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Rob Aley

Pro Functional PHP Programming

Application Development Strategies for
Performance Optimization, Concurrency,
Testability, and Code Brevity
Rob Aley
Oxford, UK

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book's
product page, located at www.apress.com/9781484229576 . For
more detailed information, please visit www.apress.com/source-
code .

ISBN 978-1-4842-2957-6 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-2958-3

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-2958-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954985

© Rob Aley 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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Acknowledgments
Isaac Newton said, “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the
shoulders of giants.” This book builds on, and I hope adds to, the
work of many others, the most notable of whom I would like to
acknowledge here.
The authors of, and contributors to, the official PHP Manual :
This is an invaluable reference for PHP functions and syntax, to
which I referred frequently during writing this book, both for
fact checking and as an aide-mémoir. Thanks!
The collective PHP and functional programming wisdom of the
Internet : For more than 17 years I’ve used you for learning,
research, play, and profit. There are too many sites and too
many people to list here; if you’ve written about PHP on the
Web, then you may well be one of them. Thanks!
My family : Thanks for allowing me a modicum of time to write
this book and supporting me unconditionally in everything I do.
Usually. If I ask first. And there’s not something more important
going on. And usually with conditions. Thanks!
Contents
Part I: Functional Programming in PHP 7

Chapter 1:​Introduction

Who Is This Book For?​

What Is Functional Programming?​

Functional Programming Is SOLID

What Are the Benefits of Functional Programming?​

Who Uses Functional Programming, and Why?​

Is Functional Programming “All or Nothing”?​

Further Reading

Why Use PHP for Functional Programming?​

Why Not to Use PHP for Functional Programming

PHP Versions

Conclusion

Chapter 2:​Functional Programming:​Key Concepts

Examining State

Mutability and Immutability

Further Reading

What Is a Function?​
 Named Functions

Variable Functions

Language Constructs

Return Values

Lambda/​Anonymous Functions

Higher-Order Functions

Scope

Further Reading

State

Parameters/​Arguments/​Operands, Arity, and Variadic

Functions

Further Reading

Closures

Side Effects

Referential Transparency

Pure Functions

Lists and Collections

Further Reading

Conclusion

Chapter 3:​Getting Started with Functional Patterns

 Map, Filter, and Reduce

Recursive Functions

Basic Recursion

Implementing a Recursive Function

Partial Functions

Functional Expressions

Functional Composition

Conclusion

Chapter 4:​Advanced Functional Techniques

Currying Functions

The Mysterious Monad

What Is a Monad?​

The Maybe Monad

Monad Axioms

Monad Axiom 1

Monad Axiom 2

Monad Axiom 3

Testing the Monad Axioms

Other Useful Monads

The IO Monad
 Learn More About Monads

Further Reading

Recursion with Trampolines

Recursive Lambdas

The PHP Type System

Type Declarations

Further Reading

Summary

Part II: Application Development Strategies

Chapter 5:​Strategies for High-Performance Applications

Understanding and Measuring Performance

Measuring Performance:​Profiling

Manual Profiling

Profiling Tools

Further Reading and Tools

Low-Level Profiling

Further Reading

Memoization

Further Reading

The Downsides of Memoization

 Lazy Evaluation

Further Reading

Generators

Further Reading

The Downsides of Lazy Evaluation

Parallel Programming

Multithreaded Programming

Further Reading

The Standard PHP Library (SPL)

Further Reading

Conclusion

Chapter 6:​Managing Business Logic with Functions

Managing Business Logic

Event-Based Programming

Further Reading

Asynchronous PHP

Further Reading

Chapter 7:​Using Functional Programming in Objected-

Oriented and Procedural Applications

History of PHP Paradigms

 Further Reading

PHP Is Not a Functional Language

Objects and Mutability

Further Reading

Immutable Data with Objects

Object Properties As External State

Inline Impurities

Procedural Programming Considerations

Summary

Chapter 8:​Using Helper Libraries in Your Application

How to Choose a Library

Pick Libraries Apart

Libraries Based on Ramda

Pramda

Phamda

Libraries Based on Underscore

Underscore.​php (1)

Underscore

Underscore.​php (2)

Miscellaneous Libraries
 Saber

Functional PHP

Other Libraries

Chapter 9:​Processing Big Data with Functional PHP

What Is Big Data?​

Introducing Hadoop

About MapReduce

Installing Hadoop

Tools

Creating Hadoop Jobs in PHP

Further Reading

Chapter 10:​Afterword

Where to Now?​

Giving Feedback and Getting Help and Support

Appendix A: Installing PHP and Libraries

Compiling and Installing PHP

Microsoft Windows

macOS/OS X

Linux/Unix

Compiling and Installing (Extra) Core Extensions

Installing Multiple Versions of PHP

Further Reading

Tools

PEAR and PECL

Composer

Symfony2 Bundles

Getting Help

The PHP Manual

Official Mailing Lists

Stack Overflow

Other Books

Newsgroups

PHP Subredit

PHP on GitHub

File and Data Format Libraries for PHP

Office Documents

Compression, Archiving, and Encryption

Graphics

Audio

Multimedia and Video

Programming, Technical, and Data Interchange

Miscellaneous

Appendix B: Command-Line PHP

PHP Without a Web Server

What’s Different About the CLI SAPI?

Further Reading

CLI SAPI Installation

PHP Command-Line Options

Further Reading

Command-Line Arguments for Your Script

Different Ways to Call PHP Scripts

From a File

From a String

From STDIN

As a Self-Executing Script: Unix/Linux

Further Reading

As a Self-Executing Script: Windows

Windows php-win.exe

“Click to Run” Your PHP

Clickable Icons: Linux

Further Reading

Clickable Icons: Windows

Clickable Icons: Ubuntu Unity

Further Reading

Quitting Your Script from Within

Further Reading

Thinking About Security

Further Reading

CLI-Specific Code Frameworks

Further Reading

PHP REPLs

PsySH

Boris

phpa

PHP Interactive

Sublime-worksheet

phpsh

iPHP

Appendix C: Functional Programming Resources

Other Programming Languages

Functional Programming and Other Paradigms

Articles

Online Books

Videos

Online Courses

Functional Programming Design Patterns

PHP Functional Basics

Data Structures

Mutability in PHP

Map, Filter, Reduce and Other Array Functions

Recursion and Trampolines

Partial Functions and Currying

Functional Composition

Monads

Types

Profiling

Memoization

Lazy Evaluation

Relevant PHP Manual Sections

Parallel Programming
Testing

Event-Based Programming

Asynchronous PHP

Big Data/Hadoop

General-Purpose Libraries

Functional Framework

Lisp in PHP

Other Miscellaneous Topics

PHP RFCs: The Future

The Wikipedia Glossary

Index
Contents at a Glance
About the Author

About the Technical Reviewer

Acknowledgments

Part I: Functional Programming in PHP 7

Chapter 1:​Introduction

Chapter 2:​Functional Programming:​Key Concepts

Chapter 3:​Getting Started with Functional Patterns

Chapter 4:​Advanced Functional Techniques

Part II: Application Development Strategies

Chapter 5:​Strategies for High-Performance Applications

Chapter 6:​Managing Business Logic with Functions

Chapter 7:​Using Functional Programming in Objected-Oriented and
Procedural Applications

Chapter 8:​Using Helper Libraries in Your Application

Chapter 9:​Processing Big Data with Functional PHP

Chapter 10:​Afterword

Appendix A: Installing PHP and Libraries

Appendix B: Command-Line PHP

Appendix C: Functional Programming Resources

Index
About the Author and About the
Technical Reviewer
About the Author
Rob Aley
I’ve been programming in PHP since late
2000. Initially it wasn’t by choice because my
preferred languages at the time were Perl
and Delphi (also known as Object Pascal).
Things began to change after I graduated
from the University of Leeds with a degree in
computer science in 1999 and started out in
a career as a freelance web developer. After
only a couple of months I was offered the
opportunity to take over a (relatively
speaking) substantial government web site
contract from a friend who was exiting the
freelance world for the safer and saner world of full-time
employment. The only catch was that several thousand lines of code
had already been written, and they were written in a relatively new
language called PHP. Oh, and the only other catch was that I had
about a week to learn it before taking over the site. So, as was the
way at the time, I popped down to the local Waterstones bookshop.
(For the younger among you that’s where we used to get books. And
we had to go out and get them. Or order online and wait many days
for them to be delivered.) With my paper copies of The Generic
Beginner’s Complete Guide to PHP and MySQL for Dummies
Compendium (I may not have recalled the titles completely
correctly), I settled down with a pint of ale (I’m in Yorkshire at this
point, remember) and set about reading them. A few days later I
was coding like a pro (well, stuff was working), and 17 years later I
haven’t looked back. Over those 17 years PHP has changed vastly
(the source code for the government web site I mentioned was
littered with comments like “# Would have used a foreach here, if
PHP had one…”) and so have I. I like to think that both I and PHP
have only improved and matured over the years.
After a varied career as a freelancer and starting up a couple of,
er, startups (IT related and not) with varying (usually dismal)
success, I spent the past ten years as a programmer at the
University of Oxford. My day job involved performing medium-scale
data acquisition and management, doing statistical analysis, and
providing user interfaces for researchers and the public. The
majority of my development work was done in PHP, either
developing new projects or gluing together other people’s software,
systems, and databases. I’ve recently left the university to
concentrate on writing books like this and providing consulting and
training (in PHP, information governance, and related areas). But I’m
still programming in PHP!
Throughout my career I’ve always used PHP for web
development, but for desktop GUI work I initially used Delphi (and
then Free-Pascal/Lazarus), complemented with Bash shell scripting
for CLI-based tasks. This was mainly because I learned them while
at university. However, as PHP has matured, I’ve increasingly used it
beyond the Web, and now I rarely use anything else for any
programming or scripting task I encounter. Having been immersed in
other languages such as C++, JavaScript, Fortran, and Lisp (and
probably others that my brain has chosen deliberately not to
remember) by necessity during university and in some of my
freelance jobs, I can honestly say that PHP is now my language of
choice, rather than of necessity. At university (in the late 1990s) I
took a couple of classes that involved functional programming, but
at the time I really didn’t “get the point.” It’s only in recent years
that I’ve picked up functional-style programming again, partly
because of the “buzz” that’s developed around it and partly because
as my programming styles have “matured,” I’ve seen the advantages
to functional coding.
When I’m not tied to a computer, I would like to say I have lots
of varied and interesting hobbies. I used to have. I could write a
whole book (which wouldn’t sell well) about where I’ve been and
what I’ve done, and I’d like to think it’s made me a well-rounded
person. But these days I don’t have any. In large part, this is
because of the demands of my three gorgeous young daughters,
Ellie, Izzy, and Indy; my gorgeous wife, Parv; and my even more
gorgeous cat, Mia. And I wouldn’t have it any other way. That’s what
I tell myself, anyway….
—Rob Aley

About the Technical Reviewer

Christopher Pitt
is a developer and writer, working at SilverStripe. He usually works
on application architecture, though sometimes you’ll find him
building compilers or robots. He is also the author of several web
development books and is a contributor on various open source
projects like AdonisJs.
Part I
Functional Programming in PHP 7
© Rob Aley 2017
Rob Aley, Pro Functional PHP Programming, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-
2958-3_1

1. Introduction
Rob Aley1
(1) Oxford, UK

Functional programming isn’t something that is often associated with

PHP. Yet for quite a while PHP has had all the features necessary to
create software using the functional paradigm. In this book, you’ll
take a look at what functional programming is, how to do it in PHP,
and the different ways in which you can use it to improve your PHP
software.
Who Is This Book For?
This book isn’t an introduction to PHP itself; it assumes you have
some basic (or, indeed, advanced) experience in PHP scripting. You
don’t need to be an expert to follow along; I’ll cover all the key
concepts in PHP you’ll need to know to be able to implement
functional designs in your code and point you in the direction of
resources such as web sites and other books that you can use to
learn or investigate any related concepts that I don’t cover directly.
Absolute PHP beginners aside, this book is suitable for all
programmers. Whether you have a pressing need to learn functional
programming (perhaps you’ve taken over a functional PHP code
base) or you are just interested in finding out what the “buzz”
around functional programming is all about, there is something in
this book for you. There’s even likely to be something for those
skeptical about creating software using the functional programming
paradigm. I think that most programmers will find useful lessons and
code patterns to take away from the functional programming style
that will enhance their object-oriented or procedural programming
work. If all else fails, knowledge of functional programming looks
good on your résumé!

What Is Functional Programming ?

Functional programming is a declarative programming paradigm
that abstracts code into pure, immutable, side-effect-free
functions, allowing the programmer to compose such functions
together to make programs that are easy to reason about.

That is my definition of functional programming. Ask five other

functional programmers to define functional programming and you’ll
get four more answers (two just copied the same answer from
Wikipedia). There’s no “standard” definition; different people and
different programming languages implement functional programming
elements differently. These differences are partly because of the
practicalities of the language in question and sometimes because of
the target platforms, data, and usage scenarios, but often they come
down to what I call “programming religion”: a fixed, sometimes
irrational, but often deeply held belief of how a particular paradigm
should be. Even within the small community of PHP functional
programmers, you won’t find an exact consensus. In PHP, functional
programming is not a core concept, but even in languages where it
is (e.g., Lisp, Scala, etc.), there are many “related” understandings
of what constitutes true functional programming. While that may
sound problematic, you’ll still “know it when you see it,” and when it
gets woolly around the edges, you can choose to define it in any
way you see fit!
PHP isn’t a pure functional programming language, but you can
still use it for functional programming (which is good; otherwise this
book wouldn’t be very long). A few elements of what some purists
consider to be essential functional programming concepts are harder
to implement with PHP’s standard syntax, so it’s perhaps slightly
more accurate to say that you can program in a functional
programming “style” in PHP.
Let’s now look a little more in depth at what functional
programming actually is in practice. Functional programming is a
“declarative” style of programming, which means you specify what
you want it to do rather than how you want to do it. It’s a higher
level of abstraction than you may be used to with OO or procedural
programming. However, you almost certainly use declarative
programming on a day-to-day basis when using SQL, HTML, regular
expressions, and similar languages. Consider the SQL snippet shown
in Listing 1-1.

SELECT forename,

Surname

FROM users

WHERE username = 'rob'

 AND password = 'password1';

Listing 1-1. declarative.sql

This is telling your database server what you want it to do (select
the real name based on super-secret security credentials), but you
don’t tell it how to do it. You don’t tell it the following:
Where to look on disk for the data
How to parse or search the data for matching records
How to determine whether a record matches your criteria
How to extract the relevant fields from the record
And so on. You simply tell it what you want it to achieve for you.
Now obviously, at some point, you need to tell the computer how
to do something. With the SQL example in Listing 1-1, you do that
by getting some rather clever people to write database management
software (DBMS) for you. In functional programming, you’ll tend to
need to write the implementation code yourself, but to make it a
manageable task, you break that down into the smallest possible
chunks and then use a hierarchical chain of declarative function calls
to tell the computer what to do with that code. If you use the
Composer dependency management system, you will already be
using a similar paradigm: there are many libraries of code available
that abstract away the tasks that you need to do; you simply
“compose” a list of libraries together to do what you want. In
functional programming, you do exactly the same; you take
functions that do something (like the libraries Composer provides)
and compose them together into a program.
Having a program that is essentially a list of what you want to
achieve sounds very good on paper, and indeed it makes it easy to
understand and reason about your program. To make the idea a little
more concrete, let’s take a look at a small functional-style program
(Listing 1-2).

<?php
 require_once('image_functions.php');

require_once('stats_functions.php');

require_once('data_functions.php');

$csv_data = file_get_contents('my_data.csv');

$chart = make_chart_image (

generate_stats
(

data_to
_array (

$csv_data

);

file_put_contents('my_chart.png', $chart);

Listing 1-2. example.php

This is clearly some code that has been abstracted into a set of
functions that set out what it does (draw a chart based on some
stats prepared from some data that is read in). You can also
probably see that the how is hidden away in the required files at the
top, but it is still clear as to what the program does. Should your
requirements change and instead of drawing a chart you want to
print a table, you can simply swap out draw_chart() for
print_table() and it is clear what will happen. This is a (very
loose) example of a functional program.
 That all sounds great. But without even considering the code
hidden away in the required files, your programmer instincts are
probably telling you that chaining random functions together, and
swapping out one for another, is a risky proposition particularly when
you can’t see how they’re implemented. For instance, how do you
know that read_data() will return data in the correct format for
prepare_stats() to work on? And how can you be sure that you
can swap out draw_chart() for prepare_stats() and it will all
still work as you expect? Clearly, functional programming involves a
little more than “chuck it all in a function with a descriptive name,”
and as you go through the book, you’ll look at the various ways to
structure functions so that you can use them as “little black boxes”
of code that can be easily and reliably strung together.
Functional programming revolves around functions, as the name
implies. However, functions in the functional programming sense
aren’t quite the same as functions in the PHP syntax sense, although
you will use PHP’s implementation of functions to implement FP
functions. A functional programming function is often referred to as
a pure function and has several important characteristics that can be
mimicked with, but aren’t enforced by, PHP’s syntax. A pure function
has the following traits:
Is referentially transparent
Is devoid of side effects
Has no external dependencies
I’ll talk more in detail about what these features mean in the
next couple of chapters, but they boil down to a function being a
small self-contained “black box” that takes well-defined inputs,
produces well-defined outputs, and given the same inputs always
produces the same outputs. In particular, the function only acts on
the inputs it is given (it doesn’t take into account any external state
or data and relies only on the parameters it is called with), and the
only effect it has is to return some output (which will be the same
each time you give it the same input); thus, it doesn’t alter the state
of the program or system outside of itself.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
192 ; influence of her genius upon the
world, 200 201
Attainder, an act of, warrantable, 471
Atterbury, Francis, life of, vi. 112 131 ;
his youth, 112 ; his defence of Luther,
113 ; appointed a royal chaplain, 113 ;
his share in the controversy about the
Letters of Phalaris, 115 119 110 ;
prominent as a high-churchman, 119 120
; made Dean of Carlisle, 120 ; defends
Sacheverell, 121 ; made Dean of Christ
Church, 121 ; desires to proclaim James
II., 122 ; joins the opposition, 123 ;
refuses to declare for the Protestant
succession, 123 ; corresponds with the
Pretender, 123 124 ; his private life, 124
125 129 ; reads the funeral service over
the body of Addison, 124 420 ;
imprisoned for his part in the Jacobite
conspiracy, 125 ; his trial and sentence,
120 127 ; his exile, 128 129 ; his favor
with the Pretender, 129 130 ; vindicates
himself from the charge of having
garbled Clarendon's history, 130 ; his
death and burial, 131
Attila, 300
Attributes of God,subtle speculations
touching them imply no high degree of
intellectual culture, 303 304 "
Aubrey, his charge of corruption
against Bacon, 413
 Bacon's decision against him after his
present, 430
Augsburg, Confession of, its adoption
in Sweden, 329
Augustin, St., iv. 300. 300
Attrungzebe, his policy, 205 206
Austen, Jane, notice of, 307 308
Austin, Sarah, her character as a
translator, 299 349
Austria, success of her armies in the
Catholic cause, 337
Authors, their present position, 190 ;
to: 197
Avignon, the Papal Court transferred
from Rome to, 312
 B.
Baber, founder of the Mogul empire,
202
Bacon, Lady, mother of Lord Bacon,
349
Bacon, Lord, review of Basil Montagu's
new edition of the works of, 336 495 ;
his mother distinguished as a linguist,
349 ; his early years, 352 355 ; his
services refused by government, 355 356
; his admission at Gray's Inn, 357 ; his
legal attainments, 358 ; sat in Parliament
in 1593, 359 ; part he took in politics,
360 ; his friendship with the Earl of
Essex, 305 372 ; examination of his
conduct to Essex, 373 384 ; influence of
King James on his fortunes, 383 ; his
servility to Lord Southampton, 384 ;
influence his talents had with the public,
386 ; his distinction in Parliament and in
the courts of law, 388 ; his literary and
philosophical works, 388 ; his "Novum
Organum," and the admiration it excited,
388 ; his work of reducing and
recompiling the laws of England, 389 ;
his tampering with the judges on the trial
of Peacham, 389 394 ; attaches himself
to Buckingham, 390 ; his appointment as
Lord Keeper, 399 ; his share in the vices
of the administration, 400 ; his animosity
towards Sir Edward Coke, 405 407 ; his
town and country residences, 408 409 ;
his titles of Baron Verulam and Viscount
St. Albans, report against him of the
Committee on the Courts of Justice, 413
; nature of the charges, 413 414 ;
overwhelming evidence to them, 414 410
; his admission of his guilt, 410 ; his
sentence, 417 ; examination of Mr.
Montagu's arguments in his defence, 417
430 ; mode in which he spent the last
years of his life, 431 432 ; chief
peculiarity of his philosophy, 435 447 ;
his views compared with those of Plato,
448 455 ; to what his wide and durable
fame is chiefly owing, 403 ; his frequent
treatment of moral subjects, 407 ; his
views as a theologian, 409 ; vulgar
notion of him as inventor of the inductive
method, 470 ; estimate of his analysis of
that method, 471 479 ; union of audacity
and sobriety in his temper, 480 ; his
amplitude of comprehension, 481 482 ;
his freedom from the spirit of
controversy, 484 ; his eloquence, wit,
and similitudes, 484 ; his disciplined
imagination. 487 ; his boldness and
originality, 488 ; unusual development in
the order of his faculties, 489 ; his
resemblance to the mind of Burke, 489 ;
specimens of his two styles, 490 491 ;
value of his Essays, 491 ; his greatest
performance the first book of the Novum
Organum, 492 ; contemplation of his life,
492 495 ; his reasoning upon the
principle of heat, 90 ; his system
generally as opposed to the schoolmen,
78 79 103 ; his objections to the system
of education at the Universities, 445
Bacon, Sir Nicholas, his character, 342
448
Baconian philosophy, its chief
peculiarity, 435 ; its essential spirit, 439 ;
its method and object differed from the
ancient, 448 ; comparative views of
Bacon and Plato, 448 159 ; its beneficent
spirit, 455 458 403 ; its value compared
with ancient philosophy, 459 471
Baillie, Gen., destruction of his
detachment by Hyder Ali, 72
Balance of power, interest of the Popes
in preserving it, 338
Banim, Mr., his defence of James II. as
a supporter of toleration, 304
Banking operations of Italy ill the 14 ;
century, 270
Baptists, (the) Bunyan's position
among, 140 147
Bar (the) its degraded condition in the
time of James II., 520
Barbary, work on, by Rev. Dr. Addison,
325
Barbarians, Mitford's preference of
Greeks, 190
 Barcelona, capture of, by
Peterborough, 110
Barère, Bertrand, Memoirs of,
reviewed, 423 539 ; opinions of the
editors as to his character, 424 ; his real
character, 425 427 429 407 ; has
hitherto found no apologist, 420 ;
compared with Danton and Robespierre,
420 ; his natural disposition, 427 ;
character of his memoirs, 429 430 ; their
mendacity, 431 430 445 ; their literary
value, 430 ; his birth and education, 430
437 ; his marriage, 438 ; first visit to
Paris, 439 ; his journal, 439 ; elected a
representative of the Third Estate, 440 ;
his character as a legislator, 441 ; his
oratory, 442 471 472 ; his early political
opinions, 442 ; draws a report on the
Woods and Forests, 443 ; becomes more
republican, 443 ; on the dissolution of
the National Assembly he is made a
judge, 440 ; chosen to the Convention,
449 ; belongs to the Girondists, 455 ;
sides with the Mountain in condemnation
of the king, 450 457 ; was really a
federalist, 400 ; continues with the
Girondists, 401 ; appointed upon the
Committee of Public Safety, 403 ; made
its Secretary, 403 ; wavers between the
Girondists and the Mountain, 404 ; joins
with the Mountain, 405 ; remains upon
the Committee of Public Safety, 460 ; his
relation to the Mountain, 400-408; takes
the initiative against the Girondists, 408
409 ; moves the execution of Marie
Antoinette, 409 ; speaks against the
Girondists, 434 435 474 ; one of the
Committee of Safety, 475 ; his part
(luring the Reign of Terror. 482 485 487 ;
his cruelties, 485, 480 ; life's
pleasantries, 487 488 ; his proposition to
murder English prisoners, 490 492 ; his
murders, 495 497 ; his part in the
quarrels of the Committee, 497 590 ;
moves that Robespierre be put to death,
499 500 ; cries raised against him, 504 ;
a committee appointed to examine into
his conduct, 505 ; his defence, 505 50 ;
condemned to imprisonment, 507 ; his
journey to Orleans and confinement
there, 507509; removed to Saintes, 510 ;
his escape, 510 ; elected a member of
the Council of Five Hundred, 511 ;
indignation of the members and
annulling of the election, 511 512 ;
writes a work on the Liberty of the Seas.
512 ; threatened by the mob, 512 513 ;
his relations with Napoleon, 514 518 521
527 ; a journalist and pamphleteer, 523
524 ; his literary style, 525 ; his
degradation, 527 ; his treachery, 528 ;
becomes a royalist, 529 ; elected to the
Chamber of Representatives, 529 ;
banished from France, 531 ; his return,
531 ; involved in lawsuits with his family,
531 ; pensioned, 532 ; his death, 532 ;
his character, 534 535 537 539 ; his
ignorance of England and her his, 530 ;
his religious hypocrisy,
 Baretti, his admiration for Miss Burney,
271
Barilion, M. his pithy words on the new
council proposed by Temple, 7 70
Barlow, Bishop, 370
Barrére, Col., 233 248
Barrington, Lord, 13
Harwell, Mr., 35 ; his support of
Hastings, 40 54 55 2
Baltic, Burke's declamations on its
capture, 113
Bathos, perfect instance of, to be
found in Petrarch's 5th sonnet, 93
Battle of the Cranes and Pygmies,
Addison's, 331
Bavaria, its contest between
Protestantism and Catholicism, 326
Baxter's testimony to Hampden's
excellence, 430
Bayle, Peter, 300
Beatrice, Dante's, 1
Beanclerk, Topliam, 204
Beaumarchais, his suit before the
parliament of Paris, 430 431
Beckford, Alderman, 90
 Bedford, Duke of, 11 ; his views of the
policy of Chatham, 20 41 ; presents
remonstrance to George II 71
Bedford, Earl of. invited by Charles I.
to form an administration, 472
Bedfords (the), 11 ; parallel between
them and the Buckinghams, 73 ; their
opposition to the Buckingham ministry
on the Stamp Act, 79 ; their willingness
to break with Grenville on Chatham's
accession to office, 89 ; deserted
Grenville and admitted to office, 110
Bedford House assailed by a rabble, 70
Begums of Oude, their domains and
treasures, 80 ; disturbances in Oude
imputed to them, 87 ; their
protestations, 88 ; their spoliation
charged against Hastings, 121
Belgium, its contest between
Protestantism and Catholicism, 326 330
Belial, 355
Bell, Peter, Byron's spleen against, 353
Bellasys, the English general, 107
Bellingham, his malevolence, 309
Belphegor (the), of Machiavelli, 299
Benares, its grandeur, 74 ; its
annexation to the British dominions, 84
"Benefits of the death of Christ," 325
 Benevolences, Oliver St. John's
opposition to, and Bacon's support of,
389
Bengal, its resources, 228
Bentham and Dumont, 38 40 153
Bentham and his system, 53 54 59 80,
87 91 115 116, 121 122 ; his language
on the French revolution, 204 ; his
greatness, 38 40
Benthamites, 5 89 90
Bentinck, Lord William, his memory
cherished by the Hindoos, 298
Bentivoglio, Cardinal, on the state of
religion in England in the 16th century,
25
Bentley, Richard, his quarrel with
Boyle, and remarks on Temple's Essay on
the Letters of Phalaris, 109 111 115 119
; his edition of Milton, 111 ; his notes on
Horace, 111 ; his reconciliation with
Boyle and Atterbury, 113 ; his apothegm
about criticism, 119 212
Berar, occupied by the Bonslas, 59
Berwick, Duke of, held the Allies in
check, 109 ; his retreat before Galway,
119
Bible (the), English, its literary style,
348
 Bickell, R. Rev., his work on Slavery in
the West Indies, 330
Bickerstaff, Isaac, astrologer, 374
Billaud, 405 475 498 499 501 504 506
508 510
Biographia Britannica, refutation of a
calumny on Addison in, 417
Biography, writers of contrasted with
historians, 423 ; tenure by which they
are bound to their subject, 103
Bishops, claims of those of the Church
of England to apostolical succession,
160-174.
Black Hole of Calcutta described, 233
234 ; retribution of the English for its
horrors, 235 239 242 245
Blackmore, Sir Richard, his attainments
in the ancient languages, 331
Blackstone, 334
Blasphemous publications, policy of
Government in respect to, 171
Blenheim, battle of, 354 Addison
employed to write a poem in its honor,
355
Blois, Addison's retirement to, 339
"Bloombury Gang," the denomination
of the Bedfords, 11
 Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the
Bodleian Library, 388 433
Bohemia, influence of the doctrines of
Wickliffe in, 313
Boileau, Addison's intercourse with,
340 341 ; his opinion of modern Latin,
341 ; his literary qualities, 343 ; his
resemblance to Dryden, 373
Bolingbroke, Lord, the liberal patron of
literature, 400 ; proposed to strengthen
the royal prerogative, 171 ; his jest on
the occasion of the tirst representation of
Cato, 392 Pope's perfidy towards him,
408 ; his remedy for the disease of the
state, 23 24
Bombast, Dryden's, 361 362
Shakspeare's, 361
Bombay, its affairs thrown into
confusion by the new council at Calcutta,
40
Book of the Church, Southey's, 137
Books, puffing of, 192 198
Booth played the hero in Addison's
Cato on its tirst representation, 392
Borgia, Cæsar, 301
Boroughs, rotten, the abolition of, a
necessary reform in the time of George
I., 180
 Boswell, James, his character, 391 397
204 205
Boswell's Life of Johnson, by Crocker,
review of, 368 426 ; character of the
work, 387
Boswellism, 265
Bourbon, the House of, their
vicissitudes in Spain, 106 130
Bourne, Vincent, 5 342 ; his Latin
verses in celebration of Addison's
restoration to health, 413
Boyd, his translation of Dante, 78
Boyer, President, 390-392.
Boyle, Charles, his nominal editorship
of the Letters of Phalaris, 108 113 119 ;
his book on Greek history and philology,
v.331.
Boyle, Rt. Hon. Henry, 355
"Boys" (the) in opposition to Sir R.
Walpole, 176
Bracegirdle, Mis., her celebrity as an
actress, 407 ; her intimacy with
Congreve, 407
Brahmins, 306
"Breakneck Steps," Fleet Street, 157 ;
note.
Breda, treaty of, 34
 Bribery, foreign, in the time of Charles
II., 525
Brihuega, siege of, 128
"Broad Bottom Administration" (the),
220
Brothers, his prophecies as a test of
faith, 305 306
Brown, Launcelot, 284
Brown's Estimate, 233
Bruce, his appearance at Mr. Burney's
concerts, 257
Brunswick, the House of, 14
Brussels, its importance as the seat of
a vice-regal Court, 34
Bridges, Sir Egerton, 303
Buchanan, character of his writings,
447
Buckhurst, 353
Buckingham, Duke of, the "Steenie" of
James 1 , 44 Bacon's early discernment
of his influence, 330 337 ; his expedition
to Spain, 308; his return for Bacon's
patronage, 333 ; his corruption, 402 ; his
character and position, 402 408 ; his
marriage, 411 412 ; his visit to Bacon,
and report of his condition, 414
 Buckingham, Duke of, one of the Cabal
ministry, 374 ; his fondness for
Wycherley, 374 ; anecdote of, 374
Budgell Eustace, one of Addison's
friends, 308 303 371
Bunyan, John, Life of, 132 150 252
204 ; his birth and early life, 132 ;
mistakes of his biographers in regard to
his moral character, 133 134 ; enlists in
the Parliamentary army, 135 ; his
marriage, 135 ; his religious experiences,
130-138; begins to preach, 133 ; his
imprisonment, 133 141 ; his early
writings, 141 142 ; his liberation and
gratitude to Charles II., 142 143 ; his
Pilgrim's Progress, 143 140 ; the product
of an uneducated genius, 57 343 ; his
subsequent writings, 14 ; his position
among the Baptists, 140 147 ; his
second persecution, and the overtures
made to him, 147 148 ; his death and
burial-place, 148 ; his fame, 14 143 ; his
imitators, 143 150 ; his style, 200 ; his
religious enthusiasm and imagery, 333
Southey's edition of his Pilgrim's Progress
reviewed, 253 207 ; peculiarities of the
work, 200 ; not a perfect allegory, 257
258 ; its publication, and the number of
its editions, 145 140
Buonaparte. See Napoleon.
Burgoyne, Gen., chairman of the
committee of inquiry on Lord Clive, 232
 Burgundy, Louis, Duke of, grandson of
Louis XIV., iii. 02, 03.
Burke, Edmund, his characteristics,
133 ; his opinion of the war with Spain
on the question of maritime right, 210 ;
resembles Bacon, 483 ; effect of his
speeches on the House of Commons,
118 ; not the author of the Letters of
Junius, 37 ; his charges against Hastings,
104 137 ; his kindness to Alisa Burney,
288 ; her incivility to him at Hastings'
trial, 28 ; his early political career, 75 ;
his first speech in the House of
Commons, 82 ; his opposition to
Chatham's measures relating to India, 30
; his defence of his party against
Grenville's attacks, 102 ; his feeling
towards Chatham, 103 ; his treatise on
"The Sublime," 142 ; his character of the
French Republic, 402 ; his views of the
French and American revolutions, 51 208
; his admiration of Pitt's maiden speech,
233 ; his opposition to Fox's India bill,
245 ; in the opposition to Pitt, 247 243 ;
deserts Fox, 273
Burleigh and his Times, review of Lev.
Dr. Xarea's, 1 30 ; his early life and
character, 3 10 ; his death, 10 ;
importance of the times in which he
lived, 10 ; the great stain on his
character, 31 ; character of the class of
statesmen he belonged to, 343 ; his
conduct towards Bacon, 355 305 ; his
apology for having resorted to torture,
333 Bacon's letter to him upon the
department of knowledge he had
chosen, 483
Burnet, Bishop, 114
Burney, Dr., his social position, 251 255
; his conduct relative to his daughter's
first publication. 207 ; his daughter's
engagement at Court, 281
Burney, Frances. See D'Arblay,
Madame.
Burns, Robert, 201
Bussy, his eminent merit and conduct
in India, 222
Bute, Earl of, his character and
education, 13 20 ; appointed Secretary
of State, 24 ; opposes the proposal of
war with Spain on account of the family
compact, 30 ; his unpopularity on
Chatham's resignation, 31 ; becomes
Prime Minister, 30 ; his first speech in the
House of Lords, 33 ; induces the
retirement of the Duke of Newcastle, 35
; becomes first Lord of the Treasury, 35 ;
his foreign and domestic policy, 37 52 ;
his resignation, 52 ; continues to advise
the King privately, 57 70 79 ; pensions
Johnson, 198 199
Butler, 350 Addison not inferior to him
in wit, 375
Byng, Admiral, his failure at Minorca.
232 ; his trial, 236 ; opinion of his
conduct, 236 Chatham's defence of him,
237
Byron, Lord, his epistolary style, 325 ;
his character, 326 327 ; his early life, 327
; his quarrel with, and separation from,
his wife, 329331; his expatriation, 332 ;
decline of his intellectual powers, 333 ;
his attachment to Italy and Greece, 335 ;
his sickness and death, 336 ; general
grief for his fate, 336 ; remarks on his
poetry, 336 ; his admiration of the Hope
school of poetry, 337 : his opinion of
Wordsworth and Coleridge, 352 ; of
Deter Bell, 353 ; his estimate of the
poetry of the 18th and 19th centuries,
353 ; his sensitiveness to criticism, 354 ;
the interpreter between Wordsworth and
the multitude, 356 ; the founder of an
exoteric Lake, school, 356 ; remarks on
his dramatic works, 357 363 ; his
egotism, 365 ; cause of his influence,
336 337
 C.
Cabal (the), their proceedings and
designs, 46 54 59
Cabinets, in modern times, 65 235
Cadiz, exploit of Essex at the siege of,
107 367 ; its pillage by the English
expedition in 170 108
Cæsar Borgia, 307
Cæsar, Claudius, resemblance of
James I. to, 440
Cæsar compared with Cromwell, 504 ;
his Commentaries an incomparable
model for military despatches, 404
Cæsars (the), parallel between them
and the Tudors, not applicable, 21
Calcutta, its position on the Hoogley,
230 ; scene of the Black Hole of, 232 233
; resentment of the English at its fall,
235 ; again threatened by Surajah Dow
lab, 239 ; revival of its prosperity, 251 ;
its sufferings during the famine, 285 ; its
capture, 8 ; its suburbs infested by
robbers, 41 ; its festivities on Hastings's
marriage, 56
Callicles, 41 ; note.
 Calvinism, moderation of Bunyan's,
263 ; held by the Church of England at
the end of the 16 ; century, 175 ; many
of its doctrines contained in the Paulieian
theology, 309
Cambon, 455
Cambridge, University of, favored by
George I. and George II., 36 37 ; its
superiority to Oxford in intellectual
activity, 344 ; disturbances produced in,
by the Civil War, 15
Cambyses, story of his punishment of
the corrupt judge, 423
Camden, Lord, v 233 247
Camilla, Madame D'Arblay's, 314
Campaign (the), by Addison, 355
Canada, subjugation of, by the British
in 176 244
Canning, Mr., 45 46 286 411 414 419
Cape Breton, reduction of, 244
Carafla, Gian Pietro, afterwards Pope
Paul, IV. his zeal and devotion, 318 324
Carlisle, Lady, 478
Carmagnoles, Bariere's, 471 472 490
491 498 499 502 505 529
Carnatic, (the), its resources, 211 212
; its invasion by Hvder Ali, 71 72
 Carnot, 455 505
Carnot, Hippolyte, his memoirs of
Barrere reviewed, 423 539 ; failed to
notice the falsehoods of his author, 430
431 435 557 ; his charitableness to him,
445 485 ; defends his proposition for
murdering prisoners, 490 ; blinded by
party spirit, 523 ; defends the Jacobin
administration, 534 ; his general
characteristics, 53 539
Carrier, 404
Carteret, Lord, his ascendency at the
fall of Walpole, 184 Sir Horatio Walpole's
stories about him, 187 ; his detection
from Sir Robert Walpole, 202 ; succeeds
Walpole, 210 ; his character as a
statesman, 218 220
Carthagena, surrender of the arsenal
and ship of, to the Allies, 111
Cary's translation of Dante, 68 78 70
Casiua (the), of Ilautus, 298
Castile. Admiral of, 100
Castile and Arragon, their old
institutions favorable to public liberty, 86
Castilians, their character in the 16th
century, 81 ; their conduct in the war of
the Succession, 121 ; attachment to the
faith of their ancestors, 316
 Castracani, Castruccio, Life of, by
Machiavelli, 317
Cathedral, Lincoln, painted window in,
428
Catholic Association, attempt of the
Tories to put it down, 413
Catholic Church. See Church of Home.
Catholicism, causes of its success, 301
307 318, 331 336 ; the most poetical of
all religions, 65
Catholics, Roman, Pitt's policy
respecting, 280 281
Catholics and dews, the same
reasoning employed against both, 312
Catholics and Protestants, their relative
numbers in the 16th century, 26
Catholic Queen (a), precautions
against, 487
Catholic Question (the), 413 410
Catiline, his conspiracy doubted, 405 ;
compared to the Popish Plot, 406
"Cato," Addison's play of, its merits,
and the contest it occasioned, 333 ; its
first representation, 391 ; its
performance at Oxford, 392 ; its
deficiencies, 365 366
Cato, the censor, anecdote of, 354
 Catullus, his mythology, 75
Cavaliers, their successors in the reign
of George I. turned demagogues, 4
Cavendish, Lord, his conduct in the
new council of Temple, 96 ; his merits,
73
Cecil. See Burleigh.
Cecil, Robert, his rivalry with Francis
Bacon, 356 365 ; his fear and envy of
Essex, 362 ; increase of his dislike for
Bacon, 365 ; his conversation with Essex,
365 ; his interference to obtain
knighthood for Bacon, 384
Cecilia, Madame D'Arblay's, 369 311 ;
specimen of its style, 315 316
Censorship, existed in some form from
Henry VIII. to the Revolution, 329
Ceres, 54 ; note.
Cervantes, 81 ; his celebrity, 80 the
perfection of his art, 328 329 ; fails as a
critic, 329
Chalmers, Dr., Mr. Gladstone's opinion
of his defence of the Church, 122
Champion, Colonel, commander of the
Bengal army, 32
Chandemagore, French settlement, on
the Hoogley, 230 ; captured by the
English, 239
 Charlemagne, imbecility of his
successors, 205
Charles, Archduke, his claim to the
Spanish crown, 90 ; takes the field in
support of it, 10 ; accompanies
Peterborough in his expedition, 112 ; his
success in the north-east of Spain, 117 ;
is proclaimed king at Madrid, 119 ; his
reverses and retreat, 123 ; his re-entry
into Madrid, 126 ; his unpopularity, 127 ;
concludes a peace, 131 ; forms an
alliance with Philip of Spain, 138
Charles I., lawfulness of the resistance
to, 235 243 Milton's defence of his
execution, 246 249 ; his treatment of the
Parliament of 164 457 ; his treatment of
Stratford, 468 ; estimate of his character,
469 498 500 443 ; his tall, 497 ; his
condemnation and its consequences, 500
501 Hampden's opposition to him, and
its consequences, 443 459 ; resistance of
the Scots to him, 460 ; his increasing
difficulties, 461 ; his conduct towards the
House of Commons, 477 482 ; his flight,
488 ; review of his conduct and
treatment, 484 488 ; reaction in his favor
during the Long Parliament, 410 ; effect
of the victory over him on the national
character, 7 8
Charles I. and Cromwell, choice
between, 490
Charles II., character of his reign, 251
; his foreign subsidies, 528 ; his situation
in 1000 contrasted with that of Lewis
XVIII., 282 283 ; his character, 290 30 80
; his position towards the king of France,
290 ; consequences of his levity and
apathy, 299 300 ; his court compared
with that of his father, 29 ; his
extravagance, 34 ; his subserviency to
France, 37 44 46 ; his renunciation of the
dispensing power, 55 ; his relations with
Temple, 58 60 63 97 ; his system of
bribery of the Commons, 71 ; his dislike
of Halifax, 90 ; his dismissal of Temple,
97 ; his characteristics, 349 ; his
influence upon English literature, 349
350 ; compared with Philip of Orleans,
Regent of France, 64 65 Banyan's
gratitude to him, 143 ; his social
disposition, 374
Charles II. of Spain, his unhappy
condition, 88 93 100 ; his difficulties in
respect to the succession, 88 93
Charles III. of Spain, his hatred of
England, 29
Charles V., 316 350
Charles VIII., 483
Charles XII., compared with Clive, 297
Charlotte, Queen, obtains the
attendance of Miss Burney, 279 ; her
partisanship for Hastings, 288 290 ; her
treatment of Miss Burney, 298 297
 Chateaubriand, his remark about the
person of Louis XIV., 58 ; note.
Chatham, Earl of, character of his
public life, 196 197 ; his early life, 198 ;
his travels, 199 ; enters the army 199 ;
obtains a seat in Parliament, 200 ;
attaches himself to the Whigs in
opposition, 207 ; his qualities as an
orator, 211 213 ; dismissed from the
army, 215 ; is made Groom of the
Bedchamber to the Prince of Wales, 161
; declaims against the ministers, 218 ;
his opposition to Carteret, 219 ; legacy
left him by the Duchess of Marlborough,
219 ; supports the Pelham ministry, 220 ;
appointed Vice-Treasurer of Ireland, 221
; overtures made to him by Newcastle,
280 ; made Secretary of State, 235 ;
defends Admiral Byng, 237 ; coalesces
with the Duke of Newcastle, 230 ;
success of his administration, 230-250;
his appreciation of Clive, 260 289 ;
breach between him and the great Whig
connection, 289 ; review of his
correspondence, 1 ; in the zenith of
prosperity and glory, 221 222 ; his
coalition with Newcastle, 7 ; his strength
in Parliament, 13 ; jealousies in his
cabinet, 25 ; his defects, 26 ; proposes
to declare war against Spain oil account
of the family compact, 29 ; rejection of
his counsel, 30 ; his resignation, 30 ; the
king's gracious behavior to him, 30 ;
public enthusiasm towards him, 31 ; his
conduct in opposition, 33 46 ; his speech
against peace with France and Spain, 49
; his unsuccessful audiences with George
III. to form an administration, 58 Sir
William Pynsent bequeaths his whole
property to him, 63 ; bad state of his
health, 64 ; is twice visited by the Duke
of Cumberland with propositions from
the king, 68 72 ; his condemnation of
the American Stamp Act, 77 78 ; is
induced by the king to assist in ousting
Rockingham, 86 ; morbid state of his
mind, 87 88 95 99 ; undertakes to form
an administration, 89 ; is created Earl of
Chatham, 91 ; failure of his ministerial
arrangements, 91 99 ; loss of his
popularity, and of his foreign influence,
99 ; his despotic manners, 89 93 ; lays
an embargo on the exportation of corn,
95 ; his first speech in the Mouse of
Lords, 95 ; his supercilious conduct
towards the Peers, 95 ; his retirement
from office, 100 ; his policy violated, 101
; resigns the privy seal, 100 ; stale of
parties and of public affairs on his
recovery, 100 301 ; his political relations,
101 ; his eloquence not suited to the
House of Lords, 104 ; opposed the
recognition of the independence of the
United States, 107 ; his last appearance
in the House of Lords, 108 22 ; his
death, 100 230 ; reflections on his fall,
100 ; his funeral in Westminster Abbey,
lit.; compared with Mirabeau, 72 73
Chatham, Earl of, (the second), 230 ;
made First Lord of the Admiralty, 270
 Cherbourg, guns taken from, 245
Chesterfield, Lord, his dismissal by
Walpole, 204 ; prospectus of Johnson's
Dictionary addressed to him, 187 188 ;
pulls it in the World, 194
Cheyte Sing, a vassal of the
government of Cennigal, 75 ; his large
revenue and suspected treasure, 79
Hastings's policy in desiring to punish
him. 80 ; to 85 ; his treatment made the
successful charge against Hastings, 118
Chillingworth, his opinion on
apostolical succession, 172 ; became a
Catholic from conviction, 306
Chinese (the) compared to the
Homans under Diocletian, 415 416
Chinsurab, Dutch settlement on the
Hoogley, 230 ; its siege by the English
and capitulation. 259
Chivalry, its form in Languedoc in the
12th century, 308 309
Cholmondeley, Mrs., 271
Christchurch College. Oxford, its
repute after the Revolution, 108 ; issues
a new edition of the Letters of Phalaris,
108 116 118 ; its condition under
Atterbury, 121 122
Christianity, its alliance with the
ancient philosophy, 444 ; light in which it
was regarded hv the Italians at the
Reformation, 316 ; its effect upon mental
activity; 416
Christophe, 390 391
Church (the), in the time of James II.,
520
Church (the), Southey's Hook of, 137
Church, the English, persecutions in
her name, 443 High and Low Church
parties, 362 119 120
Church of England, its origin and
connection with the state, 452 453 190 ;
its condition in the time of Charles 1 ,
166 ; endeavor of the leading Whigs at
the Revolution to alter its Liturgy and
Articles, 321 178 ; its contest with the
Scotch nation, 322 Mr. Gladstone's work
in defence of it, 116 ; his arguments for
its being the pure Catholic Church of
Christ, 161 166 ; its claims to apostolical
succession discussed, 166 178 ; views
respecting its alliance with the state, 183
193 ; contrast of its operations during
the two generations succeeding the
Reformation, with those of the Church of
Rome, 331 332
Church of Rome, its alliance with
ancient philosophy, 444 ; causes of its
success and vitality, 300 301 ; sketch of
its history, 307 349
Churchill, Charles, 519 42 200
 Cicero, partiality of Dr. Middleton
towards, 340 ; the most eloquent and
skilful of advocates, 340 ; his epistles in
his banishment, 361 ; his opinion of the
study of rhetoric, 472 ; as a critic, 142
Cider, proposal of a tax on, by the Bute
administration, 50
Circumstances, effect of, upon
character, 322 323 325
"City of the Violet Crown," a favorite
epithet of Athens, 36 ; note.
Civil privileges and political power
identical, 311
Civil War (the), Cowley and Milton's
imaginary conversation about, 112 138 ;
its evils the price of our liberty, 243 ;
conduct of the Long Parliament in
reference to it, 470 495 496
Civilization, only peril to can arise from
misgovernment, 41 42 England's
progress in, due to the people, 187 ;
modern, its influence upon philosophical
speculation, 417 418
Clarendon, Lord, his history, 424 ; his
character, 521 ; his testimony in favor of
Hampden, 448 468 472 41 493 ; his
literary merit, 338 ; his position at the
head of affairs, 29 31 37 38 ; his faulty
style, 50 ; his opposition to the growing
power of the Commons, 73 ; his temper,
74 ; the charge against Christ-
Churchmen of garbling his history, 130
Clarke, Dr. Samuel, 303
Clarkson, Thomas, 309
Classics, ancient, celebrity of, 139 ;
rarely examined on just principles of
criticism, 139 ; love of, in Italy in the
14th century, 278
Classical studies, their advantages and
defects considered, 347 354
Clavering, General, 35 ; his opposition
to Hastings, 40 47 ; his appointment as
Governor General, 54 ; his defeat, 56 ;
his death, 57
Cleveland, Duchess of, her favor to
Wycherly and Churchill, 372 373
Clifford, Lord, his character, 47 ; his
retirement, 55 56 ; his talent for debate,
72
Clive, Lord, review of Sir John
Malcolm's Life of, 194 298 ; his family
and boyhood, 196 197 ; his shipment to
India, 198 ; his arrival at Madras and
position there, 200 ; obtains an ensign's
commission in the Company's service,
203 ; his attack, capture, and defence of
Arcot, 215 219 ; his subsequent
proceedings, 220 221 223 ; his marriage
and return to England,224; his reception,
225 ; enters Parliament, 226 ; return to
India, 228 ; his subsequent proceedings,
228 236 ; his conduct towards
Ormichund, 238 241 247, 248 ; his
pecuniary acquisitions, 251 ; his
transactions with Meer Jaffier, 240 246
254 ; appointed Governor of the
Company's possessions in Bengal, 255 ;
his dispersion of Shah Alum's army, 256
257 ; responsibility of his position, 259 ;
his return to England, 260 ; his
reception, 260 261 ; his proceedings at
the India House, 263 265 269 ;
nominated Governor of the British
possessions in Bengal. 270 ; his arrival at
Calcutta, 270 ; suppresses a conspiracy,
275 276 ; success of his foreign policy,
276 ; his return to England, 279 ; his
unpopularity and its causes, 279 285 ;
invested with the Grand Cross of the
Bath, 292 ; his speech in his defence,
and its consequence, 289 290 292 ; his
life in retirement, 291 ; reflections on his
career, 296 ; failing of his mind, and
death by his own hand, 296
Clizia, Machiavelli's, 298
Clodius, extensive bribery at the trial
of, 421
"Clouds" (the), of Aristophanes, 383
Club-room, Johnson's, 425 159
Coalition of Chatham and Newcastle,
243
Cobham, Lord, his malignity towards
Essex, 380
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