from control memory. These microinstructions are executedsequentially
unless a branch instruction alters the flow of execution.
.
1 etching the First Microinstruction
F
2. Sequential Execution
.
3 onditional Branching
C
4. Repeat the Cycle
4. Types of Microprogram Sequencers
icroprogram sequencers canbedesignedindifferentwaysdependingonthecomplexity
M
and design requirements of the system. Thetwomaintypesofmicroprogramsequencers
are:
4.1. Linear Microprogram Sequencer
In a linear microprogram sequencer, the control flow follows a fixed, linear sequence.
Each microinstruction is executed one after the other, and the MPC simplyincrementsto
the next address. This type of sequencer is suitable for simple systems where the
instruction flow does not need to change based on conditions.
● Operation:
○ The sequencer increments theMPCto fetch the nextmicroinstruction from memory.
○ No branching occurs unless explicitly defined by the microprogram itself.
● Example Use Case:
○ Linear sequencers are often used in simpler systems where instructions do not
involve complex branching or conditional operations.
4.2. Branching Microprogram Sequencer
In a branching microprogram sequencer, the flow of microinstructionsisnotfixed.The
MPC can jump to a different address depending on certain conditions, such as flags or
control signals generated during the execution of microinstructions.
● Operation:
○ The sequencer checks for branch conditions based on the outcome of the
microinstruction or status flags. If abranchconditionissatisfied,theMPCisupdatedwith
the new address for the next microinstruction.
● Example Use Case:
○ Branchingsequencersareusedinmorecomplexprocessorswhereinstructionsmay
involve jumps, loops, or conditional branches (such as in advanced processors with
high-level control structures).
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Microprogram Sequencer
5.1. Advantages
.
1 Flexibility: Microprogrammed control units, with their sequencers, offer high
flexibility.Themicroprogramcanbeeasilymodifiedorextendedtoaddnewinstructionsor
alter the behavior of existing ones.
2. EasiertoDesign:Designingthecontrolunitbecomeseasierbecausecomplexlogic
circuits are replaced with microinstructions stored in memory.
3. Scalability: Microprogrammed control units are more scalable and suitable for
complex CPUs that require large and intricate instruction sets.
5.2. Disadvantages
.
1 SlowerOperation:Sincethesequencerfetchesmicroinstructionsfrommemory,itis
slower than a hardwired control unit, which uses direct logic circuits to generate control
signals.
2. Increased Memory Requirement: Storing microinstructions in control memory
increases the memory requirement and complexity of the system.
3. Cost: The additional memory and control logic needed for the microprogram
sequencer can increase the cost of the system.
Sequencing and Execution of Microinstructions
Incomputerarchitecture,especiallyinmicroprogrammedcontrolunits,thesequencing
and execution of microinstructions is crucial for the control and operation oftheCPU.
The microinstructions governtheinternaloperationsoftheprocessorduringtheexecution
of machine-level instructions. Microprogramming enables theCPUtoperformasequence
of operations through the execution of microinstructions that are fetched from control
memory.
1. Microinstructions Overview
icroinstructions are the basic low-leveloperationsthatcontroltheindividualcomponents
M
of the CPU (such as registers, ALU, memory, etc.). These microinstructions arestoredin
control memory and are executed by the control unit to carry out a machine-level
instruction. Each microinstruction specifies one or more actions to be performed on the
internal components of the CPU, like transferring data between registers, performing
arithmetic operations, or controlling the flow of data.
he process of sequencingandexecutingmicroinstructionsinvolvesfetching,interpreting,
T
and executing a series of such microinstructions that together complete the operation
corresponding to a higher-level machine instruction.
2. Sequencing of Microinstructions
equencing refers to the process by which the control unit determinestheorderinwhich
S
microinstructions are fetched and executed. The flow of microinstructions can either be
linear or non-linear, depending on the machine instruction being executed.
he microprogram sequencer plays a key role in determining the sequence of
T
microinstructions.Itcaneitherfollowalinearsequence(sequentialexecution)orbranchto
different microinstructions based on conditions (non-sequential execution).
2.1. Types of Sequencing
.
1 Linear Sequencing:
○ In linear sequencing, the microprogram sequencer simply increments the
Microprogram Counter (MPC)to fetch the next microinstructionsequentially.
○ Thisisthedefaultbehaviorformostsimpleinstructionswhereeachmicroinstruction
is executed in the order in which it is stored.
○ Example: For a simple arithmetic operation, the control unit fetches the
microinstructions in a linear fashion to carry out the operation step by step.
2. Conditional Branching (Non-Linear Sequencing):
○ Sometimes,thesequenceofmicroinstructionsneedstobranchdependingoncertain
conditions, such as a comparison result or a jump instruction.
○ TheBranchAddressLogicinthesequencerdecidesthenextaddressfortheMPC,
and if a condition (e.g., a flag or status bit) is met, it updates the address to point to a
different microinstruction.
○ Example: For conditional jumps in machine instructions (e.g., in loops or if-else
structures), the sequencer may fetch microinstructions from a non-sequential memory
location.
2.2. Microprogram Counter (MPC)
● The MPC stores the address of the next microinstruction. It is updated by the
sequencer after each microinstruction is executed.
● TheMPCcaneitherincrement(forsequentialfetching)orjumptoadifferentlocation
(for branching) based on the output of the sequencer’s decision-making logic.
2.3. Role of the Microprogram Sequencer in Sequencing
Themicroprogram sequencerdetermines how the microprogram executes:
● IncrementalAddressing:Formostmachineinstructions,thesequencerincrements
the MPC to move to the next microinstruction.
● Branching:Ifajumporconditionalbranchisrequired,thesequenceralterstheMPC
and fetches the appropriate microinstruction from the new address.
3. Execution of Microinstructions
xecution of a microinstruction involvesperformingthespecificoperationsencodedinthe
E
microinstruction. These operations typically controltheinternalcomponentsoftheCPUto
perform basic tasks such as moving data, performing arithmetic operations, or managing
control signals.
3.1. Format of Microinstructions
A typicalmicroinstructionmay have the followingfields:
.
1 Operation Field: Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g., data transfer,
arithmetic, logical operation).
2. Operand Field: Specifies the operands involved in the operation (e.g., source and
destination registers or memory addresses).
3. Control Signals: Contains bits that define how control signals should be asserted
(e.g., enabling the ALU, selecting a register, enabling memory read/write).
4. NextAddressField:Containstheaddressofthenextmicroinstructiontobefetched.
This field is essential for branching operations.
3.2. Execution Steps
The execution of microinstructions generally involves the following steps:
.
1 Fetching the Microinstruction:
○ The control unit fetches the microinstruction stored at the address specified by the
MPC.
○ The MPC is then updated based on the sequencing logic (either incremented or
changed to a new address in case of branching).
2. Decoding the Microinstruction:
○ The control unit decodes the microinstructiontounderstandwhichoperationitmust
perform (e.g., transfer data between registers, add two values, etc.).
○ The decoded operation determines which control signals need to be activated.
3. Executing the Microinstruction:
○ The specified operation is executed. This can include:
■ Moving data between registers (e.g., loading a value from memory into a register).
■ Performing arithmetic or logical operations in the ALU (e.g., addition, subtraction).
■ Writing data to memory or initiating I/O operations.
4. Updating Control Signals:
○ The appropriate control signals are activated, which dictate the actions of other
components in the CPU (ALU, registers, buses, etc.).
○ For example, the control signals may tell the ALU to perform an addition,enablea
register to receive data, or send data to memory.
5. Checking for Branching:
○ If the current microinstruction involves a branch, the sequencer evaluates the
condition and, if necessary, updates theMPCto pointto a new address.
6. Repeat the Cycle:
○ After executing the current microinstruction, the control unit proceeds to fetch the
nextmicroinstruction,repeatingtheabovestepsuntiltheentiremachine-levelinstructionis
completed.
4. Example of Sequencing and Execution of Microinstructions
onsider a simple machine instruction: ADD R1, R2, R3, which adds the contents of
C
registersR2andR3and stores the result inR1.
The execution of this instruction might involve the following microinstructions:
.
1 Fetch the instruction:
○ Fetch the machine instructionADD R1, R2, R3frommemory.
2. Microinstruction 1 (Load operands):
○ Microinstruction:Load R2, R3into the ALU.
○ This microinstruction specifies that the contents of registers R2 and R3 should be
transferred to the ALU for addition.
3. Microinstruction 2 (Perform addition):
○ Microinstruction:Add R2, R3in the ALU.
○ The ALU performs the addition operation on the values fromR2andR3.
4. Microinstruction 3 (Store result):
○ Microinstruction:Store result in R1.
○ The result of the addition is stored inR1.
5. Check for branching (if needed):
○ If there is a conditional branch, the sequencer will alter the MPC based on the
condition.
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