Computer Network : A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common

communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources
located on or provided by the network nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed
from a broad spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired,
optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network
topologies.

The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers, networking
hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by hostnames and
network addresses. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes, rarely changed after
initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by
communication protocols such as the internet protocol.

Objectives of Computer Network:

Right from the day of computer automation, a computer has developed computer in each
department. For example, the task can be to keep of track off inventories, monitor productivity
and maintain accounts. Initially, this computer in different department works as an isolation from
other computer. These provided the necessary computer assistance in the activities pertaining
to the respective department. It was not possible to share information among the departments.
As a result, the information was replicated wherever needed. This increased redundancy
caused increased in storage space, less data consistency etc.

Hence, at a point it was decided to connect the computers in various departments to extract the
information and correlate information about the entire company. The following are the objectives
of the computer networks.

1. Resource sharing is the main objective of the computer network. The goal is to provide all the
program, date and hardware is available to everyone on the network without regard to the
physical location of the resource and the users.

2. The second objective is to provide the high Reliability. It is achieved by replicating the files on
two or more machines, so in case of unavailability (due to fail of hardware) the other copies can
be used.

3. Computer organization has helped organization in saving money. This is due to the fact that
the small computer has much better price to the performance ratio comparison than the large
computer like mainframe. Mainframe computer are approximately ten times faster that the
microcomputers, but they cost thousands times more. As a result of this imbalance, organization
has preferred to install interconnected microcomputer connected to the mainframe computer.

4. Computer network have provided means to increase system performance as the work load
increases (load balancing). In the days of mainframe when the system was full it was to replace
with the other large mainframe computer, usually at and expensive rate not convenience for
user.
5. Computer network help people who live or work apart to report together. So, when one user
prepared some documentation, he can make the document online enabling other to read and
convey their opinions. Thus computer network is a powerful communication medium.

6. Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Users are authenticated by
their user name and password. Hence it is not possible to access the data without proper
account. This increases security.

Application of Networks: Some of the network applications of the different fields are the
following.
1. Marketing and sales: Marketing professional uses them to collect exchange and analyze data
relating to customer needs and product development cycles.

Sales application includes Teleshopping, which uses order entry computers or telephone
connected to an order processing network, and online reservation services for railways, hotels,
airlines, restaurants theatre etc.

2. Financial services: It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment
services and electronic fund transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money without going
to bank.

3. Manufacturing: computer networks are used today in many aspects of manufacturing,

including the manufacturing processes itself. Two aspects that uses network to provide
essential services are computer Assisted design (CAD) and computer Assisted manufacturing
(CAM), both of which allow multiple user to work on a project simultaneously.

4. Electronic Messaging: E-mails transfer the messages between two and more users in a
network. With this application user can transfer the information in the form of text, picture and
voice.

5. Directory Services: It allows list of files to be stored in central location to speed up the world
wide search operation. E.g. search engines like Google, Britannia, and Yahoo etc.

6. Information Services: It includes Bulletin Boards and data bank. A ‗www‘ site offering the
technical specification for a new product in a information services.

7. Electronic Data Exchange (EDI): EDI allows business information (including documents such
as purchase orders and services) to be transferred without using paper.

8. Teleconferencing: It allows conference to occur without the participant being in the same
location. It includes:

Text Conferencing: Participant communicates through their keywords and computer monitors.
Voice Conferencing: Participant at a number of locations communicates simultaneously through
phone (talk).

Video Conferencing: Participant can see as well as talk to another.

9. Cellular Telephone: Wireless phone communication even while travelling through long
distance.

10. Cable TV: This is widest usable thing today throughout the world.

Computer Network Types:

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

Computer Network Types

LAN(Local Area Network)
PAN(Personal Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
Local Area Network provides higher security.
Computer Network Types
PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
Computer Network Types
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

Computer Network Types

Wired Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a
home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer,
television but they are not connected to the internet.
Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Computer Network Types
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
It can be used in a college within a city.
It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states
or countries.
A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Computer Network Types
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the
branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy
the emails, files or back up servers.
Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get
the updated files within seconds.
Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application
like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth.
The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of
our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the
virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches.
Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
Internetwork
An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer network
segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing scheme.
This process is known as internetworking.
An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The
access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet
is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the
external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as

Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization
which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the
intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization employees. An
intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the organization
can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be accessed
by the authorized user.
Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to another
device with different architecture.
Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes the
duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

What Is Network Topology?

Network topology refers to how various nodes, devices, and connections on your network are
physically or logically arranged in relation to each other. Think of your network as a city, and the
topology as the road map. Just as there are many ways to arrange and maintain a city—such as
making sure the avenues and boulevards can facilitate passage between the parts of town
getting the most traffic—there are several ways to arrange a network. Each has advantages and
disadvantages and depending on the needs of your company, certain arrangements can give
you a greater degree of connectivity and security.

There are two approaches to network topology: physical and logical. Physical network topology,
as the name suggests, refers to the physical connections and interconnections between nodes
and the network—the wires, cables, and so forth. Logical network topology is a little more
abstract and strategic, referring to the conceptual understanding of how and why the network is
arranged the way it is, and how data moves through it.

Why Is Network Topology Important?

The layout of your network is important for several reasons. Above all, it plays an essential role
in how and how well your network functions. Choosing the right topology for your company‘s
operational model can increase performance while making it easier to locate faults, troubleshoot
errors, and more effectively allocate resources across the network to ensure optimal network
health. A streamlined and properly managed network topology can increase energy and data
efficiency, which can in turn help to reduce operational and maintenance costs.

The design and structure of a network are usually shown and manipulated in a software-created
network topology diagram. These diagrams are essential for a few reasons, but especially for
how they can provide visual representations of both physical and logical layouts, allowing
administrators to see the connections between devices when troubleshooting.

The way a network is arranged can make or break network functionality, connectivity, and
protection from downtime. The question of, ―What is network topology?‖ can be answered with
an explanation of the two categories in the network topology.

Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections (wires, cables, etc.)
of how the network is arranged. Setup, maintenance, and provisioning tasks require insight into
the physical network.
Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the network is set up,
including which nodes connect to each other and in which ways, as well as how data is
transmitted through the network. Logical network topology includes any virtual and cloud
resources.
Effective network management and monitoring require a strong grasp of both the physical and
logical topology of a network to ensure your network is efficient and healthy.

What’s the Most Common Type of Network Topology?

Building a local area network (LAN) topology can be make-or-break for your business, as you
want to set up a resilient, secure, and easy-to-maintain topology. There are several different
types of network topology and all are suitable for different purposes, depending on the overall
network size and your objectives.

network topology types

As with most things, there‘s no ―right‖ or one-size-fits-all option. With this in mind, I‘ll walk you
through the most common network topology definitions to give you a feel for the advantages
and disadvantages of each.

What Is Star Topology?

A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid out so every node in the network is
directly connected to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable. Acting as a
server, this central node manages data transmission—as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its destination—and functions as a
repeater, which helps prevent data loss.
Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

Star topologies are common since they allow you to conveniently manage your entire network
from a single location. Because each of the nodes is independently connected to the central
hub, should one go down, the rest of the network will continue functioning unaffected, making
the star topology a stable and secure network layout.

Additionally, devices can be added, removed, and modified without taking the entire network
offline.

On the physical side of things, the structure of the star topology uses relatively little cabling to
fully connect the network, which allows for both straightforward setup and management over
time as the network expands or contracts. The simplicity of the network design makes life easier
for administrators, too, because it‘s easy to identify where errors or performance issues are
occurring.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

On the flipside, if the central hub goes down, the rest of the network can‘t function. But if the
central hub is properly managed and kept in good health, administrators shouldn‘t have too
many issues.

The overall bandwidth and performance of the network are also limited by the central node‘s
configurations and technical specifications, making star topologies expensive to set up and
operate.

What Is Bus Topology?

A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a single cable running in a single
direction from one end of the network to the other—which is why it‘s sometimes called a ―line
topology‖ or ―backbone topology.‖ Data flow on the network also follows the route of the cable,
moving in one direction.

Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

Bus topologies are a good, cost-effective choice for smaller networks because the layout is
simple, allowing all devices to be connected via a single coaxial or RJ45 cable. If needed, more
nodes can be easily added to the network by joining additional cables.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

However, because bus topologies use a single cable to transmit data, they‘re somewhat
vulnerable. If the cable experiences a failure, the whole network goes down, which can be time-
consuming and expensive to restore, which can be less of an issue with smaller networks.

Bus topologies are best suited for small networks because there‘s only so much bandwidth, and
every additional node will slow transmission speeds.

Furthermore, data is ―half-duplex,‖ which means it can‘t be sent in two opposite directions at the
same time, so this layout is not the ideal choice for networks with huge amounts of traffic.

What Is Ring Topology? Single vs. Dual

Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring). The data can travel through the
ring network in either one direction or both directions, with each device having exactly two
neighbors.

Ring Topology

Pros of Ring Topology

Since each device is only connected to the ones on either side, when data is transmitted, the
packets also travel along the circle, moving through each of the intermediate nodes until they
arrive at their destination. If a large network is arranged in a ring topology, repeaters can be
used to ensure packets arrive correctly and without data loss.

Only one station on the network is permitted to send data at a time, which greatly reduces the
risk of packet collisions, making ring topologies efficient at transmitting data without errors.

By and large, ring topologies are cost-effective and inexpensive to install, and the intricate point-
to-point connectivity of the nodes makes it relatively easy to identify issues or misconfigurations
on the network.

Cons of Ring Topology

Even though it‘s popular, a ring topology is still vulnerable to failure without proper network
management. Since the flow of data transmission moves unidirectionally between nodes along
each ring, if one node goes down, it can take the entire network with it. That‘s why it‘s
imperative for each of the nodes to be monitored and kept in good health. Nevertheless, even if
you‘re vigilant and attentive to node performance, your network can still be taken down by a
transmission line failure.

The question of scalability should also be taken into consideration. In a ring topology, all the
devices on the network share bandwidth, so the addition of more devices can contribute to
overall communication delays. Network administrators need to be mindful of the devices added
to the topology to avoid overburdening the network‘s resources and capacity.
Additionally, the entire network must be taken offline to reconfigure, add, or remove nodes. And
while that‘s not the end of the world, scheduling downtime for the network can be inconvenient
and costly.

What Is Dual-Ring Topology?

A network with ring topology is half-duplex, meaning data can only move in one direction at a
time. Ring topologies can be made full-duplex by adding a second connection between network
nodes, creating a dual ring topology.

Dual-Ring Topology

Advantages of Dual-Ring Topology

The primary advantage of dual ring topology is its efficiency: because each node has two
connections on either side, information can be sent both clockwise and counterclockwise along
the network. The secondary ring included in a dual-ring topology setup can act as a redundant
layer and backup, which helps solve for many of the disadvantages of traditional ring topology.
Dual ring topologies offer a little extra security, too: if one ring fails within a node, the other ring
is still able to send data.

What Is Tree Topology?

The tree topology structure gets its name from how the central node functions as a sort of trunk
for the network, with nodes extending outward in a branch-like fashion. However, where each
node in a star topology is directly connected to the central hub, a tree topology has a parent-
child hierarchy to how the nodes are connected. Those connected to the central hub are
connected linearly to other nodes, so two connected nodes only share one mutual connection.
Because the tree topology structure is both extremely flexible and scalable, it‘s often used for
wide area networks to support many spread-out devices.

Tree Topology

Pros of Tree Topology

Combining elements of the star and bus topologies allows for the easy addition of nodes and
network expansion. Troubleshooting errors on the network is also a straightforward process, as
each of the branches can be individually assessed for performance issues.

Cons of Tree Topology

As with the star topology, the entire network depends on the health of the root node in a tree
topology structure. Should the central hub fail, the various node branches will become
disconnected, though connectivity within—but not between—branch systems will remain.
Because of the hierarchical complexity and linear structure of the network layout, adding more
nodes to a tree topology can quickly make proper management an unwieldy, not to mention
costly, experience. Tree topologies are expensive because of the sheer amount of cabling
required to connect each device to the next within the hierarchical layout.

What Is Mesh Topology?

A mesh topology is an intricate and elaborate structure of point-to-point connections where the
nodes are interconnected. Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh. Partial mesh topologies
are mostly interconnected, with a few nodes with only two or three connections, while full-mesh
topologies are—surprise!—fully interconnected.

Mesh topology

The web-like structure of mesh topologies offers two different methods of data transmission:
routing and flooding. When data is routed, the nodes use logic to determine the shortest
distance from the source to destination, and when data is flooded, the information is sent to all
nodes within the network without the need for routing logic.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies are reliable and stable, and the complex degree of interconnectivity between
nodes makes the network resistant to failure. For instance, no single device going down can
bring the network offline.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies are incredibly labor-intensive. Each interconnection between nodes requires a
cable and configuration once deployed, so it can also be time-consuming to set up. As with
other topology structures, the cost of cabling adds up fast, and to say mesh networks require a
lot of cabling is an understatement.

What Is Hybrid Topology?

Hybrid topologies combine two or more different topology structures—the tree topology is a
good example, integrating the bus and star layouts. Hybrid structures are most commonly found
in larger companies where individual departments have personalized network topologies
adapted to suit their needs and network usage.
Hybrid Topology

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

The main advantage of hybrid structures is the degree of flexibility they provide, as there are
few limitations on the network structure itself that a hybrid setup can‘t accommodate.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

However, each type of network topology comes with its own disadvantages, and as a network
grows in complexity, so too does the experience and know-how required on the part of the
admins to keep everything functioning optimally. There‘s also the monetary cost to consider
when creating a hybrid network topology.

Which Topology Is Best for Your Network?

No network topology is perfect, or even inherently better than the others, so determining the
right structure for your business will depend on the needs and size of your network. Here are
the key elements to consider:

Length of cable needed

Cable type
Cost
Scalability
Cable Length

Generally, the more cable involved in network topology, the more work it‘ll require to set up. The
bus and star topologies are on the simpler side of things, both being fairly lightweight, while
mesh networks are much more cable- and labor-intensive.

Cable Type

The second point to consider is the type of cable you‘ll install. Coaxial and twisted-pair cables
both use insulated copper or copper-based wiring, while fiber-optic cables are made from thin
and pliable plastic or glass tubes. Twisted-pair cables are cost-effective but have less bandwidth
than coaxial cables. Fiber-optic cables are high performing and can transmit data far faster than
twisted-pair or coaxial cables, but they also tend to be far more expensive to install, because
they require additional components like optical receivers. So, as with your choice of network
topology, the wiring you select depends on the needs of your network, including which
applications you‘ll be running, the transmission distance, and desired performance.

Cost

As I‘ve mentioned, the installation cost is important to account for, as the more complex network
topologies will require more time and funding to set up. This can be compounded if you‘re
combining different elements, such as connecting a more complex network structure via more
expensive cables (though using fiber-optic cables in a mesh network is overdoing it, if you ask
me, because of how interconnected the topology is). Determining the right topology for your
needs, then, is a matter of striking the right balance between installation and operating costs
and the level of performance you require from the network.

Scalability

The last element to consider is scalability. If you anticipate your company and network
expanding—or if you‘d like it to be able to—it‘ll save you time and hassle down the line to use
an easily modifiable network topology. Star topologies are so common because they allow you
to add, remove, and alter nodes with minimal disruption to the rest of the network. Ring
networks, on the other hand, have to be taken entirely offline for any changes to be made to any
of the nodes.

Components of Computer Netwiork :

Hardware Components
Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the network.
The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they give user accesses
to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database servers, print

servers etc.
Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to access and

use the network resources.

Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.
Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is transferred

from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial
cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.

Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers,

by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting devices are:
a. Routers

b. Bridges

c. Hubs

d. Repeaters
 e. Gateways

f. Switches

Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server
and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.

Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer

networks. The two popular protocol suites are −

a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
b. TCP / IP Model

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:

Least expensive
Easy to install
High-speed capacity
Susceptible to external interference
Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-
data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:

Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

Eliminates crosstalk
Comparatively faster
Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
More expensive
Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:

High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data.

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer)
supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:

Increased capacity and bandwidth

Lightweight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:

Difficult to install and maintain

High cost
Fragile

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features:

The signal is broadcasted through air

Less Secure
Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It
is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)
Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission
mode:-
These are explained as following below.

1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode
is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same time.
The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
the directions.

Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:

Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
other for receiving.
Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Serial and Parallel Transmission
Digital data transmission can occur in two basic modes: serial or parallel. Data within a computer
system is transmitted via parallel mode on buses with the width of the parallel bus matched to
the word size of the computer system. Data between computer systems is usually transmitted in
bit serial mode . Consequently, it is necessary to make a parallel-to-serial conversion at a
computer interface when sending data from a computer system into a network and a serial-to-
parallel conversion at a computer interface when receiving information from a network. The type
of transmission mode used may also depend upon distance and required data rate.

Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, multiple bits (usually 8 bits or a byte/character) are sent simultaneously
on different channels (wires, frequency channels) within the same cable, or radio path, and
synchronized to a clock. Parallel devices have a wider data bus than serial devices and can
therefore transfer data in words of one or more bytes at a time. As a result, there is a speedup in
parallel transmission bit rate over serial transmission bit rate. However, this speedup is a tradeoff
versus cost since multiple wires cost more than a single wire, and as a parallel cable gets longer,
the synchronization timing between multiple channels becomes more sensitive to distance. The
timing for parallel transmission is provided by a constant clocking signal sent over a separate
wire within the parallel cable; thus parallel transmission is considered synchronous .

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire) which reduces costs
for wire but also slows the speed of transmission. Also, for serial transmission, some overhead
time is needed since bits must be assembled and sent as a unit and then disassembled at the
receiver.

Serial transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous . In synchronous transmission,

groups of bits are combined into frames and frames are sent continuously with or without data to
be transmitted. In asynchronous transmission, groups of bits are sent as independent units with
start/stop flags and no data link synchronization, to allow for arbitrary size gaps between frames.
However, start/stop bits maintain physical bit level synchronization once detected.

Applications
Serial transmission is between two computers or from a computer to an external device located
some distance away. Parallel transmission either takes place within a computer system (on a
computer bus) or to an external device located a close distance away.

A special computer chip known as a universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART) acts as
the interface between the parallel transmission of the computer bus and the serial transmission of
the serial port. UARTs differ in performance capabilities based on the amount of on-chip
memory they possess.

>> What is Synchronous Transmission?

The term synchronous is used to describe a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data
blocks.

Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data
signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the
transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in
blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.

Synchronous transmission modes are used when large amounts of data must be transferred very
quickly from one location to the other. The speed of the synchronous connection is attained by
transferring data in large blocks instead of individual characters.

Synchronous transmission synchronizes transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending
end of the transmission using clock signals built into each component. A continual stream of data
is then sent between the two nodes.
The data blocks are grouped and spaced in regular intervals and are preceded by special
characters called syn or synchronous idle characters. See the following illustration.

Figure 1. Synchronous transmission

After the syn characters are received by the remote device, they are decoded and used to
synchronize the connection. After the connection is correctly synchronized, data transmission
may begin.

An analogy of synchronous transmission would be the transmission of a large text document.

Before the document is transferred across the synchronous line, it is first broken into blocks of
sentences or paragraphs. The blocks are then sent over the communication link to the remote site.

The timing needed for synchronous connections is obtained from the devices located on the
communication link. All devices on the synchronous link must be set to the same clocking.

The following is a list of characteristics specific to synchronous communication:

 There are no gaps between characters being transmitted.

 Timing is supplied by modems or other devices at each end of the connection.
 Special syn characters precede the data being transmitted.
 The syn characters are used between blocks of data for timing purposes.

Due to there being no start and stop bits the data transfer rate is quicker although more errors will
occur, as the clocks will eventually get out of sync, and the receiving device would have the
wrong time that had been agreed in the protocol for sending/receiving data, so some bytes could
become corrupted (by losing bits).

Ways to get around this problem include re-synchronization of the clocks and use of check digits
to ensure the bytes is correctly interpreted and received.

Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous transmission.

>> What is Asynchronous Transmission

In contrast, asynchronous transmission works in spurts and must insert a start bit before each
data character and a stop bit at its termination to inform the receiver where it begins and ends.

The term asynchronous is used to describe the process where transmitted data is encoded with
start and stop bits, specifying the beginning and end of each character.
An example of synchronous transmission is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2. Asynchronous transmission

These additional bits provide the timing or synchronization for the connection by indicating
when a complete character has been sent or received; thus, timing for each character begins with
the start bit and ends with the stop bit.

When gaps appear between character transmissions, the asynchronous line is said to be in a mark
state. A mark is a binary 1 (or negative voltage) that is sent during periods of inactivity on the
line as shown in the following figure.

Figure 3. Mark (idle) bits in the data stream

When the mark state is interrupted by a positive voltage (a binary 0), the receiving system knows
that data characters are going to follow. It is for this reason that the start bit, which precedes the
data character, is always a space bit (binary 0) and that the stop bit, which signals the end of a
character, is always a mark bit (binary 1).

The following is a list of characteristics specific to asynchronous communication:

 Each character is preceded by a start bit and followed by one or more stop bits.
 Gaps or spaces between characters may exist.

With asynchronous transmission, a large text document is organized into long strings of letters
(or characters) that make up the words within the sentences and paragraphs. These characters are
sent over the communication link one at a time and reassembled at the remote location.
In asynchronous transmission, ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10 bits. For
example, "0100 0001" would become "1 0100 0001 0". The extra one (or zero, depending on
parity bit) at the start and end of the transmission tells the receiver first that a character is coming
and secondly that the character has ended. This method of transmission is used when data are
sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream. In the previous example the start and stop bits
are in bold.

The start and stop bits must be of opposite polarity. This allows the receiver to recognize when
the second packet of information is being sent.

Asynchronous transmission is used commonly for communications over telephone lines.