Name

Roll No.

Course:

1
 Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

By

Dr Shah Alam and S M Mahmood

(Associate Professor Mechanical Engineering)

UNIVERSITY POLYTECHNIC

Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Jamia Millia Islamia
New Delhi
May 2018

2
List of Experiments

SN Name of Experiments Date Signature Remark

1. To verify Bernoulli's Theorem.

2. To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of
an orifice meter.
3. To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of
venturimeter.
4. To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd),
coefficient of contraction (Cc) and coefficient of
velocity (Cv) an orifice.

5. To determine the coefficient friction for the pipe

flow.

6. To determine the loss of head due to sudden

enlargement in a pipe flow.
7. To determine the coefficient of sudden contraction
in a pipe flow.
8. To determine the coefficient of elbow in a pipe
flow.
9. To determine the coefficient of bend in a pipe
flow.

10. To study Pelton wheel turbine.

3
 Experiment No. 1
Object: To verify Bernoulli’s theorem and plot following graphs
 Length of passage vs. pressure head
 Length of passage vs. kinetic head
 Length of passage vs. total head
Apparatus: Bernoulli’s apparatus set-up, hydraulic bench, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: It states that total energy per unit weight at any point in the flow field is constant if
flow is steady, ideal, incompressible either streamline or irrotational and no other forces except
gravity is acting. The total energy consists of:
P
Pressure energy per unit weight = Pressure head =
ρg
v
Kinetic energy per unit weight = Kinetic head =
g
Datum energy per unit weight = Datum head = z
Therefore
P v
+ + z = constant
ρg g

Description:
The equipment has inlet and outlet tanks. Both tanks are connected by a convergent-divergent
duct above which 11 piezometer tubes are mounted. The set is placed over a hydraulic bench
having a measuring tank and a closed circuit water circulating system.
Procedure:
 Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water in the duct through inlet
tank.
 The water level in tubes shall start rising as it flows through duct.
 Open the outlet tank valve in such a way that a steady state position can maintained in
the tubes.
 Measure the rise of water in all tubes and inlet tank.
 Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
 Repeat the procedure.

4
5
Observations:
Width of duct b =…………………………..cm
Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ………………………cm2
Height of duct below first tube H1 = …………cm
Height of duct below central tube Hc = ……….cm
Decrease in the height of duct below first tube to central tube
H −H
∆h =
n−
Where n is the number of tubes between first and central tubes (including first tube); h = height
of duct below each tubes; a = cross-sectional area of duct below each tubes; IL, FL = initial
and final level of water in measuring tank respectively; t = time required to raise the water level
from IL to FL; Q = discharge of water; V = velocity of flow

Observation Table: Set I

Water level in inlet tank………………………………………
Water level in outlet tank……………………………………...
Length Measuring tank reading v2 /2g P/ρg Z Total
a = b*h

of head
No of
tubes

passage h IL FL y Q=Ay/t v
=Q/a
cm cm cm2 cm cm cm cm3/s cm/s cm of water
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Similarly observation can be repeated for set II and set III

6
Sample Calculation:
IL = ……….cm
FL = ………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ……cm
Discharge Q=Ay/t = ……………………. (cm3/s)

Velocity v = Q/a = …………………….cm/s

Result:

Discussion:

7
 Experiment No 2
Object: To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of an orifice meter.
Apparatus: Orifice apparatus set-up, hydraulic bench, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: Orifice is a small opening of any cross-sectional area either sides or at the bottom of
the tank. Orifice meter is employed to measure the discharge of liquid through a pipe. It is
cheaper device than venturimeter.
Formula used:
Actual discharge Q a
Coefficient of discharge =
Theoretical discharge Q
Ay m⁄
Qa = s
t

a ao √ gh
Q =
√a − ao
Where ao = cross-sectional area of orifice (m2); a = cross-sectional area of pipe (m2);
h = difference of pressure head measured by manometer; g = acceleration due to gravity

Description: The unit consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular hole called orifice.
The orifice is fitted across a pipeline through which water flows. A differential mercury
manometer is connected to measure the pressure drop across the orifice. The set is placed over
a hydraulic bench having a measuring tank and a closed circuit water circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of the
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

8
9
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of orifice do = ……………… m
Diameter of pipe d = ……….………… m
π
Cross-sectional area of orifice ao = do = ……………….m2
π
Cross-sectional area of pipe a= = …………………….m2

Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ……………….m2

Let IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the
water level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer
Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

Cd
LL RL x h IL FL y Qact

cm cm cm of m of cm Cm cm m3/s
mercury water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm

RL = ……..cm

Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m

m
Difference of pressure head h = x − = �� �� �
w

10
IL = ………….cm

FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

Ay m⁄
Actual Discharge Q a = s

a ao √
Theoretical discharge Q =
√a −ao

Qact
Coefficient of discharge � =
Qth

Results: The mean value of Cd is ……………………….

Discussion:

11
 Experiment No 3

Object: To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of venturimeter.

Apparatus: Venturimeter set-up, hydraulic bench, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: The venturimeter is employed to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through
pipe. It is a short length pipe that has three parts convergent, throat and divergent. Pipe is
conversing from inlet to throat and then diverging from throat to outlet.

Formula used:
Actual discharge Q a
Coefficient of discharge =
Theoretical discharge Q
Ay m⁄
Qa = s
t

a a √ gh
Q =
√� − a
Where a1 = cross-sectional area at inlet (m2); a2 = cross-sectional area at throat (m2);
h = difference of pressure head measured by manometer; g = acceleration due to gravity

Description: The unit consists of a pipe in which venturimeter is provided. A differential

mercury manometer is connected between inlet and throat to measure the pressure drop across
the venturimeter. The set is placed over a hydraulic bench having a measuring tank and a closed
circuit water circulating system.

Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank for a
given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

12
13
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of at inlet d1 = ……………… m
Diameter of at outlet d2 = ……………… m

�
Cross-sectional area of pipe at inlet � = = ………………………..…m2
�
Cross-sectional area of pipe � = = ………………………..…m2
Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ………………………m2
IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer

Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

Cd
LL RL x h IL FL y Qact

cm cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s
mercury water

14
Sample Calculation: Observation No……………
LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
m
Difference of pressure head h = x − = �� �� �
w

IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m
Ay m⁄
Actual Discharge Q a = s

a a √
Theoretical discharge Q =
√ −a

Qact
Coefficient of discharge � =
Qth

Results: The mean value of Cd is ……………………….

Discussion:

15
 Experiment No 4
Object: To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd), coefficient of contraction (Cc) and
coefficient of velocity (Cv) an orifice.
Apparatus: A large tank having orifice in its wall, hook gauge, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: The liquid flowing through the orifice forms a jet of liquid whose cross-sectional area
is less than orifice. The area of jet of liquid goes on decreasing and at a section the area becomes
minimum. This section is called vena-contracta. Beyond this section, jet of liquid moves
downward under the influence of gravity.
Formulae used:
Coefficient of discharge
A a a Qact
C =
o a a Qth

��
Actual discharge � � =
�

Theoretical discharge ��ℎ = �√ ℎ

Procedure:
1. Fill the tank with water above the orifice
2. Note the initial height of water in the steady flow tank and height of datum from the bottom
of orifice. These remains constant for a particular orifice.
3. Using hook gauge find xo and yo at the exit of orifice (venacontracta)
4. Using hook gauge find x/ and y/ at any position along the jet
5. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
6. Repeat above procedure further readings.

16
Observation Table:
For measuring discharge

S No. Tank Reading h x/ y/ x1= x/-xo y1= y/-yo Cd Cv Cc

IL FL Y

cm cm Cm cm cm cm cm cm

Where
a = cross-sectional area of orifice
h = constant head under which jet of water is coming out from orifice
0 = reading on horizontal scale at exit of orifice (venacontracta)
0= reading on vertical scale at exit of orifice (venacontracta)
/
= reading on horizontal scale at any position along the jet
y/= reading on vertical scale at any position along the jet

Sample Calculation: observation No……….

Head of water in tank h =……….
Diameter of orifice d = ………..
Cross-sectional area of tank A = ……….
�
Cross-sectional area of orifice � = = ……….

y = FL – IL =…………
t = 30 seconds

xo = ………...
yo = ………..
x/ = ………..
y/ = ………..
x1= x/-xo
y1= y/-yo

17
  Determination of Cd

Ay
Qa =

Q = a√ gh

Qa
C =
Q

 Determination of Cv
x
C =
√4y h

 Determination of Cc

�
� =
��

Results:

Discussion:

18
 Experiment No 5
Object: To determine the coefficient of friction f in a pipe flow.
Apparatus: G.I. pipes of uniform diameter connected to inlet and outlet valves, hydraulic
bench, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: When the water is flowing through a pipe some of the pressure energy is lost to
overcome hydraulic resistance. This loss is mainly due to friction of the pipe material and
called major loss.
Formulae used:
4 Lv
h =
gd
Where hf = loss of head due to friction; f = coefficient of friction;
L= Length of pipe between two limbs of manometer; v = velocity of flow; d = diameter of
pipe; g = acceleration due to gravity; A = cross-sectional area of measuring tank
Description: The unit consists of a pipe whose two sections (certain length) are connected by
a differential mercury manometer to measure the pressure drop. The set is placed over a
hydraulic bench having a measuring tank and a closed circuit water circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

19
20
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of at pipe d = ……………… m
�
Cross-sectional area of pipe at inlet � = = ………………………..…m2
Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ………………………m2
IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL
LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer
Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

f
LL RL x hf IL FL y Q v

cm Cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s m/s
mercury water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
m
Difference of pressure head h� = x − = �� �� �
w

IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

21
 Ay m⁄
Discharge Q= s

Q
Velocity v = (m/s)
a

f
Coefficient of friction f =
L

Results: The mean value of coefficient of friction is ………….

Discussion:

22
 Experiment No 6
Object: To determine the loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe flow.
Apparatus: Sudden enlargement setup, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: When the water is flowing through a pipe some of the energy is lost due to change in
cross-sectional area of pipe. This loss is due to the formation of eddies. This loss is called minor
loss.
Formula used:
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
−
h =

Where he = loss of head due to sudden enlargement; v1 and v2 = velocity of flow in small and
large section of pipe respectively; d1, d2 = diameter of small pipe and large pipe respectively;
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2); A = cross-sectional area of measuring tank
Description: The unit consists of a pipe which is suddenly enlarged. A differential mercury
manometer is connected between these two sections of pipe to measure the pressure drop. The
set has a measuring tank and a closed circuit water circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

23
Fig: set up of sudden enlargement in a pipe flow

24
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of smaller pipe d1 = ……………… m
Diameter of larger pipe d2 =… ……………… m
π
Cross-sectional area of smaller pipe a = d = ………………………..…m2
π
Cross-sectional area of larger pipe a = d = ………………………..…m2

Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ……………………… ……m2

IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer

Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

he
LL RL x h IL FL y Q v1 v2

cm cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s m/s m/s m of

mercury water water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
m
Difference of pressure head h= x − = �� �� �
w

25
IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

Ay m⁄
Discharge Q= s

Q Q
Velocity v = (m/s) Velocity v = (m/s)

v −v
h =
g

Results: Mean value of loss of head due to sudden enlargement is…………….m of water
Discussion:

26
 Experiment No 7
Object: To determine the coefficient of sudden contraction in a pipe flow.
Apparatus: Sudden contraction setup, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: When the water is flowing through a pipe some of the energy is lost due to change in
cross-sectional area of pipe. This loss is due to the formation of eddies. This loss is called minor
loss.
Formulae used:

v
h =( − )
C g
Where hc = loss of head due to sudden contraction; v = velocity of flow in smaller pipe;
d = diameter of small pipe; g = acceleration due to gravity; A = cross-sectional area of
measuring tank
Description: The unit consists of a pipe which is suddenly contracted. A differential mercury
manometer is connected between these two sections of pipe to measure the pressure drop.
The set has a measuring tank and a closed circuit water circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank
for a given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

27
Fig:-set up of sudden contraction in a pipe flow

28
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of smaller pipe d = ……………… m
π
Cross-sectional area of smaller pipe a= = ………………………..…m2

Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ……………………… ……m2

IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer

Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

Cc
LL RL x hc IL FL y Q v

cm cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s m/s
mercury water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
m
Difference of pressure head ℎ = x − = �� �� �
w

IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

29
 Ay m⁄
Discharge Q= s

Q
Velocity v= (m/s)

� =
ℎ
√ +

Results: Mean value of coefficient of sudden contraction is ……….

Discussion:

30
 Experiment No 8
Object: To determine the coefficient of elbow in a pipe flow.
Apparatus: Pipe bend-elbow setup, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: Pipe bends and pipe elbows both are used to change the flowing direction in a piping
systems. A pipe bend means a piece of pipe which are bent at any bending radius and angles to
join two pipes. An elbow is a standard fitting that are pre-fabricated as per standards of fittings.
An elbow can be 45o or 90o. Commonly the elbows have a bending radius of 1.5D or 1D (Here
the D means nominal diameter of bend pipe), which are called “Long Radius elbow (LR
elbow)” or “Short Radius elbow (SR elbow)”.
When there is elbow in a pipe, the direction of velocity of flow changes, due to which there is
a separation of flow from the boundary and some energy is lost due to eddies formation.
Formulae used:
Loss of head due to elbow:
�
ℎ =

Where Kb, coefficient of elbow; v, mean velocity of flow;

Description: The unit consists of a pipe in which the direction of flow of liquid is changed by
providing elbow. A differential mercury manometer is connected between these two sections
of pipe to measure the pressure drop. The set has a measuring tank and a closed circuit water
circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank for a
given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

31
Fig: To determine the coefficient of elbow in a pipe flow

32
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of smaller pipe d = ……………… m
π
Cross-sectional area of smaller pipe a= d = ………………………..…m2
Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ……………………… ……m2
IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer

Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

Kb
LL RL x hb IL FL y Q v

cm cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s m/s
mercury water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
Difference of pressure head
S
ℎ = x( − )= �� �� �
S

33
IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

Ay m⁄
Discharge Q= s

Q
Velocity v= (m/s)

ℎ
� =

Results: Mean value of coefficient of elbow is ……….

Discussion:

34
 Experiment No 9
Object: To determine the coefficient of bend in a pipe flow.
Apparatus: Pipe bend-elbow setup, stop watch, meter scale
Theory: Pipe bends are used to change the flowing direction in a piping systems. When there
is bend in a pipe, the direction of velocity of flow changes, due to which the separation of flow
from the boundary and some energy is lost due to eddies formation.
Formulae used:
Loss of head due to bend:
�
ℎ =

Where Kb, coefficient of bend; v, mean velocity of flow;

The value of Kb depends upon angle of bend, radius of bend and diameter of pipe.
Description: The unit consists of a pipe in which the direction of flow of liquid is changed by
providing elbow. A differential mercury manometer is connected between these two sections
of pipe to measure the pressure drop. The set has a measuring tank and a closed circuit water
circulating system.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor and open the supply valve to circulate water through pipe.
2. Remove the air from the manometer limbs and maintain constant level in both limbs.
3. Now open the valve full and note down the deflection of mercury in both limbs of
manometer.
4. Note down the initial level of water in the measuring tank. Allow to flow water in the tank for a
given time (say 30 seconds) and record the final level of water in the tank.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for different flow rate.

35
Fig: To determine the coefficient of bend in a pipe flow

36
Observation:
Specific Gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
Specific Gravity of water Sw = 1.0
Diameter of smaller pipe d = ……………… m
π
Cross-sectional area of smaller pipe a= d = ………………………..…m2
Cross-sectional area of measuring tank A = ……………………… ……m2
IL, FL = initial and final level of water in measuring tank; t = time required to raise the water
level from IL to FL; LL= Left Limb of manometer; RL= Right Limb of manometer

Observation table:

SN Manometric Reading Tank Reading

Kb
LL RL x hb IL FL y Q v

cm cm cm of m of cm cm cm m3/s m/s
mercury water

Sample Calculation: Observation No……………

LL = ……..cm
RL = ……..cm
Difference x = RL – LL = ……..cm = …………….m
Difference of pressure head
S
ℎ = x( − )= �� �� �
S

37
IL = ………….cm
FL = …………cm
Difference y = FL – IL = ………cm = ……………m

Ay m⁄
Discharge Q= s

Q
Velocity v= (m/s)

ℎ
� =

Results: Mean value of coefficient of bend is ……….

Discussion:

38
 Experiment No 10
Object: To study pelton wheel turbine.

Construction:
(1) Casing

(2) Bucket and runner

(3) Nozzle and spear

(4) Braking jet

39
40
Working:

41