FREQUENCY MODULATION and their TYPES OF FM

Frequency Modulation: Another method of modulating a sinusoidal carrier is angle modulation

Advantages of Angle modulation : Noise reduction, improved system fidelity and efficient power
usage.
Disadvantages Include : Increased bandwidth and use of more complex circuits.
Areas of applications : Radio broadcasting , TV sound transmission, two way mobile radio, cellular
radio, microwave communication , satellite communication.
The equation of an angle modulated wave is :

Where Ɵ(t) is the instantaneous phase deviation and further

Instantaneous Frequency : For an angle modulated wave

The equation for s(t)may be interpreted as a rotating phasor as shown here

❖ The angular velocity is dƟ(t)/dt which keeps changing in accordance with the
instantaneous modulating wave.
❖ If the carrier is unmodulated then the angular velocity will be constant as Ɵ(t)=2πfct+φc.
❖ The phasor will rotate at a constant angular velocity and φc is the value of Ɵ(t) at t=0
Phase Modulation: For the phase modulated wave the angle Ɵ (t) is given as
below

The equation for phase modulated wave is then

❖ Frequency Modulation:
❖ The instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied in proportion with the instantaneous magnitude of message x(t)
and it is expressed mathematically as follows

The expression for Ɵ (t) is

❖ In both FM and PM the angular argument Ɵ(t) is allowed to become a function of the message signal x(t).
❖ Hence the zero crossings of FM and PM waves will not have perfect regularity in the spacing between the
zero crossings.
❖ This means that the spacing between the adjacent zero crossing will not be constant but will keep
changing continuously. This is one of the important difference between FM,PM, and AM. The envelope of
FM or PM will always have a constant amplitude equal to the amplitude of the carrier .
Generation of FM using Phase Modulator:
Comparing these expressions , it can be concluded that an FM wave is actually a PM having a modulating
signal ∫0 t x(t) . The method of generation is shown below
Generation of PM using FM: The modulating signal is first passed through a
differentiator and then applied to a frequency modulator. The output of the
differentiator we get dx(t)/dt Hence the output of the frequency modulator will
be :
❖ In sinusoidal FM the modulating signal x(t)=E m cos(2πf m t) and this is a purely sinusoidal signal.
❖ In FM system the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
❖ The information is conveyed via the frequency changes and the amplitude remains constant.

Frequency Deviation (Δf):

❖ Amount by which the carrier frequency varies from
its unmodulated value
❖ The deviation is made proportional to the
instantaneous value of the modulating voltage
❖ Sinusoidal Phase modulation PM : The phase lead
increases as the amplitude of the modulating wave
goes positive—effect is the carrier frequency is
increased.
❖ The whole process is opposite as the amplitude of
the modulating wave goes negative leading to
decrease in frequency
❖ The PM wave of the fig in next slide is same as the
FM wave produced by dx(t)/dt.
.
Thus PM and FM waves can be identified
only by comparison with the original AM
wave
PM and FM with squared modulation
Even though PM is used in analog transmissions , it is widely used as a digital type of
modulation wherever it controls among dissimilar phases, which is known as PSK (phase
shift keying), and there are several forms are available in this.
It is still possible to merge PSK (phase shift keying) & AK (amplitude keying) in a type of
modulation is also called as QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation). Some of the
forms of FM that are used are listed below.
•Phase Modulation (PM)
•Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
•Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
•Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
•8-Point Phase Shift Keying (8 PSK)
•16-Point Phase Shift Keying (16 PSK)
•Offset Phase Shift Keying (OPSK)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Phase Modulation
The advantages of phase modulation include the following.
❖ Phase modulation (PM) is a simple contrasted to Frequency modulation (FM).
❖ It is used to find out the velocity of a target by removing Doppler data. This needs constant
carrier which is achievable during phase modulation however not in FM (frequency modulation).
•The main benefit of this modulation is signal modulation because it permits computer for
communicating on high-speed using a telephone system.
❖ When the information is being transmitted without intrusion then the speed rates can be
observed.
•And one more advantage of PM (phase modulation) is improved immunity toward the noise.
The disadvantages of phase modulation include the following.
❖ Phase modulation needs two signals by a phase variation among them. Through this, both the
two patterns are required like a reference as well as a signal.
❖ This type of modulation requires hardware which obtains more complex due to its conversion
technique.
❖ Phase ambiguity arrives if we exceed index pi radian of modulation (180 degrees).
❖ Phase modulation index can be enhanced by employing frequency multiplier.
 Phase Modulation Applications

❖ Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral element of
many digital transmission coding schemes that support an ample range of wireless
technologies such as GSM Satellite television, and Wi-Fi
❖ Phase modulation is used in digital synthesizers for generating waveform and signal
❖ This modulation is very useful in radio waves transmission, and it is an essential element
in several digital transmission coding schemes.
❖ PM is used for signal and waveform generation in digital synthesizers like Yamaha DX7
for phase modulation synthesis implementation, and Casio CZ for sound synthesis which
is known as phase distortion.
❖ S(t) is a non linear function of x(t). The process of frequency modulation is hence non
linear.
Single tone frequency modulation : Let the modulating signal be x(t) and the unmodulated carrier be be given
as ec. The following equations are then given as below :
 ❖ The frequency deviation Δf represents the maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency f i (t) of the
FM wave from the carrier frequency fc.
❖ Since Δ f=K f .Em the frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of modulation voltage (E m) and it
is independent of fm

❖ As the instantaneous frequency is changing continuously the angular velocity of a FM wave is a function of ωc
and ωm. For the FM wave

❖ If Ec is a rotating vector with a constant velocity ω then Ɵ(t)=ωt. But since it is changing continuously the
anguklar velocity of the FM wave is given as
Modulation Index : It is defined as

❖ The number modulation index decides the bandwidth of the FM wave .

❖ It also decides the number of sidebands having significant amplitudes.
❖ For AM the value of the modulation index can be 1.But for FM it can be greater than 1
Deviation Ratio :
❖ In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75kHZ. The maximum modulating
frequency is limited to 15 kHz.
❖ The deviation ratio is the modulation index corresponding to the maximum deviation and maximum
modulating frequency.
❖ Types of FM : There are two types : (a) NBFM (b) WBFM
❖ Narrow Band FM : This the FM with a small bandwidth.
❖ The modulation index is small as one radian.
❖ Spectrum contains a carrier , USB and LSB.
❖ For small values of modulation index the value of the j coefficients have the following
values:

Mathematically the narrow band FM is given as :

❖ . The (-) sign associated with the LSB will represent a phase shift of 180 degrees and mf is <1.
❖ Maximum permissible frequency deviation is restricted to about 5kHz.
❖ Narrow band FM finds applications in mobile communications such as police wireless,
❖ ambulances and taxicabs etc
Analysis of NBFM : The instantaneous frequency of FM is

The second term above will represent the frequency deviation and kf controls the
frequency deviation. Narrow band FM hence occurs for small values of kf
❖ FM DEMODULATION :
The conditions to be satisfied for FM demodulator are :
❖ It must convert frequency variations into amplitude variations
❖ The conversion must be linear and efficient
❖ The demodulation circuit should be insensitive to amplitude changes and should
respond only to frequency changes.
❖ Should not be too critical in its adjustment and operation.
Balanced Frequency Discriminator: Consider a tuned circuit to which a FM signal is applied. The centre
frequency of the FM signal is fc and let Δf be the frequency deviation.
The resonant frequency is deliberately adjusted to (fc+Δf) as shown in the figure. The amplitude of the
output voltage of the tank circuit depends on the frequency deviation of the FM signal.

❖ Simple Slope Detector: The output voltage

of the tank circuit is applied to a simple
diode detector of an RC load with proper
time constant.
❖ The circuit is simple but has the following
drawbacks
❖ (i)It is inefficient and is linear only over a
limited range.
❖ (ii)Difficult to adjust as the primary and
secondary of the transformer must be
tuned to slightly different frequencies
❖ The only advantage is that it is simple by
design.
BALANCED SLOPE DETECTOR : The circuit consists of two slope detector circuits. . The input voltages to the
two slope detectors are 180 degrees out of phase. There are three circuits as follows
(i)Primary is tuned to IF i.e., fc. (ii) Upper tuned circuit has a resonant frequency of (fc+∆f) and (iii) lower tuned
circuit tuned to (fc-∆f)

R1C1 and R2C2 are filters to filter the ripple out. The final output is
❖ When the input frequency is instantaneously equal to fc, the induced voltage in
the T1 winding of secondary is exactly equal to that induced in the winding T2.
❖ The input voltage to both the diodes D1 and D2 being same , the dc output
voltages V01 and V02 will be equal and opposite in polarity and so Vo=0
❖ fc< fin < (fc+∆f): The induced voltage in the winding T1 is high than that induced
in T2. Hence the V01 is greater than the negative output V02 of D2. Therefore
the output voltage Vo is positive.
❖ As the input frequency increases towards (fc+∆f) the positive output voltage
increases as shown below.
❖ If the output frequency goes outside the range the output voltage will fall due to
the reduction inn the tuned circuit response.
Advantages : The ckt is more, and has better linearity than the simple slope detector
Disadvantages : The linearity is not that good . Also the circuit tuning is difficult for it has to be tuned to three
different frequencies. Finally amplitude limiting is not provided

THE ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR : It operate on the principle that the instantaneous frequency is given as
f I =(1/2Δt) where the quantities are illustrated as shown
The condition to be satisfied for the time duration T is
(i) T should be small compared to (1/W) wheel where W is the message BW
(ii) T should be large than (1/fc)

Let the number of zero crossings during interval T be denoted by n 0 . Hence Δt i.e., the time
between the adjacent crossing points is given by ,

Δt= (T/no) . 4.74

Therefore the instantaneous frequency is given by ,

fi =(1/2Δt) =no/2T 4.75

By definition of instantaneous frequency there is a linear relation between fi and message signal
x(t). We can recover x(t) if no is known..
This can be achieved by using a zero crossing detector

Foster –Seeley Detector ( detailed understanding)

❖ Comparing the circuit with balanced slope detector we
find that the diode and load arrangement is same in
both the circuits.
❖ Here both the primary and the secondary windings
are tuned to the same centre frequency fc of the
incoming signal.
❖ This simplifies the tuning process to a great extent and
it will yield better linearity than the slope detector
❖ The FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR is also known as the PHASE-SHIFT DISCRIMINATOR.
❖ It uses a double-tuned rf transformer to convert frequency variations in the received fm signal to
amplitude variations.
❖ These amplitude variations are then rectified and filtered to provide a dc output voltage. This
voltage varies in both amplitude and polarity as the input signal varies in frequency. A typical
discriminator response curve is shown in fig
❖ The output voltage is 0 when the input frequency is equal to the carrier frequency (fr/fc). When
the input frequency rises above the center frequency, the output increases in the positive
direction.
❖ When the input frequency drops below the center frequency, the output increases in the negative
direction.

❖ The output of the Foster-Seeley discriminator is

affected not only by the input frequency, but also to a
certain extent by the input amplitude.
❖ Therefore, using limiter stages before the detector is
necessary
❖ The collector circuit of the preceding limiter/amplifier
circuit (Q1) is shown.
❖ The limiter/amplifier circuit is a special amplifier circuit
which limits the amplitude of the signal. This limiting keeps
interfering noise low by removing excessive amplitude
variations from signals.
❖ The collector circuit tank consists of C1 and L1.
❖ C2 and L2 form the secondary tank circuit.
❖ Both tank circuits are tuned to the center frequency of the
incoming fm signal.
❖ Choke L3 is the dc return path for diode rectifiers CR1 and
CR2. R1 and R2 are not always necessary but are usually
used when the back (reverse bias) resistance of the two
diodes is different.
❖ Resistors R3 and R4 are the load resistors and are bypassed
by C3 and C4 to remove rf. C5 is the output coupling
capacitor
❖ CIRCUIT OPERATION AT RESONANCE
❖ The voltage applied to the anode of CR1 is the vector sum of
voltages ep and e1, shown as e 3 on the
❖ diagram. Likewise, the voltage applied to the anode of CR2 is the
vector sum of voltages ep and e 2, shown as e4 on the diagram.
❖ At resonance e3 and e4 are equal, as shown by vectors of the
same length. Equal anode voltages on diodes CR1 and CR2
produce equal currents and, with equal load resistors, equal and
opposite voltages will be developed across R3 and R4.
❖ The output is taken across R3 and R4 and will be 0 at
resonance since these voltages are equal and of appositive
polarity.
❖ The diodes conduct on opposite half cycles of the input
waveform and produce a series of dc pulses at the rf rate. This rf
ripple is filtered out by capacitors C3 and C4
 ❖ OPERATION ABOVE RESONANCE.—A phase shift
occurs when an input frequency higher than the
center frequency is applied to the discriminator
circuit and the current and voltage phase
relationships change.
❖ When a series-tuned circuit operates at a
frequency above resonance, the inductive
reactance of the coil increases and the capacitive
reactance of the capacitor decreases.
❖ Above resonance the tank circuit acts like an
inductor.
❖ Secondary current lags the primary tank voltage,
ep.

❖ Notice that secondary voltages e 1 and e2 are still 180 degrees out of phase with the current (i S ) that
produces them.
❖ The change to a lagging secondary current rotates the vectors in a clockwise direction.
❖ This causes e l to become more in phase with ep while e2 is shifted further out of phase with ep. The
vector sum of ep and e2 is less than that of e p and e1.
❖ Above the center frequency, diode CR1 conducts more than diode CR2. Because of this heavier
conduction, the voltage developed across R3 is greater than the voltage developed across R4; the
output voltage is positive

OPERATION BELOW RESONANCE.—When the input frequency is

lower than the center frequency, the current and voltage phase
relationships change.
❖ When the tuned circuit is operated at a frequency lower than
resonance, the capacitive reactance increases and the
inductive reactance decreases.
❖ Below resonance the tank acts like a capacitor and the
secondary current leads primary tank voltage ep.
❖ This change to a leading secondary current rotates the
vectors in a counterclockwise direction.
❖ From the vector diagram one should see that e 2 is brought nearer in phase with e p, while e l is
shifted further out of phase with ep.
❖ The vector sum of e p and e 2 is larger than that of ep and e1. Diode CR2 conducts more than
diode CR1 below the center frequency.
❖ The voltage drop across R4 is larger than that across R3 and the output across both is negative.

IN THE NEXT SECTION THE OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT FROM A BRIEF POINT OF VIEW IS PRESENTED.
❖ Even though the primary and secondary tuned circuits are tuned to the same
centre frequency, the voltage applied to the two diodes D1 and D2 are not
constant.
❖ They may vary depending on the frequency of the input signal. This is due to
the change in phase shift between the primary and secondary windings
depending on the input frequency.
❖At fin=fc, the output voltages of the two diodes will be equal and opposite ,
The output voltage will be zero
❖For fin > fc the phase shift between the primary and secondary windings is
such that the output of D1>D2. The output will be positive
❖For fin<fc the phase shift between the primary and secondary windings is
such that output of D2 is > D1 making the output voltage negative.
❖Because the output is dependent on the primary-secondary phase
relationship this ckt is called phase discriminator
❖ Advantages : It is more easy to tune than
the balanced slope detector as there are
only two tuned circuits and both are to be
tuned at the same frequency fc
❖ (ii) Linearity is better This is because of the
operation of the circuit is more dependent
on primary to secondary phase relationship
which is very linear
❖ Drawbacks It does not provide amplitude
limiting . So it produces spurious errors in
the presence of noise or any other spurious
amplitude variations

Ratio Detector: Comparing with the Foster- Seeley circuit

(i) Direction of D2 is reversed.
(ii) A large value of C3 has been included in the ckt.
(iii) The output is taken somewhere else.
❖ The output voltage is equal to half the difference between the output voltages from
the individual diodes
❖ The operation of the ratio detector is similar to the phase discriminator. The phasor
diagrams are also identical.
❖ The additional feature of the ratio detector is the amplitude limiting action
incorporated due to the large value of C3. Hence this does not need an amplitude
limiter prior to the ratio detector
❖ Circuit Action : If the FM input V1 tunes to increase the secondary voltage also
increases. Due to this extra diode current will start to flow through D1 and D2 . This
increases the load current
❖ But the voltage across C5 will not change immediately but will increase gradually.
❖ The load current has increased but the load voltage is almost constant. Hence the
load impedance is effectively decreased .
❖ Because of this decrease the secondary of the input transformer is heavily damped.
❖ This reduces the Q value and the gain of the
amplifier driving the ratio detector will also
decrease.
❖ This will counteract the increase in FM input
voltage to the ratio detector.
❖ If the FM input amplitude tries to decrease the
load impedance will now decrease.
❖ Damping of the input transformer is reduced , and
the increase in Q will increase the gain of the
driving amplifier to compensate for the reduction
in amplitude
❖ The above amplitude limiting action is called as
Diode variable damping.
❖ Advantages of the Ratio detector :
❖ Easy to align, very good linearity and inherent
amplitude limitation
Pre-Emphasis : In FM systems noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
❖ Effect can be reduced by increasing the value of mf for higher modulating frequencies (fm). For this
purpose the deviation ∆f can be increased by increasing the amplitude for higher modulating
frequencies.
❖ Hence if we boost the amplitude of higher frequency modulating signals artificially then it will be
possible to improve the noise immunity.
❖ This process is termed as pre emphasis.. For this purpose the modulating AF signal is passed through a
HP RC filter before applying it to the modulator
❖With increasing fm the value of Xc decreases and modulating
voltage applied to FM modulator increases . Boosting is done as
per the pre arranged curve shown in the frequency response
characteristic
❖.Amount of preemphasis for US FM transmission and sound
transmission in TV has been standardised at 75 microsecs.
❖Pre emphasis is carried out at the transmitter
 ❖ The process of preemphasis is nullified or compensated at the receiver and
this process is termed as deemphasis.
Deemphasis :
❖ The artificially boosted high frequency signals are now brought to their original
amplitude.
❖ The 75 microsecs demphasis ckt is a standard one and is shown below and it is
a LPF with

The demodulated FM is applied to the ckt with increase in fm the reactance of C goes on
decreasing and the output of the circuit will also reduce
PHASE LOCKED LOOP BASED FM DEMODULATOR
❖ PLL FM Demodulator :PLL is used for tracking the phase and frequency of the carrier component of
an incoming FM signal.Useful for demodulating of FM signals in presence of low SNR.
❖ It is most suitable for use in space vehicle to earth data links or where the loss along then
transmission path Is quite large.
❖ PLL has (i) multiplier (ii) loop filter and (iii) VCO( a sine wave generator whose frequency is
determined by the voltage applied to it from an external source.)
❖ Hence any frequency modulator can work as a VCO

❖ The operation of the PLL is similar to any other feedback system.. The difference signal between
s(t) and b(t) is called the error signal.
❖ The quantity fedback is not amplitude but a generalised phase φ (t).
❖ The error signal e(t) is utilised to adjust the VCO frequency in such a way that the instantaneous
phase angle comes close to the angle of the incoming signal of s(t).
❖ At this instant the incoming signal is in synchronism with b(t) and the PLL is said to be locked to
the incoming signal.
 We assume that the VCO is adjusted initially so that when the control voltage comes to zero the
following two conditions are satisfied :
(i) The frequency of the VCO is precisely set at unmodulated fc and
(ii) The VCO output has a 90 degrees phase shift with respect to the unmodulated carrier
❖ It may be observed from the above eqs that the VCO output and the incoming signals are 90 deg out of phase
While the VCO frequency in absence of v(t) is precisely equal to the unmodulated frequency of the FM signal.
❖The incoming FM wave s(t) and b(t) are applied to the input of the multiplier and the multiplier output has the
following components

❖ After effectively eliminating the high frequency component the input to the LPF will be
❖ The output v(t) is given as in eq (4.84)and here h(t) is the impulse response of the LPF

❖ Using the last three equations we get :

 Now differentiating both sides of Eq 4.85 above we get

❖ Here k o has the dimensions of the frequency . On the basis of Eq 4.87 we can construct an
equivalent model of PLL
❖ This is shown in fig below. In this model v(t) and e(t) are also included utilising the
relationship between them.

❖ A comparison of Figs 4.50 and 4.51 reveals the

fact that they are similar except for the fact that
the multiplier in the equivalent model has been
replaced by a subtractor with a sinusoidal non
linearity and the VCO by an integrator.
❖ When the phase error is zero the PLL is locked. If
the phase error is < 1 radian
❖ As long as the phase error is < 0.5 radians the PLL is said to be in the near locked condition and the
sinusoidal non linearity can be discarded.
❖ The linearised model of PLL is valid under the above mentioned condition as shown in Fig 4.52 (a). The phase
error is related to the input phase by the equation
Now let us consider that for all values of frequency f inside the baseband signal we make the magnitude of L(f)
>>1. Then from Eq 4.90 we get
❖ Conclusion : Here it can be concluded that if the magnitude
of L(f) is very large for all frequencies of interest then the PLL
may be modelled as a differentiator with its output scaled by
a factor (1/2π Kv)
❖ This is shown in fig 4.52(b).
The simplified version of PLL shown may be used as FM
demodulator and can be easily verified.

Hence we can say that output v(t) of PLL is approximately same except for a scaling factor of ( kf/kv)as the original
baseband or modulating signal x(t) and frequency demodulation is performed.
Automatic Gain Control
Circuits
❖ Automatic Gain Control (AGC) was implemented in first radios for the reason of fading propagation
(defined as slow variations in the amplitude of the received signals) which required continuing
adjustments in the receiver’s gain in order to maintain a relative constant output signal.
❖ Such situation led to the design of circuits, which primary ideal function was to maintain a constant
signal level at the output, regardless of the signal’s variations at the input of the system.
❖ Now AGC circuits can be found in any device or system where wide amplitude variations in the
output signal could lead to lose of information or to an unacceptable performance of the system
❖ It is generally observed that as a result of fading the amplitude of the IF carrier at the detector input may
vary as much as 30 -40 dB.
❖ This will result in general level of corresponding variations of reproduced programme at the receiver output
mixer.
❖ The speaker output will become inaudible and will get buried in noise at the carrier minimum and becomes
large at the carrier maximum.
❖ Hence AGC ( automatic gain control ) or AVC ( automatic volume control) is effective means adopted.
Principle of AGC :
❖ The steps involved are
❖ To derive by rectification of carrier voltage in a linear diode detector, a dc voltage
proportional to the carrier amplitude
❖ To apply this dc voltage as a reverse biased at the input of the RF amplifier, frequency mixer
and the IF amplifier
❖ Thus now if the carrier signal amplitude increases the AGC bias increases and the gains of all
the tuned stages preceding the detector decrease resulting in the decrease in carrier
amplitude at the input of the detector bringing it back to its original value. And vice versa,

Linear Diode detector with Capacitor Filter and Simple AGC:

❖ The half-wave rectifier voltage is developed across load resistor R. C filters the RF components
due to which only the dc and modulating frequency voltage are obtained across R.
❖ AGC is picked up from the diode end of the load resistor R. But since this voltage consists of
modulating components as well, an AGC filter consisting of a series resistor R A and C A is used
to remove the baseband frequency component and thus leaving only a positive dc voltage as
the required AGC bias
❖ AGC is picked up from the diode end of the load resistor R. But since this voltage consists of
modulating components as well, an AGC filter consisting of a series resistor R A and C A is used to
remove the baseband frequency component and thus leaving only a positive dc voltage as the required
AGC bias

❖ The time constant of this AGC filter is selected suitably to remove

all modulating frequency components. Time constant RACA must
be large enough to remove even the lowest modulating
frequency component from the AGC bias.
❖ However AGC on the other hand must be small enough to
enable the AGC bias to follow the changes in carrier amplitude.
❖ Typical time constant of AGC filter is in the range of 0.1 to 0.2
seconds.
❖ The positive AGC bias applied to the base of PNP transistors
reduces the net forward bias at the emitter junction and reduces
the gain of the amplifier( next slide)
In the case of NPN transistors , a negative AGC is applied at the bases of the transistors of preceding tuned
stages. In this case the detector circuit is similar to that shown in Fig 8.44 except that the polarity of the diode
is reversed.
 ❖ Linear Diode detector with π-filter and simple AGC : In place of simple capacitor filter a π
filter is used for better removal of RF components.
❖ Also a manual volume control is generally provided by using a variable resistor at the input
of the first audio amplifier as shown in Fig below

Delayed AGC : The major drawback with the above simple circuits is that the AGC becomes operative
even for very weak signals.
❖ The result of this is that the receiver gain starts falling as soon as the diode detector starts
producing the output,
❖ An ideal AGC system must remain inoperative until the input carrier voltage reaches a large
predetermined voltage. Thereafter the AGC must come into operation to maintain the output level
constant instead of variation in input level of carrier voltage.
 If a delay is produced in AGC operation then it serves another purpose.

❖ With zero and small signal voltages , D2 conducts due to which the AGC bias just equals the potential
of cathode of the diode. Hence AGC remains fixed at a low positive value.
❖ As the input carrier voltage increases the AGC bias produced due to rectification of carrier voltage in
detector D1 increases .
❖ Also when this rectified bias magnitude is greater the magnitude of the positive cathode then D2
stops to conduct and the AGC system works normally
Amplified and Delayed AGC: If the delayed AGC bias is amplified before application as reverse bias
to the tuned amplifiers the AGC behaviour or chs closely approaches the ideal delayed AGC
AGC Characteristics: The different types are as shown
below.
Receivers : TRF and Superhet Receivers
❖ RECEIVERS : We can classify the radio receiver in two ways as under :
❖ Depending on the applications :
❖ AM broadcast Receivers : These receivers are used to receive the broadcast of
speech or music transmitted from AM broadcast transmitters which operate on
longwave, medium or short wave bands.
❖ FM Broadcast Receivers : These receivers are used to receive the broadcast
programmes from FM broadcast transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF bands.
❖ Communication Receivers : There are used for reception of telegraph and short
wave telephone signals.
❖ This means that communication receivers are used for various purposes other than
broadcast services.
❖ TV receivers : To receive TV broadcast in VHF or in UHF bands
❖ Radar Receiver :Used to receive Radar (i.e Radio detection and ranging ) signals
❖ Depending on the fundamental aspects , the classification (i) Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiveers
❖ (ii) Superheterodyne Receiver
❖ THE TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER : The first block of the receiver is the RF stage.
❖ This stage contains two or more RF amplifiers which have variable tuned circuit at the input and output
sides.
❖ At the receiving antenna there will be signals from different sources ( i.e stations) are present.
❖ The desired signal is chosen with the help of input variable tuned circuit of RF amplifiers the desired
signal is chosen.
❖ The selected signal is of μV and the signal is then amplified by the RF amplifier

❖ The amplified signal is applied to the detector .

❖ The resulting audio signal is amplified by an audio amplifier followed by amplification by a power
amplifier ( audio) and fed to a loud speaker
❖ It suffers from a tendency to oscillate at higher frequencies from the multistage RF amplifiers
with high gain and having the same operating frequency.
❖ If such an amplifier with such high gain as 20,000 has a small portion of the output leaked back
to the input of the RF stage ,it will result in positive feedback and oscillations.
❖ Reasons for this could be power supply coupling, stray capacitance coupling, radiation coupling
or coupling through any element common to the input and output stage.
❖ Selectivity refers to the ability to distinguish between the desired and undesired signal.TRF
receiver has a poor selectivity at high frequencies due to reinforced use of single tuned ckts.
❖ Consider the TRF receiver BW variation over the tuning range. For example in an AM system
consider that a tuned circuit is required to have a BW of 10 kHZ at a frequency of 540kHz.

❖ At the other end of this AM band ( 1649 kHz) the Q of the coil must increase by a factor of 3( 1640/535)
❖ However due to several losses dependent on frequency would prevent such a large increase.
❖ The Q factor of the circuit will not likely exceed 120 and the BW provided will not exceed and hence
 ❖ The increased bandwidth of 13.8 kHz in place of fixed bandwidth of 10 kHz the receiver will pick up adjacent
frequencies along with the desired stations.

❖ The Superhetero dyne Receiver : Basic Elements :

❖ The superhet receiver is popular because of its gain, selectivity and sensitivity characteristics are superior to
those of other receiver configurations

The incoming FM signal frequency is combined with LO signal through a mixer and is
converted to a signal of lower fixed frequency ( termed as IF or intermediate frequency).
THE IF signal is now amplified and demodulated to reproduce the original signal.
❖ Thus a constant frequency difference is maintained between the LO and incoming RF
signals through capacitance tuning in and which the capacitances are ganged together
and operated by a common control knob.
❖ The IF amplifier generally contains a number of transformers each having a pair of
mutually coupled tuned circuits.The IF amplifier provides most of the gain (i.e,
sensitivity) and selectivity of the receiver.
❖ Also since the chs of the IF amplifier are independent of the incoming frequency to
which the receiver is tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of the superhet receiver are
quite uniform throughout its tuning range and do not vary like for TRF receiver
❖ The design of the system is quite easy to provide high gain and constant BW.
❖ Because of its narrow BW, the IF amplifier rejects all other frequencies except IF.
❖ This reduces the risk of interference from other sources or stations.
❖ This selection process is key to the superhet’s performance.
❖ The demodulator extracts the original signal which is further amplified by an audio
amplifier followed by a power amplifier.
❖ The superhet receiver is thus suitable for a majority of radio receievers applications like AM, FM
,communications, SSB, TV and even radar receiver.
❖ In today’s crowded RF spectrum,the FCC makes adjacent channel assignments with only 10kHz
separating commercial broadcast band AM channels .
❖ Spacing for adjacent commercial broadcast band FM channels is 200 kHz and commercial TV
channels are separated by 6 MHz. A radio receiver must be capable of separating the desired
channel’s signals without allowing interference from an adjacent channel to spill over into the
desired channel’s passband
❖ Advantages of Superheterodyning
❖ No variation of BW and it remains constant over the entire operating range
❖ High sensitivity and selectivity
❖ High adjacent channel rejection
❖ Frequency Parameters of AM Receiver
❖ Two bands i.e medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW)
❖ RF carrier range (MW band ) : 535kHZ to 1650kHz(SW band) : 5 to 15 MHz
❖ Intermediate frequency IF: 455 kHz and IF bandwidth B : 10 kHz
❖ Receiver Characteristics : The most important parameters are selectivity , sensitivity,
fidelity, double spotting and tracking at the output
❖ Sensitivity : It is the ability to amplify weak signals. It is defined in terms of the
voltage which must be applied at receiver input terminals to provide a standard
output power measured at the output terminals . For AM case a signal modulated by
a 400 Hz sine wave and modulation index of 30% is applied through standard
coupling network called as dummy antenna.
❖ The loud speaker is replaced by an equivalent load resistance . The output
measured across this resistance must be to the standard value of 50 mW.
❖ Sensitivity is also expressed in μV or dB below 1V and is measured along three points
along the tuning range when a production receiver is lined up.
❖ However for professional receivers it is quoted as
signal power needed to produce a minimum
acceptable output signal with a min acceptable noise level.
❖ The factors that determine the sensitivity include
(i) The gain of the IF amplifier
(ii) Gain of the RF amplifier
(iii) NF of the receiver
❖ Selectivity : Ability to reject unwanted signals.
❖ Also expressed as attenuation offered to signal freq uencies adjacent to the tuned
frequency.
❖ It is expressed as a curve as shown below.
enerators is varied on either
❖ In selectivity measurements the frequency of the g
side of the receiver tuned frequency.
t is same as it was originally.
❖ The input voltage must be increased until the outpu
When the generator is tuned to the receivers fre quency, it is calculated at a
number of points and then plotted as shown
❖ Selectivity varies with receiving frequency and
becomes worse as frequency is raised.
❖ It mainly depends on the response of the IF
section with the mixer and RF amplifier playing
only a small role
❖ Fidelity : Ability of the receiver to reproduce all modulating frequencies equally
and depends typically on the frequency response of the AF amp.
❖ High fidelity is needed for reproduction of good quality music and for this purpose it is
essential to have a flat frequency response over a wide range of audio frequencies.
❖ Ideally the fidelity curve should be flat over the entire audio frequency range but it
decreases on either sides of the low and high frequency sides

❖ Do.uble Spotting : This occurs when the receiver picks

the same short wave station at two nearby points on
the dial setting .
❖ Reason for this poor image frequency rejection or the
front end of the receiver does not select different
adjacent signals very well.
❖ The process can be used to calculate the IF of an
unknown receiver. The spurious point on the dial will
be exactly at 2fi below the correct frequency.
❖ Tracking /Tuning : The LO frequency is made to track with the tuned ckts that are tuned to
to the input signal frequency in order to make a constant frequency difference at the mixer
output.
❖ For AM this 455 kHz .
❖ For this purpose the front end of the receiver tuned ckts are made to track each other by a
mechanical linkage or ganged capacitors.
❖ A ganged capacitor has three sections one each for the RF amp, mixer and LO. Trimmer
capacitors are connected in parallel with each section to ensure adjustment at high
frequencies.
❖ For low frequencies small variable capacitances called as padders are connected in series
with the inductor of the tank circuit.
❖ The various tuned circuits are mechanically coupled to ensure only one tuning and control
and dial
Tracking Error: The LO must be simultaneously be tuned to a frequency which differs from the signal
frequency by the value of IF.
Any error may result in an incorrect frequency being fed to the IF amplifier. This is a tracking error and can
result in stations appearing away from their correct position on the dial. A tracking error < 3 kHz is quite
acceptable

Image Frequency Rejection :

Superhet receiver suffers from Image frequency
problems which is inherent to the receiver and arises
because of the use of heterodyne principle.
 Now if a frequency f si manages to reach a mixer , such that
fsi=fo +fi (-8.2)

❖ Hence this frequency fsi would also produce fi when it is mixed with fo. This spurious
signal will also be amplified by the IF stage and would cause interference.
❖ This has the effect of two sources being received simultaneously.
❖ The term fsi is called as image frequency and is signal frequency plus twice the IF
❖ The rejection of an image frequency signal by a single tuned ckt may be
defined as the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the image
frequency.
❖ If the receiver has an RF stage then there is only a single tuned ckt and the rejection will be
calculated using eq(8.4).
❖ However if the receiver has two RF stage then there are two tuned ckts both tuned to fs.
❖ The image frequency rejection of each stage will be estimated using eq (8.4). The overall
rejection will be the product of the two
❖ The image frequency rejection of the receiver depends upon the front end selectivity of the
receiver.
❖ The rejection of the image frequency must be achieved before the IF stage. Once an undesired
frequency enters the first amplifier , it would become impossible to remove it from the desired
signal.
❖ It may be observed that if (fsi/fs) is large as is the case for AM broadcast band the use of an RF
stage is not necessary for good image frequency rejection. However it would become essential
above 3 MHz.
Tracking and IF amplifier: The receiver has a number of tuned circuits such as antenna , mixer , LO
tuned circuits and all the ckts must be tuned correctly if any station is to be tuned.. This is achieved
by using ganged arrangement of capacitors. It is essential to have that the frequency of the local
oscillator fo=signal frequency (fs) +IF.
The tracking can be either two point or three point tracking.
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCIES AND IF AMPLIFIERS : Some of the factors to consider include
(i) If the IF is quite high then a poor selectivity and poor adjacent channel rejection will result
unless sharp cut off filters are used in the IF stage of the receiver
(ii) A very high value of IF causes tracking problem in receiver
(iii) If the IF is lowered the image frequency rejection will become poor.The rejection of an image is
given as
❖ The image frequency rejection is improved if the ratio of the image
frequency to signal frequency is increased and this needs a high IF. Also the
image frequency rejection will become worse if the signal frequency is
increased.
❖ If the IF is very low, it will make the selectivity too sharp and cuts off the
sidebands.
❖ Also the frequency stability of the LO will have to be made correspondingly
higher since now any frequency drift is a larger proportion of the low IF than
that of a high IF.
❖ The IF must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver , otherwise
instability would occur and a heterodyne whistle would be heard and thus
make it impossible to tune to the frequency band just adjacent to the IF.
IF Used :
❖ In case of std broadcast AM receivers tuned to 540kHz to 1650kHz IF is 455kHZ
❖ AM, SSB, and other receivers used for shortwave or VHF reception use a first IF of 1.6
to 2.3MHz or else even 30 MHz. Such type of receivers use two or more different IFs
❖ FM broadcast receivers tuned to a std band of 88MHz use an IF of roughly 10.7 MHz.
❖ TV receivers in the VHF band (54MHz to 223MHz) and in the UHF band (470MHz to
940MHz) use IF between 26MHz and 46MHz with 36MHz and 46MHz being the two
most popular values
❖ Microwave and radar receivers using a frequency range of 1 GHz to 10 GHz use IFs
which depend upon the application with 30MHz,60 MHz and 70 MHz being the
popular values.
❖ The IF AMPLIFIER :This contains two or more stages of small signal tuned amplifier
using CE configuration.
❖ The output of the frequency mixer produced across the tuned ckt is coupled to the
input of the amplifier. Each such tuned ckt has a passband chs and the overall response
of the n stages of IF amplifier provides the required 10 kHZ bandwidth .
❖ The number of tuned ckts inductively coupled to the next stage is (n+1) where n is the
number of stages of the IF amplifier. This type of tuned ckt is called as IF transformer
(IFT).
❖ Two stages of IF amplifiers are used in commercial broadcast receivers . The Q factor is
kept high because the band of frequencies accomadated is quite small being only 10kHz
in AM broadcast receiver.
❖ A two stage IF amplifier is shown in the next slide.The IF voltage from the first IFT is fed
to the base of T1.
❖ The AVC bias is applied at the lower end of the first IFT secondary. For the first IF stage the
collector terminal is grounded through R4 while the emitter terminal is provided a positive
bias from the 6V dc supply through a potential divider.
❖ Also since the base terminal is grounded through the AVC bias , it results in the required
negative bias at the base with respect to the emitter.
❖ For given values of R1 and R2 the emitter to base bias is +3 V.

❖ The base is connected to the IF transformer secondary to a part of the positive dc supply through R5 and
R8 . Thus the collector to base is RB sed and emitter to base is forward biased.
❖ The R7- C7 combination provides emitter self bias and R4C4 provides the collector self bias in the first
stage . A step down transformer is used to get impedance matching between the two stages.
❖ Every stage of the IF amplifier provides a high gain. This results in a tendency of oscillation in the CE
amplifier because of positive feedback.
❖ This results in howling in audio output because of which the operation becomes unstable.
❖ To balance a negative feedback is provided by C2 or C6 connected between the base and one end of the
primary tuned circuit.