Strength of Materials: Basic Concepts

Strength of Materials (SOM) is a fundamental subject in civil engineering that deals with how
materials behave under different types of forces. It is crucial for designing safe and durable
structures like buildings, bridges, and roads.

1. Stress and Strain

1.1 Stress (σ)
Definition
Stress is the internal resisting force per unit area within a material when subjected to external
loads. It determines the ability of a material to withstand forces before failure.

Mathematical Formula:
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴
Where:
𝜎 = Stress (N/mm² or MPa)
𝐹 = Applied force (N)
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area (mm²)

Types of Stress
Type Symbol Formula Example
Tensile Stress 𝜎𝑡 𝐹 Stretching a rod
𝐴
Compressive Stress 𝜎𝑐 𝐹 Pressing a column
𝐴
Shear Stress 𝜏 𝐹 Cutting with scissors
𝐴
Bending Stress 𝜎𝑏 𝑀 Bending of a beam
𝐼
Torsional Stress 𝜏𝑡 𝑇 ⋅𝑟 Twisting of a shaft
𝐽
Illustration of Different Stresses:

Tensile Stress: A rope being pulled apart.

Compressive Stress: A concrete column under a heavy load.
Shear Stress: A bolt being cut by scissors.
1.2 Strain (ε)
Definition
Strain is the deformation per unit length of a material when subjected to stress.

Mathematical Formula:
𝛥𝐿
𝜀=
𝐿
Where:
𝜀 = Strain (dimensionless)
𝛥𝐿 = Change in length (mm)
𝐿 = Original length (mm)

Types of Strain
Type Formula Example
Tensile Strain 𝛥𝐿 Stretching a rubber band
𝐿
Compressive Strain 𝛥𝐿 Squashing a foam block
𝐿
Shear Strain tan𝜃 Angular deformation in rivets
Illustration of Different Strains:

Tensile Strain: A stretched spring.

Compressive Strain: A squeezed sponge.
Shear Strain: A deformed metal plate under force.

2. Elasticity and Plasticity

2.1 Elasticity
Definition
Elasticity is the property of a material to return to its original shape after the removal of applied
stress.

Examples:
Rubber Band – Stretches and returns to shape.
Steel – Elastic up to a certain limit.

Elastic Limit:
The maximum stress a material can withstand before permanent deformation occurs.
2.2 Plasticity
Definition
Plasticity is the ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation after stress is removed.

Examples:
Clay – Molds into shape permanently.
Lead – Easily deforms under force.

Plastic Deformation:
Happens when stress exceeds the yield point, leading to permanent shape change.

3. Hooke’s Law
Definition
Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

Mathematical Formula:
𝜎=𝐸⋅𝜀
Where:
𝐸 = Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus) (N/mm²)
𝜎 = Stress (N/mm²)
𝜀 = Strain (dimensionless)

Significance of Hooke’s Law

Used in designing springs and beams.
Helps determine elastic properties of materials.

4. Stress-Strain Curve
Stages in a Stress-Strain Curve:
Elastic Region: Material returns to original shape (Hooke’s Law applies).
Yield Point: Material starts to deform permanently.
Plastic Region: Large deformation with little increase in stress.
Ultimate Stress Point: Maximum stress the material can withstand.
Fracture Point: Material breaks.
1. Introduction to Shear Force and Bending Moment
1.1 What is Shear Force?
Shear Force (SF) at any section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting to
the left or right of that section.

Formula:
𝑆𝐹 = ∑Forces (upward) - ∑Forces (downward)

Sign Convention for SF:

Positive Shear Force: Upward force on the left or downward force on the right.
Negative Shear Force: Downward force on the left or upward force on the right.

1.2 What is Bending Moment?

Bending Moment (BM) at any section is the sum of the moments of all forces acting to the left
or right of that section. It tells us how much bending occurs due to applied loads.

Formula:
𝐵𝑀 = ∑(Force × Distance)

Sign Convention for BM:

Positive Bending Moment (Sagging): Tension at the bottom, compression at the top.
Negative Bending Moment (Hogging): Compression at the bottom, tension at the top.

2. Numerical Example: Simply Supported Beam with

Point Load
Problem Statement
A simply supported beam of span 6m carries a point load of 10kN at 3m from the left
support. Find the Reactions, Shear Force, and Bending Moment at various points and draw
the Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD).

Step 1: Free Body Diagram (FBD) & Reactions Calculation

Given Data:

• Length of beam: 𝐿 = 6𝑚
• Point Load: 𝑃 = 10𝑘𝑁
• Load location: 3𝑚 from left support
• Supports: Simply supported at A & B
 Reactions at Supports:
By taking moments about point A:
𝑅𝐵 × 6 = 10 × 3
30
𝑅𝐵 = = 5𝑘𝑁
6
Using ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0:

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 10
𝑅𝐴 = 10 − 5 = 5𝑘𝑁

Reaction Forces:
𝑅𝐴 = 5𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = 5𝑘𝑁

Step 2: Shear Force Calculation

Shear Force at A (just left of A):
𝑆𝐹𝐴 = 0

Shear Force just right of A:

𝑆𝐹 = 𝑅𝐴 = 5𝑘𝑁

Shear Force just left of Load (at 𝑥 = 3𝑚)

𝑆𝐹 = +5𝑘𝑁

Shear Force just right of Load (at 𝑥 = 3𝑚)

𝑆𝐹 = 5 − 10 = −5𝑘𝑁

Shear Force at B (just left of B):

𝑆𝐹 = −5𝑘𝑁

Shear Force just right of B:

𝑆𝐹 = 0

Shear Force Variation:

• From A to Load (3m): Constant +5𝑘𝑁

• Just after Load: Sudden drop from +5𝑘𝑁 to −5𝑘𝑁
• From Load to B (6m): Constant −5𝑘𝑁
Step 3: Bending Moment Calculation
Bending Moment at A:
𝐵𝑀𝐴 = 0

Bending Moment at Load (x = 3m):

𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝐴 × 3 = 5 × 3 = 15𝑘𝑁𝑚

Bending Moment at B:
𝐵𝑀𝐵 = 0

Bending Moment Variation:

• Starts at 0 at A
• Increases linearly to maximum 15kNm at Load
• Decreases linearly to 0 at B

Step 4: Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)
Start at 𝑆𝐹𝐴 = 0
Move up to +5𝑘𝑁 (Reaction at A)
Constant line until 𝑥 = 3𝑚
Sudden drop from +5𝑘𝑁 to −5𝑘𝑁 (Point Load at 𝑥 = 3𝑚)
Constant line until 𝑥 = 6𝑚
Back to 0 at 𝐵

Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)

Starts at 0 at A
Linearly increases to 15kNm at x = 3m
Linearly decreases to 0 at B

3. Numerical Example: Simply Supported Beam with

Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
Problem Statement
A simply supported beam of span 8m carries a UDL of 2kN/m over the entire length. Find the
Reactions, Shear Force, and Bending Moment and draw SFD & BMD.
Step 1: Reactions Calculation
Total Load on Beam:
𝑊 = 2 × 8 = 16𝑘𝑁

Reactions at Supports:
𝑊 16
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = = = 8𝑘𝑁
2 2
𝑅𝐴 = 8𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = 8𝑘𝑁

Step 2: Shear Force Calculation

Shear Force at A:
𝑆𝐹𝐴 = 8𝑘𝑁

Shear Force at any section 𝑥:

𝑆𝐹 = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑤𝑥

Shear Force at midspan 𝑥 = 4𝑚:

𝑆𝐹 = 8 − (2 × 4) = 0

Shear Force at B:
𝑆𝐹𝐵 = −8𝑘𝑁

Shear Force Variation:

• Starts at +8𝑘𝑁
• Linearly decreases to 0𝑘𝑁 at midspan
• Further decreases to −8𝑘𝑁 at B

Step 3: Bending Moment Calculation

Bending Moment at any section 𝑥:
𝑤𝑥 2
𝐵𝑀𝑥 = 𝑅𝐴 𝑥 −
2
Maximum Bending Moment at midspan 𝑥 = 𝐿/2:
 𝑤𝐿2 2 × 82
𝐵𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 16𝑘𝑁𝑚
8 8
Bending Moment Variation:

• Starts at 0 at A
• Increases to maximum 16𝑘𝑁𝑚 at midspan
• Decreases to 0 at B

Conclusion
Shear Force Diagram (SFD): Linear for UDL.
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD): Parabolic curve.
Maximum BM occurs at midspan.

1. Point Load at a distance on a Simply Supported Beam

o The SFD shows a sudden drop at the point where the load is applied.
o The BMD has a peak at the point load location.
2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) on a Simply Supported Beam
 o The SFD follows a linear variation due to the continuous nature of the UDL.
o The BMD has a parabolic shape since the moment increases gradually along the
beam.
Bending Stress in Beams
1. Understanding Bending Stress
When a beam is subjected to a bending moment, internal stresses develop within the beam's
cross-section. These stresses vary across the depth of the section, with the top fibers experiencing
compression and the bottom fibers experiencing tension. At the neutral axis (NA) (the middle
layer of the beam), the stress is zero.

2. Bending Stress Formula (Flexural Formula)

The bending stress (𝜎𝑏 ) at any fiber distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis is given by the Bending
Equation:
𝜎𝑏 𝑀 𝐸
= =
𝑦 𝐼 𝑅
Where:
• 𝜎𝑏 = Bending stress (N/m² or MPa)
• 𝑀 = Bending moment at the section (N·m or kN·m)
• 𝐼 = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis (m⁴)
• 𝑦 = Distance of the fiber from the neutral axis (m)
• 𝐸 = Young’s modulus of elasticity (N/m²)
• 𝑅 = Radius of curvature of the beam
3. Bending Stress Distribution
• Compression Zone: The upper half of the beam is in compression (negative stress).
• Neutral Axis (NA): A horizontal axis at the centroid of the section where the bending
stress is zero.
• Tension Zone: The lower half of the beam is in tension (positive stress).
• The maximum stress occurs at the topmost and bottommost fibers of the section.
4. Bending Stress Distribution Diagram
Here is the Bending Stress Distribution Diagram for a rectangular beam section:
• The upper region (red-shaded area) represents compression (negative stress).
• The lower region (blue-shaded area) represents tension (positive stress).
• The neutral axis (black dashed line) is where stress is zero.
Shear Stress in Beams
1. Understanding Shear Stress in Beams
When a beam is subjected to transverse loads, it not only experiences bending stress but also
shear stress. Shear stress occurs due to internal horizontal forces that resist the sliding of one
layer of the beam over another.
Unlike bending stress, which varies linearly across the section, shear stress distribution is
parabolic, meaning it is maximum at the neutral axis and zero at the top and bottom fibers of
the section.

2. Shear Stress Formula (Shear Stress Equation)

The shear stress (𝜏) at a distance y from the neutral axis is given by the Shear Stress Formula:
𝑉𝑄
𝜏=
𝐼𝑏
Where:
• 𝜏 = Shear stress at a given point (N/m² or MPa)
• 𝑉 = Shear force at the section (N or kN)
• 𝑄 = First moment of area about the neutral axis (m³)
• 𝐼 = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis (m⁴)
• 𝑏 = Width of the section at the point where shear stress is calculated (m)
The first moment of area (𝑄) is calculated as:
ˉ
𝑄 = 𝐴′ ⋅ 𝑦
Where:
• 𝐴′ = Area of the portion of the section above the point where shear stress is calculated
(m²)
ˉ
• 𝑦 = Distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of area 𝐴′ (m)

3. Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam Section

For a rectangular cross-section, the shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis and varies
parabolically across the depth:
 3 𝑉
𝜏max = ⋅
2 𝐴
Where 𝐴 is the total cross-sectional area (𝑏 × ℎ).

Here is the Shear Stress Distribution Diagram for a rectangular beam section:
• The shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis (center of the beam).
• The shear stress is zero at the top and bottom fibers.
• The parabolic shape of the distribution shows how shear stress gradually decreases
toward the outer edges.
Columns & Struts
Columns and struts are structural elements primarily designed to resist axial loads
(compression).
• Column: A vertical compression member used in buildings, bridges, and other structures.
• Strut: A compression member that can be inclined or horizontal, typically used in
trusses and frames.

1. Types of Columns
Columns are classified based on length, material, and cross-section.

(a) Based on Slenderness Ratio

The slenderness ratio (𝜆) is given by:
𝐿eff
𝜆=
𝑟
Where:
• 𝐿eff = Effective length of the column
𝐼
• 𝑟 = Radius of gyration (𝑟 = √𝐴, where 𝐼 = moment of inertia, 𝐴 = cross-sectional area)

Types of columns based on slenderness ratio:

1. Short Column (𝜆 < 12): Fails due to crushing (direct compression).
2. Long Column (𝜆 > 12): Fails due to buckling (lateral bending).
3. Intermediate Column: Failure is a mix of buckling and crushing.
(b) Based on Material
1. Steel Columns – Used in bridges, buildings, and industrial structures.
2. Reinforced Concrete Columns (RCC) – Common in buildings, can be tied or spiral.
3. Timber Columns – Used in temporary structures and scaffolding.
4. Composite Columns – A combination of different materials (e.g., steel-concrete).
(c) Based on Cross-Section
1. Rectangular/Square Columns – Common in RCC construction.
2. Circular Columns – Used in high-rise buildings and seismic zones.
3. I-Section or H-Section Columns – Used in steel structures.

2. Euler’s Formula for Buckling (For Long Columns)

For long, slender columns, failure occurs due to buckling. Euler’s formula gives the critical
buckling load:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃cr =
𝐿2eff
Where:
• 𝑃cr = Critical buckling load (N)
• 𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity (N/m²)
• 𝐼 = Moment of inertia (m⁴)
• 𝐿eff = Effective length of column (m)
Effective Length (𝐿eff ) Based on End Conditions
Column End Condition Effective Length (𝐿eff )
Both ends pinned 𝐿eff = 𝐿
Both ends fixed 𝐿
𝐿eff =
2
One end fixed, other free 𝐿eff = 2𝐿
Column End Condition Effective Length (𝐿eff )
One end fixed, other pinned 𝐿
𝐿eff =
√2
• Pinned Ends: Column is free to rotate but not translate.
• Fixed Ends: No rotation or translation is allowed.
• Fixed-Free: Maximum slenderness, weakest condition.

3. Slenderness Ratio
The slenderness ratio (𝜆) determines whether a column is short or long:
𝐿eff
𝜆=
𝑟
• Low 𝜆 (< 12) → Short column (Fails by crushing).
• High 𝜆 (> 12) → Long column (Fails by buckling).
Critical Load Based on Slenderness Ratio
• Short Columns: Failure occurs due to material strength (yielding). Use:
𝑃cr = 𝑓𝑐 𝐴
where 𝑓𝑐 = compressive strength.
• Long Columns: Failure occurs due to buckling (Euler’s formula is used).

Visualization of Buckling Behavior

Here are the buckling mode shapes for different column end conditions:
1. Pinned-Pinned: A sinusoidal shape with maximum deflection at the middle.
2. Fixed-Fixed: Less deflection, higher buckling resistance.
3. Fixed-Free (Cantilever): The largest deflection, weakest case.
4. Fixed-Pinned: Intermediate case, moderate buckling resistance.
Combined Bending and Direct Stress
When a structural element like a column, beam, or shaft is subjected to both axial (direct) load
and bending moment, the resulting stress distribution varies across the section. This scenario is
common in eccentric loading, where the axial load does not act through the centroid of the
section.

1. Direct (Axial) Stress (𝜎𝑑 )

When an axial load (𝑃) acts on a cross-section of area 𝐴, the direct stress is given by:
𝑃
𝜎𝑑 =
𝐴
• If 𝑃 is tensile, stress is positive (tension).
• If 𝑃 is compressive, stress is negative (compression).

2. Bending Stress (𝜎𝑏 )

When a bending moment (𝑀) acts on the section, it produces bending stress given by:
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐼
Where:
• 𝑀 = Applied bending moment (N·m)

• 𝑦 = Distance from the neutral axis (m)

• 𝐼 = Moment of inertia of the section (m⁴)

• Bending stress varies across the section:

o Maximum at the extreme fiber (𝑦 = ±ℎ/2 for a rectangular section).

o Zero at the neutral axis.

3. Combined Stress Distribution

The total stress at any fiber in the section is the sum of direct stress and bending stress:
𝑃 𝑀𝑦
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑑 ± 𝜎𝑏 = ±
𝐴 𝐼
 • At one extreme fiber (𝑦 = +ℎ/2):
𝑃 𝑀(ℎ/2)
𝜎max =
+
𝐴 𝐼
• At the other extreme fiber (𝑦 = −ℎ/2):
𝑃 𝑀(ℎ/2)
𝜎min = −
𝐴 𝐼
Key Observations:
1. If 𝑃 is large compared to 𝑀 → Stress is nearly uniform (pure axial load dominates).
2. If 𝑀 is large compared to 𝑃 → Significant variation in stress, possibly tension at one
end and compression at the other.
3. If 𝑀𝑦 > 𝑃𝐴 → Stress reversal occurs (one side in tension, the other in compression).
4. Eccentric Loading & Stress Distribution
When a load 𝑃 acts at an eccentricity 𝑒 from the centroidal axis, it creates a bending moment:
𝑀 =𝑃⋅𝑒
Thus, the combined stress formula becomes:
𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑦
𝜎= ±
𝐴 𝐼
Case Analysis:
1. Load acts through the centroid → No bending, uniform stress.
2. Load acts away from centroid (eccentricity present) → Non-uniform stress, possibility
of tension & compression zones.
5. Step-by-Step Numerical Example
Given Data:
• Axial load: 𝑃 = 50 kN
• Eccentricity: 𝑒 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
• Section: Rectangular 200 × 300 mm
𝑏ℎ3 (0.2)(0.3)3
• 𝐼= =
12 12
• Extreme fiber distance: 𝑦 = ±ℎ/2 = ±0.15 m
Let's calculate stress distribution at extreme fibers.

Numerical Results:
• Direct stress: 𝜎𝑑 = 833.33 kN/m²
• Bending stress (top fiber): 𝜎𝑏 = 833.33 kN/m²
• Bending stress (bottom fiber): 𝜎𝑏 = −833.33 kN/m²
• Total stress at the top fiber: 𝜎top = 1666.67 kN/m² (compression)
 • Total stress at the bottom fiber: 𝜎bottom ≈ 0 (neutral or tension zone)
Since the bottom fiber stress is close to zero, the section is in partial compression, meaning the
top is compressed while the bottom is nearly neutral. If the moment was larger, the bottom could
even go into tension.

1. Principal Stresses
A general 2D stress system consists of:
• Normal stress (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 ) acting along x- and y-axes.
• Shear stress (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) acting on the plane.

The principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses occurring at a particular
rotated angle where shear stress is zero.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

Where:
• 𝜎1 = Major principal stress (maximum normal stress).
• 𝜎2 = Minor principal stress (minimum normal stress).
• 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = Applied shear stress.

Principal Plane Angle (𝜃𝑝 )

The angle at which principal stresses occur is given by:
1 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜃𝑝 = tan−1 ( )
2 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

2. Mohr’s Circle for Stress Analysis

Mohr’s Circle is a graphical method to determine:

Principal Stresses
Maximum Shear Stress
Stress Components at Any Rotated Plane

Steps to Construct Mohr’s Circle:

Plot two points:

• 𝐴(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 )
• 𝐵(𝜎𝑦 , −𝜏𝑥𝑦 )

Determine the center (𝐶) of the circle:

 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝐶=( , 0)
2
Find the radius of the circle:

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝑅 = √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2

Draw the circle with center 𝐶 and radius 𝑅.

The principal stresses are the points where the circle intersects the normal stress axis.

• Maximum normal stress = 𝜎1

• Minimum normal stress = 𝜎2

The maximum shear stress is the maximum distance from the center along the shear stress
axis:
𝜏max = 𝑅

Strain Energy & Impact Loading

When a material deforms under load, it stores energy internally. This stored energy is known as
strain energy, and it plays a crucial role in impact loading situations, where sudden forces act on
a structure.

1. Strain Energy Calculation

(a) Strain Energy in Axial Loading
When a bar is subjected to a gradually applied axial load (𝑃), the strain energy (U) stored in the
material is given by:
1
𝑈= 𝑃𝛿
2
Since elongation (𝛿) under axial load is:
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
The strain energy can also be written as:
𝑃2 𝐿
𝑈=
2𝐴𝐸
Where:
• 𝑃 = Axial load (N)
• 𝐿 = Length of the bar (m)
 • 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area (m²)
• 𝐸 = Young’s modulus (Pa)
(b) Strain Energy per Unit Volume
Strain energy per unit volume is:
𝜎2
𝑢=
2𝐸
Where:
• 𝑢 = Strain energy density (J/m³)
• 𝜎 = Applied stress (Pa)
(c) Strain Energy in Bending
For a beam subjected to bending, the strain energy is:
𝑀2 𝐿
𝑈=
2𝐸𝐼
Where:
• 𝑀 = Bending moment (N·m)
• 𝐼 = Moment of inertia (m⁴)
(d) Strain Energy in Torsion
For a shaft under torsion, the strain energy stored is:
𝑇 2𝐿
𝑈=
2𝐺𝐽
Where:
• 𝑇 = Applied torque (N·m)
• 𝐺 = Shear modulus (Pa)
• 𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia (m⁴)

2. Impact Load & Energy Absorption

When a load is suddenly applied, it induces higher stress than a gradually applied load.
The impact energy is:
𝑈 = 𝑊ℎ
Where:
• 𝑊 = Falling weight (N)
 • ℎ = Drop height (m)
Impact Factor
If a sudden load acts on a structure, the stress produced is twice the stress from a gradually
applied load.
For a suddenly applied load:
𝜎impact = 2 × 𝜎static

For a falling weight from height ℎ:

𝜎 = √2𝑊ℎ/𝐴𝐿

This explains why impact loads are more dangerous than static loads!

Theory of Structures: Definitions & General Principles

The Theory of Structures deals with the analysis of structures to determine forces, reactions,
stresses, and deformations. It helps engineers design safe and efficient buildings, bridges, and
other structural systems.

1. Static Determinacy & Indeterminacy

A structure is classified based on its ability to be analyzed using only static equilibrium
equations.

(a) Statically Determinate Structures

• A structure is statically determinate if all support reactions and internal forces
can be found using the three static equilibrium equations:

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0

• Example: Simply Supported Beam

o If a beam has two supports (hinge and roller), it has only three unknown
reactions.
o Since there are three equations of equilibrium, we can solve for all unknowns.
o Hence, the beam is statically determinate.
Formula for Beams:
𝐷 = 𝑅−3
Where:
• 𝐷 = Degree of static indeterminacy
• 𝑅 = Total number of support reactions
 • 3 represents the three equations of equilibrium
If 𝐷 = 0, the structure is determinate.
If 𝐷 > 0, the structure is indeterminate.

(b) Statically Indeterminate Structures

• If a structure has more unknown reactions than available equilibrium equations, it is
statically indeterminate.
• Requires additional compatibility equations or methods like slope deflection, moment
distribution, or finite element analysis.
Example: Fixed Beam
• A fixed beam has four reaction components (two forces and two moments at both
ends).
• Since there are only three equilibrium equations, it is indeterminate to degree 1.
Formula for Indeterminacy
𝐷 = 𝑅−3
If 𝐷 > 0, extra equations (compatibility equations) are needed.

2. Equilibrium Conditions
A structure remains in equilibrium when the sum of all forces and moments acting on it is
zero.

(a) Force Equilibrium:

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0

• Ensures the structure does not translate (move) in any direction.

(b) Moment Equilibrium:
∑𝑀 = 0
• Ensures the structure does not rotate.

Practical Example: Simply Supported Beam

Consider a simply supported beam with a central point load 𝑃. The reactions at both supports
can be calculated using equilibrium equations:

Summation of Vertical Forces:

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑃

Moment Equilibrium at 𝐴:
 𝐿
𝑅𝐵 × 𝐿 = 𝑃 ×
2
Solving for 𝑅𝐵 :
𝑃
𝑅𝐵 =
2
Similarly, solving for 𝑅𝐴 :
𝑃
𝑅𝐴 =
2
Thus, the beam is statically determinate as all unknowns are found using equilibrium equations.

Pin-Jointed Structures (Trusses): Analysis using Method of Joints & Method

of Sections
A truss is a structural framework consisting of straight members connected at joints. The
members carry only axial forces (tension or compression) and are assumed to be pinned
(hinged) at the joints, preventing bending moments.

1. Assumptions in Truss Analysis

To simplify truss analysis, we assume:
All members are pin-connected (hinged).
Loads are applied only at joints (no bending in members).
Members are weightless (self-weight is ignored).
Trusses are in static equilibrium.

2. Method of Joints
This method involves analyzing forces at each joint to find member forces. It is based on the
two equilibrium equations:
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0

Steps for Solving a Truss using the Method of Joints

Determine Support Reactions

• Use equilibrium equations (∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0) to find support reactions.

Start at a Joint with Only Two Unknowns

• Choose a joint with only two unknown forces for easy calculation.

Apply Force Equilibrium in X & Y Directions

• Solve for unknown forces using:

 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0
• If a force is positive, the member is in tension.
• If a force is negative, the member is in compression.

Repeat for Other Joints

• Move to adjacent joints and continue solving.

Example: Simple Truss Analysis using Method of Joints
Consider a simple truss with a point load at the center.
Step 1: Calculate Support Reactions
Using equilibrium:
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑃
𝐿
∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐵 × 𝐿 = 𝑃 ×
2
Solving:
𝑃 𝑃
𝑅𝐵 = , 𝑅𝐴 =
2 2
Step 2: Start at Joint A
Using equilibrium equations at joint A, solve for unknown forces.
Step 3: Move to Other Joints
Repeat the process for joints B and C.

3. Method of Sections
The Method of Sections is useful for finding specific member forces without analyzing the
whole truss. It is based on cutting the truss into two parts and using equilibrium equations on
one section.

Steps for the Method of Sections

Cut the Truss Through the Required Members

• The cut should expose only three unknown forces for easy calculation.

Apply Equilibrium Equations on One Section

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0

• Solve for unknown forces.

 Determine if Members are in Tension or Compression

• Positive force → Tension

• Negative force → Compression
Example: Using Method of Sections
Consider a truss where we need to find the force in member BC.

Cut the truss through BC to separate the structure into two parts.
Use moment equilibrium about a convenient point to solve for BC.
Apply force equilibrium to solve for the remaining unknowns.

Comparison: Method of Joints vs. Method of Sections

Feature Method of Joints Method of Sections
Approach Analyzes forces at each joint Cuts the truss into sections
Best for Finding all member forces Finding specific member forces
Equations used ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0
Faster for Small trusses Large trusses with few unknowns

Fixed and Continuous Beams: Analysis using the Moment

Distribution Method
1. Introduction to Fixed and Continuous Beams
• Fixed Beam: A beam that is fixed at both ends, preventing rotation and translation. It has
four reaction components (two vertical reactions and two moments).
• Continuous Beam: A beam that extends over more than two supports. It is statically
indeterminate and requires special methods for analysis.
Since these beams are statically indeterminate, their analysis requires advanced methods like:
Moment Distribution Method (MDM)
Slope Deflection Method
Flexibility or Stiffness Method

2. Moment Distribution Method (MDM)

What is MDM?
• MDM is an iterative method for analyzing indeterminate beams and frames.
• It balances fixed-end moments (FEMs) by distributing unbalanced moments at each
joint.
• It is particularly useful for continuous beams and frames.
3. Basic Steps in Moment Distribution Method
Step 1: Calculate Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)

• If the beam was fully fixed, FEMs can be found using standard formulas.
• Example: For a fixed beam with a central point load, FEMs at A and B are:
𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 =
8
Step 2: Calculate Distribution Factors (DF)

• The distribution factor at a joint tells us how much of the moment is transferred to each
connected member.
• It is given by:
Stiffness of a Member
𝐷𝐹 =
Sum of Stiffness of All Members at the Joint
• For a prismatic beam, stiffness is:
𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
Step 3: Distribute Moments at Each Joint

• The unbalanced moment at a joint is distributed among connected members using

distribution factors.

Step 4: Carry-Over Moments

• The moment at one end of a member partially carries over to the other end.
• The carry-over factor for a beam is 50% (half of the moment is transferred to the other
end).

Step 5: Iterate Until Moments Balance

• Repeat the process until moments at joints are approximately zero (balanced).
4. Example Problem: Continuous Beam using Moment Distribution Method
Given:
A continuous beam ABC with:
• A uniformly distributed load (UDL) on span AB
• A point load at midspan BC
Step 1: Compute Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)
Using standard formulas:
 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝐴𝐵 =− , 𝑀𝐵𝐴 =+
12 12
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − , 𝑀𝐶𝐵 = +
8 8
Step 2: Compute Distribution Factors (DF)
For each joint, compute DF based on stiffness ratios.
Step 3: Distribute Moments
Apply moment distribution at joints, distributing moments according to DFs.
Step 4: Carry-Over Moments
Apply carry-over factors (usually 1/2) to opposite ends.
Step 5: Repeat Until Balanced
Continue iterations until the unbalanced moments approach zero.

5. Advantages of the Moment Distribution Method

No need for simultaneous equations
Easy hand calculations for continuous beams
Good for approximate structural analysis
Problem Statement
Analyze the continuous beam ABC using the Moment Distribution Method (MDM).
Given Data:
• Span AB = 6 m, Span BC = 6 m
• Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) on AB = 20 kN/m
• Point Load at Midspan of BC = 30 kN
• Supports A and C are simple supports (hinged), and B is a continuous support.
Step 1: Calculate Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)
For a fixed beam with UDL:
𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝐴𝐵 = − , 𝑀𝐵𝐴 = +
12 12
(20)(6)2
𝑀𝐴𝐵 =− = −60 kNm
12
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = +60 kNm
For a fixed beam with central point load:
 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − , 𝑀𝐶𝐵 = +
8 8
(30)(6)
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − = −22.5 kNm
8
𝑀𝐶𝐵 = +22.5 kNm

Member FEM at Left End FEM at Right End

AB -60 kNm (A) +60 kNm (B)
BC -22.5 kNm (B) +22.5 kNm (C)

Step 2: Calculate Stiffness & Distribution Factors

The stiffness (𝐾) of a prismatic member is given by:
𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
For Joint B:
𝐾𝐵𝐴 1/6
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐴 = = = 0.5
𝐾𝐵𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶 (1/6 + 1/6)
𝐾𝐵𝐶 1/6
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.5
𝐾𝐵𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶 (1/6 + 1/6)

Joint Member Distribution Factor (DF)

B BA 0.5
B BC 0.5

Step 3: Moment Distribution Table

Balancing Moment Carry-Over
Joint FEM Applied Distributed Moment Moment
B 60 (BA) -37.5 -18.75 (BA), -18.75 -9.375 (A), -9.375
(BC) (C)
B -22.5 +22.5 +11.25 (BA), +11.25 +5.625 (A), +5.625
(BC) (BC) (C)

After multiple iterations, the final moments stabilize at:

Member Final Moment at Left End Final Moment at Right End

AB -69.37 kNm +69.37 kNm
BC -21.87 kNm +21.87 kNm
Step 4: Compute Final Support Reactions
Using moment equilibrium, we calculate the support reactions at A, B, and C.

Final Summary
Moment Distribution Method balances the internal moments at each joint using an
iterative approach.
Final moments and support reactions are obtained after sufficient iterations.
This method avoids solving simultaneous equations and is efficient for continuous
beams.

Moment Distribution Method (MDM) – Detailed

Procedure & Applications
The Moment Distribution Method (MDM) is an iterative method used for analyzing statically
indeterminate beams and frames. It was developed by Hardy Cross and is widely used in
structural analysis due to its simplicity and effectiveness.

1. Concept of Moment Distribution Method

• In statically indeterminate structures, internal moments and forces are redistributed
among connected members until equilibrium is achieved.
• The method involves iterative balancing of moments at joints by distributing
unbalanced moments to connected members.
• This continues until moments at each joint reach approximate equilibrium.

2. Key Assumptions in MDM

3. Joints are initially fixed (i.e., no rotation is allowed).
4. Fixed-End Moments (FEMs) are calculated for the given loads.
5. Joints are gradually released, allowing rotation, and moments are distributed according
to stiffness.
6. Carry-over moments are transferred to adjacent supports.
7. The process is repeated until moments converge to stable values.

3. Step-by-Step Procedure of Moment Distribution Method

Step 1: Calculate Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)
• For each span, calculate the Fixed-End Moments (FEMs) assuming both ends are
fixed.

• Standard formulas for FEMs:

 (a) Fixed Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 = − , 𝑀𝐵 = +
12 12
(b) Fixed Beam with a Central Point Load (P)
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = − , 𝑀𝐵 = +
8 8
(c) Fixed Beam with Point Load (P) at distance 'a' from A

𝑃𝑏 2 𝑎 𝑃𝑎2 𝑏
𝑀𝐴 = − 2 , 𝑀𝐵 = + 2
𝐿 𝐿
Step 2: Compute Stiffness and Distribution Factors
• The stiffness of a beam segment is:
𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
• The distribution factor (DF) for each joint is:
𝐾
𝐷𝐹 =
∑𝐾
Step 3: Distribute the Moments at Each Joint
• The unbalanced moment at a joint is distributed based on the distribution factors (DF).
Step 4: Apply Carry-Over Moments
• Carry-over factor for beams is 1/2 (50% of the moment is transferred to the other end).
Step 5: Repeat Until Equilibrium is Achieved
• Continue the process until joint moments reach a stable value.

4. Example Problem – Solved Using Moment Distribution Method

Problem Statement
Analyze the continuous beam ABC using Moment Distribution Method.
Given Data:
• Span AB = 6 m, Span BC = 6 m
• Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) on AB = 20 kN/m
• Point Load at midspan of BC = 30 kN
• Supports A and C are simple supports (hinged), and B is a continuous support.
Step 1: Calculate Fixed-End Moments (FEMs)
For span AB (UDL = 20 kN/m, L = 6 m):
 𝑤𝐿2 (20)(6)2
𝑀𝐴𝐵 =− =− = −60 kNm
12 12
𝑀𝐵𝐴 = +60 kNm
For span BC (Point Load = 30 kN at midspan, L = 6 m):
𝑃𝐿 (30)(6)
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = − =− = −22.5 kNm
8 8
𝑀𝐶𝐵 = +22.5 kNm

Member FEM at Left End FEM at Right End

AB -60 kNm (A) +60 kNm (B)
BC -22.5 kNm (B) +22.5 kNm (C)

Step 2: Compute Stiffness and Distribution Factors

Stiffness of each span:
𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
For Joint B:
𝐾𝐵𝐴 1/6
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐴 = = = 0.5
𝐾𝐵𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶 (1/6 + 1/6)
𝐾𝐵𝐶 1/6
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.5
𝐾𝐵𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵𝐶 (1/6 + 1/6)

Joint Member Distribution Factor (DF)

B BA 0.5
B BC 0.5

Step 3: Moment Distribution Table

Balancing Moment Carry-Over
Joint FEM Applied Distributed Moment Moment
B 60 (BA) -37.5 -18.75 (BA), -18.75 -9.375 (A), -9.375
(BC) (C)
B -22.5 +22.5 +11.25 (BA), +11.25 +5.625 (A), +5.625
(BC) (BC) (C)

After multiple iterations, the final moments stabilize at:

Member Final Moment at Left End Final Moment at Right End
AB -69.37 kNm +69.37 kNm
BC -21.87 kNm +21.87 kNm

Step 4: Compute Final Support Reactions

Using moment equilibrium, we calculate the support reactions at A, B, and C.

5. Applications of Moment Distribution Method

Continuous beams (bridges, building floors).
Frames and portal frames in multi-story buildings.
Structural analysis of bridges.
Analysis of indeterminate structures where flexibility is required.

Final Summary
✔ Moment Distribution Method efficiently solves statically indeterminate structures.
✔ Fixed-End Moments (FEMs) are calculated first and then moments are distributed
iteratively.
✔ The process continues until moment equilibrium is reached at each joint.
✔ It is widely used for continuous beams, frames, and other complex structures.

Retaining Walls – Detailed Explanation

A retaining wall is a structure designed to hold back soil or other materials and prevent them
from collapsing or eroding. It is widely used in civil engineering, geotechnical applications,
and landscaping.

1. Types of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are classified based on their design, construction, and method of resisting
earth pressure.

(a) Gravity Retaining Wall

• Relies on its own weight to resist lateral earth pressure.
• Typically made of mass concrete, stone masonry, or brick masonry.
• Suitable for small to medium heights (up to 3–5 meters).
• Example: Garden walls, small embankments.

Advantages:
✔ Simple construction.
✔ Durable with proper drainage.
 Disadvantages:
✖ Requires large base width, making it uneconomical for taller walls.

(b) Cantilever Retaining Wall

• Most commonly used reinforced concrete (RC) wall.
• Comprises a thin vertical stem and base slab (heel & toe).
• Uses lever arm action to resist lateral pressure.
• Suitable for heights up to 6–8 meters.

Advantages:
✔ Requires less material than gravity walls.
✔ More economical for medium heights.

Disadvantages:
✖ Requires proper foundation design.
✖ Prone to overturning if not properly reinforced.

(c) Counterfort Retaining Wall

• Similar to cantilever walls, but has additional vertical ribs (counterforts) on the rear
side.
• Counterforts reduce bending moments and provide additional strength.
• Used for heights above 6 meters.

Advantages:
✔ Requires less concrete than gravity walls.
✔ Provides better stability than cantilever walls.

Disadvantages:
✖ More expensive due to extra reinforcement and labor.

(d) Anchored Retaining Wall

• Used for very high walls or where space is limited.
• Tied back with steel cables or rods anchored into rock or soil.
• Suitable for deep excavations and waterfront structures.

Advantages:
✔ Suitable for high walls (above 10m).
✔ Provides maximum support with minimal space.

Disadvantages:
✖ Complex design and construction.
✖ High cost due to anchors and tensioning process.
2. Earth Pressure Theories for Retaining Walls
The lateral earth pressure acting on a retaining wall depends on soil properties, wall movement,
and water table conditions.

(a) Rankine's Earth Pressure Theory

• Assumes a vertical wall with no friction at the backfill.

• Used for simple cases where soil properties are well known.

• Active Earth Pressure (Pa):

1
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2
2
where Ka is the active earth pressure coefficient.

• Passive Earth Pressure (Pp):

1
𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐻 2
2
where Kp is the passive earth pressure coefficient.

Limitations of Rankine's Theory:

✖ Assumes no wall friction.
✖ Cannot be used for inclined backfills.

(b) Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory

• Considers wall friction and sloping backfill.
• More suitable for practical engineering problems.

Advantages over Rankine's Theory:

✔ Considers friction between wall and soil.
✔ Applicable to inclined backfills.

Disadvantages:
✖ Requires trial and error for solving complex cases.

3. Stability Analysis of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls must be structurally stable and resist failure due to various forces. The three
main failure modes include:

(a) Overturning Failure

• The wall rotates due to excessive lateral earth pressure.
• Resisted by increasing the base width or using counterforts.
 • Factor of Safety (FOS) against overturning:
Resisting Moment
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
Overturning Moment
Should be ≥ 1.5.
(b) Sliding Failure
• The wall moves horizontally due to soil pressure.
• Resisted by friction at the base and shear keys.
• Factor of Safety (FOS) against sliding:
Resisting Force
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
Sliding Force
Should be ≥ 1.5.
(c) Bearing Capacity Failure
• The foundation soil fails, causing settlement.
• Prevented by using deep foundations or increasing the base width.
• Factor of Safety (FOS) against bearing failure:
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
Applied Pressure
Should be ≥ 3.0.

4. Drainage Considerations for Retaining Walls

Proper drainage is essential to prevent hydrostatic pressure buildup behind the wall. Common
drainage methods include:

Weep Holes – Small holes allowing water to drain.

Drainage Pipes – Perforated pipes to remove water.
Filter Layers – Sand or gravel layers to prevent clogging.

5. Example Problem – Stability Check of a Cantilever Retaining Wall

Given Data:
• Height of wall = 5 m
• Soil unit weight = 18 kN/m³
• Angle of internal friction = 30°
• Concrete weight = 24 kN/m³
• Base width = 3 m
• Stem thickness = 0.3 m
Step 1: Calculate Active Earth Pressure (Pa)
Using Rankine’s formula:
 1 − sin𝜙 1 − sin30
𝐾𝑎 = = = 0.33
1 + sin𝜙 1 + sin30
1 1
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2 = (0.33)(18)(5)2 = 74.25𝑘𝑁/𝑚
2 2
Step 2: Check Overturning Stability
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑊 × lever arm
𝐻
𝑀𝑂 = 𝑃𝑎 ×
3
Step 3: Check Sliding Stability
Resisting Force
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
Sliding Force

Final Summary
✔ Retaining walls are essential in geotechnical engineering to support soil and prevent
erosion.
✔ Different types include gravity, cantilever, counterfort, and anchored walls.
✔ Earth pressure theories (Rankine & Coulomb) help in design calculations.
✔ Stability analysis ensures the wall resists overturning, sliding, and bearing failure.