OP-AMPS: Block View, Gain

Parameter and Frequency, Cascode,

Folded Cascode, 2-Stage Op-Amps,
Gain Boosting

Dipankar Pal,
Dept. of EEE & EI,
BITS-Pilani, K. K. Birla Goa Campus
Op-Amp: As a Block (contd.)
The circuit is designed for a nominal of 10, i.e., 1+R1/R2=10.
Determine the minimum value of A1 for a gain error of 1% or less.

Vout A1 R1 + R2 A1
= =
Vin R2 R2 R1 + R2
1+ A1 + A1
R1 + R2 R2
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Op-Amp: As a Block
Vout  R1   R1 + R2 1 
Assuming A1>>10 we can approximate:  1 + .1 − . 
Vin  R2   R2 A1 
R1 + R2 1
where the quantity . represents the gain error.
R2 A1

From above, it is clear that to have a gain error of 1% or less A1

should be 1000 or more.

Op-Amp Frequency Response: Block Perspective

• Open-loop gain drops as frequency
goes up.
• fu : unity-gain; f3-dB : 3-dB frequency
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
 Frequency Response: Exercise
Assume the op amp is a single-pole
voltage amplifier. If Vin is a small
step, calculate the time required
for the output voltage to reach
within 1% of its final value. What
unity-gain bandwidth must the op
 R2 
amp provide if 1+R1/R2 ≈10 and the Vin − Vout . A(s ) = Vout
settling time is to be less than 5ns.  R1 + R2 
For simplicity, assume the low- A(s )
frequency gain is much greater 
Vout
(s ) =
. A(s )
Vin R2
than unity. 1+
R1 + R2
A(s ) =
A0
For a single-pole system where  0 is the 3dB
s
1+
0
cut-off and A0 . 0 is the unity-gain bandwidth. It leads to (contd.)
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
 Frequency Response: Exercise A0
R2
1+ . A0
R1 + R2
Vout
(s ) = R
A0
=
s
Vin s
1+ 2
. A0 + 1+
R1 + R2 0  R2 
1 + . A0 .0
 R1 + R2 
This indicates that the closed loop transfer function is a single pole
system with a time constant ( ) where:
1
=
 R2 
1 + . A0 .0
 R1 + R2 
R2
Since low frequency loop gain .A0 is >> 1, time constant ( )
R1 + R2
 R1  1
becomes   1 + .
 R2  A00 Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
 Frequency Response: Exercise

The output step response for Vin = au (t ) can now be written as with
 R1   −t

Vout (t )  a1 + .1 − e .u (t )


 R2   
 R1 
the final value VF  a1 +  . For 1% settling Vout  0.99  VF . Thus
 R2 
 −t
1% 
1 − e   = 0.99 t1% =  ln100  4.6
 
 

For 1% settling time of 5ns,   1.09ns . We also get:

 R1 
A00 = 1 +  /  = 9.21Grad / s(1.47Ghz )
 R2 
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Op-Amp: Open Loop Topology

Small Signal Open Loop Gain at Low Frequency ( Av )

 RoN  RoP 
Av = g mN  
 RoN + RoP 
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Op-Amp Voltage Follower: Closed Loop (feed back)

Assume all the overdrives are

0.3 V and the VT = 0.7 V
for both NMOS and PMOS.
Vin(min)→ VGS1 + over-drive for current source
= VGS1+0.3=(0.3+VT)+0.3=0.3+0.3+0.7=1.3V
Vin(max)→ when M1 on triode-border = VDD-mod(VGS3)+VT= 3-(0.3+0.7)
+0.7=2.7V
Rout ( open ) Rout ( open ) Rout ( open ) 1
Rout = =  
1 +  . Av 1 + g mN .Rout ( open ) g mN .Rout ( open ) g mN
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Telescopic Cascode Op-Amp: For High Gain

(
Av = g mN . g mN r 2 oN ) (g mP r 2
oP )

Drawback - Output swing is limited to:

2.VDD − (VODM 1 + VODM 3 + VCSS + VODM 5 + VODM 7 ) where subscript
OD denote overdrive.

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

 Other Drawback in Telescopic Cascode Op-Amp
Shorting output to input to design unity gain buffer requires
output to be within a maximum and minimum value.

Condition for M2 to be
in saturation limits:
Vout  VX + VTH 2

Again for M4 to be in
saturation: Vout  Vb − VTH 4
Thus we get
Vb − VTH 4  Vout  V X + VTH 2  Vb − VTH 4  Vout  Vb − VGS 4 + VTH 2

(substituting V X = Vb − VGS 4 )
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Telescopic Cascode Op-Amp (contd.)

The range (=Vout-Max-Vout-Min) is:

Vout −range = VTH 4 + VTH 2 − VGS 4

This can be maximized by

reducing overdrive of M4.

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Table for Calculating Important Parameters

CH7 CMOS Amplifiers 12

 Telescopic Cascode Op-Amp: Design Exercise

Specification: VDD=3 V,
differential output swing = 3V,
power dissipation = 10mW,
voltage gain = 2000. Given
μnCox=60 μA/V2, μpCox=30μA/V2,
λn=0.1V-1, λp=0.2V-1 (for an
effective channel length of 0.5
μm), γ=0, VTHN= |VTHP|=0.7 V

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

 Telescopic Cascode: Design Exercise (Contd.)
• Power budget: Itotal= 3.330 mA. Hence: IM9 = 3 mA, IMb1 + IMb2 =
330 μA (apportioned on estimated drain current need)

• Output swing:
- Node X(Y) swing=1.5 V,
- M3-M6 in saturation
- |VOD7|+|VOD5|+VOD3+VOD1+VOD9=1.5 V
- Since M9 carrying largest current, VOD9≈0.5 V (chosen)
- Since M5-M8 suffer from low mobility, |VOD5|=|V|≈0.3 V,
VOD1=VOD3 ≈ 0.2 V (chosen)

• W/L: From ID=(1/2)μCox(W/L)(VGS−VTH)2 and using minimum

length (0.5μm) for all MOS to minimize capacitances.
(W/L)1−4=1250, (W/L)5−8=1111, (W/L)9=400

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Telescopic Cascode: Design Exercise (Contd.)
• Gain: Av ≈ gm1[(gm3ro3r)|| (gm5ro5ro7)]. Since λ∝1/L.

We can therefore increase the

 nCoxWI D 1 WL width or length
g m .ro  . 
L I D ID
• Modulation:
Since M1~M4 appear in signal path for keeping minimum
capacitance, we double the width and length of M5~M8 to
increase ro (gm remains constant). Choosing
(W/L)5−8=1111μm/1μm ⇒ Av ≈ 4000

• CM level: Minimum allowable input CM level=VGS1+VOD9 =1.4 V.

• Bias: Vb1, min=VGS3+VOD1+VOD9=1.6V;

Vb2, max=VDD−(|VGS5|+|VOD7|)=1.7V

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

 Folded Cascode Fundamentals

Genesis of Folded
Cascode Topolgy

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

 Folded Cascode Topology

In left, ISS carries currents of both channels of cascode stage. In right,

input pair requires an additional bias current ⇒ ISS1 = (ISS/2)+ID3.
Folded topology consumes more power.

Input common mode (CM): Vin in Telescopic Cascode cannot be higher

than Vb1-VGS3+VTH1. The same for Folded Cascode cannot be less than
Vb1-VGS3+|VTHP|.

Substrates can be connected to VSS for M1(2).

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Folded Cascode Op-Amp Implementation

• Current implementation: Current sources

of original folded cascade are replaced by
M5~M10.

• Maximum output swing: Proper

choice of Vb1 and Vb2 gives
VDD-VOD3-VOD5-|VOD7|-|VOD9|
as peak-to-peak swing on
each side.

• Improvement: The swing is

larger in folded cascode.

Note: M5 and M6 may require high overdrive to minimize their

capacitance-contribution to nodes X and Y.
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Folded Cascode Op-Amp Topology

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Gain Estimation: Folded Cascode Op-Amp

Rop = (( g m 7 + g mb 7 ).ro 7 ).ro 9

Since (gm3+gmb3)−1||ro3 << ro1||ro5;
Rout = Rop (g m3 + g mb 3 ).ro 3 .(ro1 ro 5 )
Iout ≈ ID1 ⇒ Gm ≈ gm1; Av=Gm.Rout

Av  g m1 .( g m3 + g mb 3 ).ro 3 (ro1 ro 5 ) (g m7 + g mb7 ).ro 7 .ro9 

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Telescopic Cascode & Folded Cascode: Comparison
• For comparable dimensions, PMOS has a lower gm. Further in
Folded Cascode ro1 and ro5 comes in parallel at output resistance,
making the gain 2/3 times lower than Telescopic Cascode.

• Folded Cascode consumes more power.

• It has a “pole” at folding point which is closer to origin (due to

added capacitances: Ctot= CGS3+CSB3+CDB1+CGD1+(CGD5+CDB5) - higher
than Telescopic Cascode by CGD5+CDB5.
Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
 Folded Cascode: NMOS Input Stage

Has higher gain at the cost of “poles” at folding point closer to origin.

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Single Ended Output: Telescopic Cascode Topology

• VX=VDD−|VGS5|−|VGS7|, limits maximum Vout to VDD− |VGS5| −

|VGS7|+|VTH6|and wastes one VTHp in the swing (figure on the left)
• To overcome, M7 and M8 are biased at edge of triode region.
Another improved topology is given in the figure on the right.
• Disadvantages (of figure on the left):
- it provides only half the output voltage swing
- it contains a mirror pole at node X Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”
Single Stage Vs. Two Stage Op-Amp

• Op-Amps seen so far make small signal input-current to flow

directly through output resistance. They are single stage op-amps.

• There gain is obtained by multiplying transconductance with output

resistance.

• Gain can be increased by cascoding at the cost of output swing.

• Where gain and output swing are both desirable, the stage giving
high gain and the one giving high output swing are isolated – to
design a two stage op-amp.

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Two Stage Op-Amp
• First (gain) stage can be any of the topologies discussed so far.

• 2nd stage usually is a CS-stage which gives high output swing

• Overall Gain: Gain 1st Stage

(Av1)× Gain 2nd Stage ( Av 2)
Av1 = g m1 .(ro1 ro 3 )(= g m 2 .(ro 2 ro 4 ))

Av 2 = g m 5 .(ro 5 ro 7 )(= g m 6 .(ro 6 ro8 ))

• Output swing: VDD- |VOD5(6)|

-VOD7(8)

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits”

Two Stage Cascode Op-Amp (for increased gain)

Av  g m1, 2 .(g m 3, 4 + g mb 3, 4 ).rO 3, 4 .rO1, 2  (g m5 ,6 )

+ g mb 5, 6 .rO 5 ,O 6 .rO 7 ,O8  
(g m 9 ,10 .(rO 9,10 rO11,12 ))

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits” and Ching Y. Yang, Dept. of EE, National Chung Hsing University
Two Stage Op-Amp with Single Ended Output

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits” and Ching Y. Yang, Dept. of EE, National Chung Hsing University
Single Stage Op-Amp with Gain Booster

Rout = g m 2 .rO 2 .rO1 Rout  A1 g m 2 .rO 2 .rO1

Increasing impedance by feedback. Rout = 1 + ( g m 2 + g mb 2 ).rO 2 .rO1 + rO 2

Assuming g m .rO 1 we get Rout  ( g m 2 + g mb 2 ).rO 2 .rO1

If we ignore body-effect then Rout  A1 g m 2 .rO 2 .rO1

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits” and Ching Y. Yang, Dept. of EE, National Chung Hsing University
Gain Boosting in Cascode State (Regulated Cascode)

Av  g m1 ( g m 2 .rO 2 .rO1 )(
. g m 3 .rO 3 )
Drawback:

Since VX = VGS, the minimum Vout = VGS3+VOD2 is higher (in a simple

cascode with proper choice of VG2 it would be VOD1+VOD2)

Ref: Behzad Razavi, “Design of Analog Integrated Circuits” and Ching Y. Yang, Dept. of EE, National Chung Hsing University