Module-2

Monday, July 24, 2023 1:43 PM

VECTOR SPACE
Topics:

 Vector Space
 dimensions
 Linear combinations and span
 Spanning of a vector space
 Linearly Independent and dependent space
 Subspace and Null –Space
 Problems based on the above topics

Definition: A vector space or linear space consists of the following:

1. A field 𝐹 of scalars

2. A set 𝑉 of objects, called vectors

3. A rule or operation, called vector addition, which associates with each pair of vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in 𝑉 a vector 𝛼 + 𝛽 in 𝑉, called
the sum of 𝛼 and 𝛽, in such a way that

(a) Addition is commutative, 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝛽 + 𝛼;

(b) Addition is associative, 𝛼 + (𝛽 + 𝛾) = (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝛾;

(c) There is a unique vector 0 in , called the zero vector such that 𝛼 + 0 = 0 + 𝛼 = 𝛼 for all 𝛼 in 𝑉;

(d) For each vector 𝛼 in 𝑉 there is a unique vector – 𝛼 in 𝑉 such that 𝛼 + (−𝛼 ) = 0;

4. A rule or operation, called scalar multiplication, which associates with each scalar 𝑐 in 𝐹 and vector 𝛼 in 𝑉 a vector 𝑐𝛼 in 𝑉,
called the product of 𝑐 and 𝛼, in such a way that

( a) 1. 𝛼 = 𝛼 for every 𝛼 in 𝑉;

(b) (𝑐 𝑐 )𝛼 = 𝑐 (𝑐 𝛼);

(c) c(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝛼 + 𝑐𝛽 ;

(d ) (𝑐 + 𝑐 )𝛼 = 𝑐 𝛼 + 𝑐 𝛼.

Problem 1: Let 𝐹 be any field, and let 𝑉 be the set of all 𝑛 −tuples 𝛼 = (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) of scalars 𝑥 in 𝐹. Show that 𝑉 is a
vector space over the field 𝐹 with respect to the following operations:

(i) The sum of 𝛼 and 𝛽 is defined by 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 ) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 , … , 𝑥 + 𝑦 )

(ii) The product of a scalar 𝑐 and vector 𝛼 is defined by 𝑐𝛼 = (𝑐𝑥 , 𝑐𝑥 , … , 𝑐𝑥 )

Problem 2: Let 𝐹 be any field, and let 𝑉 be the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices over the field 𝐹. Show that 𝑉 is a vector space over the
field 𝐹 with respect to the following operations:

(i) (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and (ii) (𝑐𝐴) = 𝑐𝐴

Problem 3: Let 𝐹 be any field and let 𝑆 be any non-empty set. Let 𝑉 be the set of all functions from the set 𝑆 into 𝐹. Show that
𝑉 is a vector space over the field 𝐹with respect to the following operations: (i) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑠) + 𝑔(𝑠) and (ii) (𝑐𝑓)(𝑠) =
𝑐𝑓(𝑠)

Problem 4: Let 𝐹 be any field and let 𝑉 be the set of all polynomials over F . Show that 𝑉 is a vector space over the field 𝐹with
respect to the following

(i) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) and (𝑐𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) .

Problem 5: The 𝑉 = 𝐶 be the set of all complex numbers and 𝐹 = 𝑅 be the set of real numbers. Show that 𝐶 is a vector space
over 𝑅 with respect to usual addition of complex numbers and usual scalar multiplication of complex numbers.

Results:

1. Let 𝑐 be a scalar and 0 be the zero vector. Show that 𝑐0 = 0.

2. For the scalar c and any vector 𝛼 such that 𝑐𝛼 = 0. Show that either 𝑐 = 0 or 𝛼 = 0.

3. Let 𝛼 is any vector in 𝑉. Show that (−1)𝛼 = −𝛼.

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 Problem 1: Let 𝐹 be any field, and let 𝑉 be the set of all 𝑛 −tuples 𝛼 = (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) of scalars 𝑥 in 𝐹. Show
that 𝑉 is a vector space over the field 𝐹 with respect to the following operations:

(i) The sum of 𝛼 and 𝛽 is defined by 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 , 𝑦 , … , 𝑦 ) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 , … , 𝑥 + 𝑦 )

(ii) The product of a scalar 𝑐 and vector 𝛼 is defined by 𝑐𝛼 = (𝑐𝑥 , 𝑐𝑥 , … , 𝑐𝑥 )

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Problem 2: Let 𝐹 be any field, and let 𝑉 be the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices over the field 𝐹. Show that 𝑉 is a vector space over the
field 𝐹 with respect to the following operations:

(i) (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and (ii) (𝑐𝐴) = 𝑐𝐴

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Dimension and Basis
Sunday, August 13, 2023 7:58 PM

Definition: A vector 𝛽 in 𝑉 is said to be a linear combination of the vectors 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 in 𝑉 provided

there exist scalars 𝑐 , 𝑐 , … , 𝑐 in 𝐹 such that 𝛽 = 𝑐 𝛼 + 𝑐 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝑐 𝛼 = ∑ 𝑐 𝛼 .

Problem 1: Write the vector 𝑥 = (1,7, −4) as a linear combination of vectors 𝑥 = (1, −3,2)and 𝑥 = (2, −1,1) in vector space 𝑉 (𝑅)
Problem 2: For what value of 𝑘 will the vector 𝑥 = (1, 𝑘, 5) in 𝑉 (𝑅) is a linear combination of vectors 𝑥 = (1, −3,2) and 𝑥 = (2, −1,1) .
Problem 3: Write the vector 𝑥 = (1, −2,5) as a linear combination of vectors 𝑥 = (1,1,1),𝑥 = (1,2,3),𝑥 = (2, −1,1).
Problem 4: Is the vector 𝑥 = (2, −5,3) in 𝑉 (𝑅) a linear combination of the vectors 𝑥 = (1, −3,2),𝑥 = (2, −4, −1),𝑥 = (1, −5,7)?

Definition: Linear Dependent(L.D) : If 𝑉 is a vector space over field 𝐹, then the vectors 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 are said to be linearly
dependent over 𝐹 if ∃ elements 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹(not all zero) such that 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝛼 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝛼 𝑥 = 0.

Definition: Linear Independent (L.I) : If 𝑉 is a vector space over field 𝐹, then the vectors 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 are said to be linearly
independent over 𝐹 if ∃ no elements 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹(not all zero) such that 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝛼 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝛼 𝑥 = 0.
i.e., 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝛼 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝛼 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝛼 = 𝛼 = ⋯ = 𝛼 = 0

Problem 1: Show that the set of vectors 𝑥 = (1,2,3),𝑥 = (1,0,0),𝑥 = (0,1,0) and 𝑥 = (0,0,1) are
linearly dependent(L.D).
Problem 2: Show that the set of vectors 𝑥 = (1,0,0),𝑥 = (0,1,0) and 𝑥 = (0,0,1) are linearly
independent.
Problem 3: Determine whether or not 𝑥 and 𝑦 are L.D. (i) 𝑥 = (4,3, −2),𝑦 = (2, −6,7)
1 −2 4 2 −4 8
(ii) 𝑥 = ,𝑦 =
3 0 −1 6 0 −2

Definition : Basis: Let 𝑉(𝐹) be a vector space and 𝑆 be a subset of 𝑉 so that

(i) 𝑆 consists of linearly independent vectors of 𝑉
(ii) each vector 𝑉 is a linear combination of elements of 𝑆.

Definition : Dimension: The number of elements in basis set is called the dimension of the vector space.
If the number of elements in basis set is finite, then the dimension is called finite dimension.
If the number of elements in basis set is infinite, then the dimension is called infinite dimension.

Problem 1: Examine whether the following set of vectors in 𝑉 (𝑅) forms a basis or not:
(i) (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)
(ii) (1,1,2), (1,2,5), (5,3,4)
(iii) (1,2,1), (2,1,0), (1, −1,2)
(iv) (1,0, −1), (1,2,1), (0, −3,2)

Problem 1: Write the vector 𝑥 = (1,7, −4) as a linear combination of vectors 𝑥 = (1, −3,2)and 𝑥 =
(2, −1,1) in vector space 𝑉 (𝑅)

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 Problem 2: For what value of 𝑘 will the vector 𝑥 = (1, 𝑘, 5) in 𝑉 (𝑅) is a linear combination of vectors
𝑥 = (1, −3,2) and 𝑥 = (2, −1,1) .

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 show that the set of vectors 𝑥 = (1,2,3),𝑥 = (1,0,0),𝑥 = (0,1,0) and 𝑥 = (0,0,1) are linearly
dependent(L.D).

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Show that the set of vectors 𝑥 = (1,0,0),𝑥 = (0,1,0) and 𝑥 = (0,0,1) are linearly independent.

Examine whether the following set of vectors in 𝑉 (𝑅) forms a basis or not:
(i) (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)

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Examine whether the following set of vectors in 𝑉 (𝑅) forms a basis or not:

(ii) (1,1,2), (1,2,5), (5,3,4)

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Subspace and null-space
Monday, August 21, 2023 6:24 AM

Subspaces:

Definition: Let 𝑉 be a vector space over the field 𝐹. A subspace of 𝑉 is a subset 𝑊 of 𝑉 which is itself a
vector space over 𝐹 with the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication on 𝑉.

Theorem 1: A non-empty subset 𝑊 of 𝑉 is a subspace of 𝑉 if and only if each pair of vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in 𝑊

and each scalar 𝑐 in 𝐹 the vector 𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽 is again in 𝑊

Proof: Suppose that 𝑊 is a non-empty subset of 𝑉 such that 𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽 belongs to 𝑊 for all vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in
𝑊 and all scalars 𝑐 in 𝐹. Since 𝑊 is non-empty , there is a vector 𝛾 in 𝑊, and hence (−1)𝛾 + 𝛾 = 0 is in
𝑊. Then if 𝛼 is any vector in 𝑊 and 𝑐 any scalar, the vector 𝑐𝛼 = 𝑐𝛼 + 0 is in 𝑊.

In particular, (−1)𝛼 = −𝛼 is in 𝑊. Finally, if 𝛼 and 𝛽 are in 𝑊, then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 1𝛼 + 𝛽 is in 𝑊.

Thus 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.

Conversely, if 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are in 𝑊, and 𝑐 is a scalar, certainly 𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽 is in 𝑊.

Problem 1: If 𝑉 is any vector space, then show that 𝑉 is a subspace of 𝑉 and the show that the subset
consisting of the zero vector alone {0} is a subspace of 𝑉.

Problem 2: In 𝐹

(a) Show that the set of 𝑛 −tuples (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) with 𝑥 = 0 is a subspace.

(b) Verify the set of 𝑛 −tuples (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) with 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 is a subspace.

Problem 3: Show that the space of polynomial functions over the field 𝐹 is a subspace of the space of all
functions from 𝐹 into 𝐹.

Problem 4: Show that the set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 symmetric matrices over the field 𝐹 is a subspace of the
space of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrices.

Problem 5: Let V be the space of all polynomial functions over 𝐹. Let 𝑆 be the subset of V consisting of
the polynomial functions 𝑓 , 𝑓 , … defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, . .

Then show that 𝑉 is the subspace spanned by the set 𝑆.

Theorem 2: Let 𝑉 be a vector space over the field 𝐹. The intersection of any collection of subspaces of 𝑉
is a subspace of 𝑉.

Proof: Let {𝑊 } be a collection of subspaces of 𝑉, and let 𝑊 = ⋂ 𝑊 be their intersection.

Since each 𝑊 is a subspace, each contains the zero vector.

Thus the zero vector is in the intersection 𝑊, and 𝑊 is non-empty.

Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be vectors in 𝑊 and let 𝑐 be a scalar.

By definition of 𝑊, both 𝛼 and 𝛽 be vectors in 𝑊 and because each 𝑊 is a subspace, the vector
(𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽) is in every 𝑊 .

Thus (𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽) is again in 𝑊.

Therefore, 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.

Definition: Let 𝑆 be a set of vectors in a vector space 𝑉. The subspace spanned by 𝑆 is defined to be the
intersection 𝑊 of all subspaces of 𝑉 which contain 𝑆.

When 𝑆 is a finite set of vectors, 𝑆 = {𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 }, we shall simply call 𝑊 the subspace spanned by
the vectors 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 .

Theorem: The subspace spanned by a non-empty subset 𝑆 of a vector space 𝑉is the set of all linear
combinations of vectors in 𝑆.

Proof: Let 𝑊 be the subspace spanned by 𝑆. Then each linear combination 𝛼 = 𝑥 𝛼 + 𝑥 𝛼 + ⋯ +

𝑥 𝛼 of vectors 𝛼 , 𝛼 , … , 𝛼 in 𝑆 is clearly in 𝑊.

Thus 𝑊 contains the set 𝐿 of all linear combinations of vectors in 𝑆.

The set 𝐿, on the other hand, contains 𝑆 and is non-empty.

If 𝛼, 𝛽 belongs to 𝐿 then 𝛼 is a linear combination, 𝛼 = 𝑥 𝛼 + 𝑥 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝛼 of vectors 𝛼 in 𝑆,

and 𝛽 belong to 𝐿 then 𝛽 is a linear combination, 𝛽 = 𝑦 𝛽 + 𝑦 𝛽 + ⋯ + 𝑦 𝛽 of vectors 𝛽 in 𝑆.

For each scalar 𝑐, 𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽 = ∑ (𝑐𝑥 )𝛼 + ∑ 𝑦 𝛽 . Hence 𝑐𝛼 + 𝛽 belongs to 𝐿. Thus 𝐿 is a subspace

of 𝑉.

Now we have shown that 𝐿 is a subspace of 𝑉 which contains 𝑆, and also that any subspace which
contains 𝑆 contains 𝐿. It follows that 𝐿 is the intersection of all subspaces containing 𝑆, i.e., that 𝐿 is the
subspace spanned by the set 𝑆.

Definition: If 𝑆 , 𝑆 , … , 𝑆 are subsets of a vector space 𝑉, the set of all sums 𝛼 + 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝛼 of

vectors 𝛼 in 𝑆 is called the sum of the subsets 𝑆 , 𝑆 , … , 𝑆 and is denoted by 𝑆 + 𝑆 + ⋯ + 𝑆 or by
∑ 𝑆.

Note: If 𝑊 , 𝑊 , … , 𝑊 are subspaces of a vector space 𝑉, then the sum 𝑊 = 𝑊 + 𝑊 + ⋯ + 𝑊 is

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Note: If 𝑊 , 𝑊 , … , 𝑊 are subspaces of a vector space 𝑉, then the sum 𝑊 = 𝑊 + 𝑊 + ⋯ + 𝑊 is
easily seen to be a subspace of 𝑉 which contains each of the subspaces 𝑊 .

Problem 1: Let 𝐹 be a subfield of the field 𝐶 of complex numbers. Find the subspace 𝑊 of 𝐹 spanned
by (1,2,0,3,0), (0,0,1,4,0), (0,0,0,0,1) . Show that (−3, −6,1, −5, −2) is in 𝑊, whereas(2,4,6,7,8) is not
in 𝑊 .

Problem 2: Let 𝐹 be a subfield of the field 𝐶 of complex numbers, and let 𝑉 be the vector space of all
𝑥 𝑦
2𝑋2 matrices over 𝐹. Let 𝑊 be the subset of 𝑉 consisting of all matrices of the form where
𝑧 0
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are arbitrary scalars in 𝐹. Finally, let 𝑊 be the subset of 𝑉 consisting of all matrices of the form
𝑥 0
where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are arbitrary scalars in 𝐹.
0 𝑦

Then show that

(i) 𝑊 and 𝑊 are subspaces of 𝑉.

(ii) 𝑉 = 𝑊 + 𝑊 and
𝑥 0
(iii) The subspace 𝑊 ∩ 𝑊 consists of all matrices of the form .
0 0

Definition: Let 𝐴 be an 𝑚𝑋𝑛 matric over a field 𝐹. The row vectors of 𝐴 are the vectors in 𝐹 given by
𝛼 = (𝐴 , … , 𝐴 ), 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑚. The subspace of 𝐹 spanned by the row vectors of 𝐴 is called the row
space of 𝐴.

12030
Problem 1: Find the row space of the matrix 𝐴 = 0 0 1 4 0 .
00001
12030
00140
Problem 2: Find the row space of the matrix 𝐵 = .
00001
48180

Problem 1: If 𝑉 is any vector space, then show that 𝑉 is a subspace of 𝑉 and the show that the subset
consisting of the zero vector alone {0} is a subspace of 𝑉.

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Problem 2: In 𝐹

(a) Show that the set of 𝑛 −tuples (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) with 𝑥 = 0 is a subspace.

(b) Verify the set of 𝑛 −tuples (𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) with 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 is a subspace.

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Problem 3: Show that the space of polynomial functions over the field 𝐹 is a subspace of the space of all
functions from 𝐹 into 𝐹.

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functions from 𝐹 into 𝐹.

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