Universidad de Sta.
Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
Lesson 2
Types of Studies and Sampling
Overview
In this lesson, you will learn about the types of studies and the different sampling
techniques particularly the probability sampling methods.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you will:
1. Define the basic types of statistical studies;
2. Differentiate types of statistical studies and the different sampling
techniques;
3. Recognize what appropriate sampling technique to be used in a given study.
Learning Content
Observational studies and experiments
There are two basic types of study:
We do studies to gather information and draw conclusions. The type of conclusion
we draw depends on the study method used:
1. In an observational study, we measure or survey members of a sample
without trying to affect them.
2. In a controlled experiment, we assign people or things to groups and apply
some treatment to one of the groups, while the other group does not receive the
treatment.
Example 1:
Problem: Drinking tea before bedtime
a. A study took random sample of adults and asked them about their bedtime
habits. The data showed that people who drank a cup of tea before bedtime
were more likely to go to sleep earlier than those who didn't drink tea. Which
type of study method is this?
Answer: Observational study
b. Another study took a group of adults and randomly divided them into two
groups. One group was told to drink tea every night for a week, while the
other group was told not to drink tea that week. Researchers then compared
when each group fell asleep. Which type of study method is this?
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
Answer: Experiment
SAMPLING METHODS
When we collect data it's important to know what type of data we're collecting and
how to collect it properly. In probability sampling, the following methods are used.
Common Types of Sampling Methods
1. Simple random sampling is the process of giving equal chance for each
member of the population to be selected for the sample. Fish bowl or lottery.
2. Systematic sampling is the process of selecting every nth member of the
population arranged in a list.
3. Stratified sample is obtained by dividing the population into subgroups and
then randomly selecting from each of the subgroups. The number of units
selected from each subgroup can be proportional to the group’s number in the
population or can be equal-sized among the subgroups.
4. Cluster sampling is a sampling where groups are selected rather than
individuals.
5. Mixed sampling method is a combination of the types of sampling stated
above.
6. Incidental or convenience sampling is taking an intact group (e.g. your own
fourth grade class of pupils) and using this group to represent the population
(e.g. all fourth grade students in your state, province or country).
Example 2:
Willy wants to find what percent of students at his school drink the milk after they
finish their cereal. He is considering the following sampling methods:
a. He selects every tenth person who enters the school. What type of sampling is
this?
Answer: Systematic sampling
b. He randomly selects 10 students from each grade level (freshman, sophomore,
junior, senior). What type of sampling is this?
Answer: Stratified sampling
c. He randomly selects 50 student names from a hat. What type of sampling is
this?
Answer: Simple random sampling
d. He randomly selects 3 classrooms and surveys every student in those
classrooms. What type of sampling is this?
Answer: Cluster sampling
Sample Size
A sample size is a part of the population chosen for a survey or experiment. For
example, you might take a survey of dog owner’s brand preferences. You won’t
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
want to survey all the millions of dog owners in the country, so you take a sample
size. That may be several thousand owners. The sample size is a representation of
all dog owner’s brand preferences. If you choose your sample wisely, it will be a
good representation.
There are many different formulas you can use, depending on what you know (or
don’t know) about your population. If you don’t know much about your population,
use Slovin’s formula. The computation of our sample size has this simplified
formula (Yamane):
N
n= 2 where: N = size of population
1+ Ne
n = sample size
e = margin of error
Example 3:
Use Slovin’s formula to find out what sample of a population of 1,000 people you
need to take for a survey on their soda preferences with a margin of error of 5%.
n = N / (1 + Ne2)
= 1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 2)
= 285.714286 = 286
Principles of Experimental Studies
● In an experiment, researchers randomly assign subjects (also called
experimental units) to treatment/intervention/experimental and control
groups.
Key features: Intervention, Randomization and Control
● The objective of random assignment (or randomization) is to ensure that the
treatment and control groups are similar in all characteristics, except for the
treatment being investigated, so that any observed difference between the two
groups is due to the treatment.
● While observational studies can be used to only infer association, experiments
allow researchers to make causal statements.
Research Designs in Behavioral Sciences
Correlational Design – is used to discover predictive relationships and the degree
of association among variables.
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
Experiments – its goal is to specify a causal relationship based on intervening in
some situation.
Quasi-experiment – is a research design resembling an experiment, but it lacks
one or more key features heightening experimental control. It enables
investigators to approximate but not delineate causal effects.
Basic types of observational studies:
a. Sample Survey provides information about a population based on a sample
from the population at a specific time point.
b. Prospective Study observes population in the present by using a sample
survey and proceeds to follow the sample forward in time in order to record
the occurrence of specific outcomes.
c. Retrospective Study observes population in the present by using a sample
survey and collects information about the sample about the occurrence of
specific outcomes that have already taken place.
Example 4:
Roy’s Toys received a shipment of 100,000 rubber duckies from the factory. The
factory couldn’t promise that all rubber duckies are in perfect form, but they
promised that the percentage of defective toys won’t exceed 5 percent. Roy
wanted to get an estimation of the percentage of defective toys, and since he
couldn’t go over the entire 100,000 duckies, he took a random sample of 10
duckies. He found that 10 percent of them were defective.
a. What type of observational study did Roy use?
Answer: Sample study
b. Is the study appropriate for the statistical questions it's supposed to answer?
Answer: No, because his sample was too small.
Statistics as Science of Data, Important Terms
Empirical refers to anything derived from experience or experiment.
The scientific method guides research by identifying a problem, formulating a
hypothesis, and collecting empirical data to test the hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a testable question or prediction, one usually designed to explain
some phenomenon.
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
A theory is a collection of related facts, often derived from hypotheses and the
scientific method, forming a coherent explanation for a larger phenomenon.
DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
In experimental investigations, there are dependent/outcome and
independent/predictor variables.
1. Independent variables are variables that the experimenter changes or
controls.
2. Dependent variables are variables being tested and measured in an
experiment. It is said to be “dependent” on the independent variable.
Example 5: Identify the independent and dependent variables in the study.
Bob proposed that the more you exercise, the more likely you are to be
promoted at your job. He reviewed the exercise regimens of co-workers who
were promoted and those that were not.
In this example, exercise is an independent variable, and job status is a
dependent variable.
Classes of Dependent Measures
1. Behavioral measure – is one that can be seen or observed directly. Usually
physical, rather concrete, and easily coded.
Ex. Reaction time, Proximity to or distance from others, Recognition recall, Time
spent on phone
2. Self-report measures – are people’s reactions to questions (open– or close-
ended interviews or structured surveys) or some stimulus.
Ex. Rated liking for another person, Food preferences, Rating emotions, Attitudes
3. Physiological measures – are private, internal psychological states and
provide indirect evidence for an individual’s psychological reactions.
Ex. Heart rate, Blood pressure, Pupil dilation, EEG, EKG, MRI
4. Behavioroid measures – participants provide future-oriented responses.
Ex. Volunteering to give blood, Pledging to donate time, money or service,
Reporting beliefs about future behavior
Operational Definitions in Research
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
A descriptive definition explains the relationship among variables in an abstract,
conceptual manner.
An operational definition renders hypothetical, often abstract variables into
concrete operations that can be manipulated or measured empirically.
Example:
A study examined the possible relationship between the ‘pace of life’ and the
incidence of heart disease (Levine 1990) in 36 US cities. The researchers used
four different operational definitions for ‘pace of life’ (remember the article was
published in 1990!):
1. The walking speed of randomly chosen pedestrians.
2. The speed with which bank clerks gave ‘change for two $20 bills or [gave]
two $20 bills for change.’
3. The talking speed of postal clerks.
4. The proportion of men and women wearing a wristwatch.
None of these perfectly measure ‘pace of life,’ of course. Nonetheless, the
researchers found that, compared to people on the West Coast,
… people in the Northeast walk faster, make change faster, talk faster and are
more likely to wear a watch…
Activity 2
Name: _______________________________________ Section:____________
Date:_______________
A. Determine whether each the following study is observational or experiment.
1. A study randomly assigned volunteers to one of two groups: One group was
directed to use social media sites as they usually do. One group was blocked
from social media sites. The researchers looked at which group tended to be
happier.
2. Another study took a random sample of people and examined their social media
habits. Each person was classified as either a light, moderate, or heavy social
media user. The researchers looked at which groups tended to be happier.
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
3. In a study, a group of mice are put into a maze with multiple paths and options.
The time it takes each mouse to complete the maze and the path taken are
recorded.
B. Identify the type of sampling used in the following. (Simple Random, Systematic,
Stratified, Cluster, of Convenience Sampling)
1. A TV show host asks his viewers to visit his website and respond to an online
poll.
What type of sample is this?
2. Each student at a school has a student identification number. Counselors have a
computer generate 50 random identification numbers, and the students
associated with those numbers are asked to take a survey.
3. A truck manufacturer selects 3 trucks at random from each of 6 models for
safety testing. What type of sample is this?
4. A politician asks his neighbours their opinions about a controversial issue. What
type of sample is this?
5. An airline company wants to survey its customers one day, so they randomly
select 5 flights that day and survey every passenger on those flights. What type
of sample is this?
6. A restaurant leaves comment cards on all of its tables to learn about customer
satisfaction. Each comment card is a brief survey that customers can fill out if
they choose to. What type of sample is this?
C. Determine size of your sample if you need to survey a population of 5,350
college students in your university with a margin of error of 5%.
D. Identify the dependent and independent variables, then define possible control
and experimental groups for the following study.
Example: Students watched a cartoon either alone or with others and then
rated how funny they found the cartoon to be.
Independent variable (IV): Watching cartoon with others
Dependent variable (DV): How funny you find the cartoon
Control Group (CG): Students who watched the cartoon alone
Experimental Group (EG): Students who watched the cartoon with others
1. A comprehension test was given to students after they had studied textbook
material either in silence or with the television turned on.
Universidad de Sta. Isabel PSY02/SW014/HSB005 Statistics
Naga City Rosalinda A. Obias, MA
IV: ________________________________
DV: ________________________________
CG: ________________________________
EG: ________________________________
2. The more time people spend using social media, the less able they are to
express themselves in conversation.
IV: ________________________________
DV: ________________________________
CG: ________________________________
EG: ________________________________
E. Come up with operational definition for emotions, behaviors and states of being.
Example: The experimenter wants to determine how recreational drugs affect a
person’s sense of humor. Possible answer: How many times the person laughs
1. A psychologist wants to know if his new form of psychotherapy will make people
less depressed.
Possible answer: _________________________________
2. I have to find a way to study more efficiently.
Possible answer: _________________________________
