Prof.

Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

CHAPTER1

BASIC CONCEPTS
The basic electric circuit theory course is the most important course for an electrical engineering
student, and always an excellent starting point for a beginning student in electrical engineering education.
Circuit theory is also valuable to students specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because
circuits are a good model for the study of energy systems in general, and because of the applied physics.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

A Linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant with time and they do not change with voltage or
current and circuit obeys Ohm's Law. A Non Linear circuit is that circuit whose parameters change with
voltage or current and circuit does not obey Ohm's Law.

Linear elements – these are elements in which the constituent relation, the relation between voltage and
current, is a linear function. They obey the superposition principle. Examples of linear elements are
resistances, capacitances, inductances, and linear-dependent sources

The key point that distinguishes a nonlinear circuit from a linear circuit is the relationship between the input
and output signal. If you graph the output signal versus the input signal for a linear circuit, then the graph
will be a straight line for all input signal level. With a nonlinear circuit, the output will not be a straight line.
Instead, the output will be a curve.

Simply we can say that the linear circuit is an electric circuit and the parameters of this circuit are resistance,
capacitance, inductance and etc. are constant.

Examples of Linear Circuits:

A linear circuit contains only elements with linear characteristics i.e., the elements in which current changes
linearly with applied voltage. Some examples of linear elements are resistors, inductors, capacitors, etc.
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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

Thus a circuit made of a resistor, inductor, capacitor, and other linear

elements is regarded as a linear circuit. The figure shows the output
characteristics curve of the linear circuit between current and voltage. It
can be seen that the curve will be a straight diagonal line.

What is a Non-Linear Circuit?

An electrical circuit in which the value of parameters or
elements does not remain constant and varies with the applied
voltage and current is called a non-linear circuit. In non-linear
circuits, the curve between the current through it and the
voltage across it do not result in a straight line (non-linear).

In non-linear circuits, the output response is not directly proportional to the

input. Since there is a non-linear relationship between current and voltage, the
superposition theorem is not applicable to non-linear circuits.

Examples of Non-Linear Circuits:

A circuit that contains at least one non-linear element is regarded as a non-linear circuit. Examples of
electrical elements with non-linear behaviour are diodes, transformers, transistors, iron core inductors, etc.

Difference Between Linear and Non-Linear Circuits:

Linear Circuit Non-Linear Circuit

A linear circuit is an electric circuit in A non-linear circuit is an electric circuit in

which the value of elements connected which the value of elements connected
doesn't vary with current and voltage. varies with current and voltage.

A linear circuit is made up of only A non-linear circuit is made of elements

elements which exhibit a linear that exhibit a non-linear relationship
relationship between current through and between current through and voltage
voltage across it. across it.

Ohm's law is applicable for linear circuits. Generally, ohm's law is not applicable for

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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

non-linear circuits.

The output characteristics curve between The output characteristics curve between
current and voltage for a linear circuit current and voltage for a non-linear circuit
looks like a straight line. looks like a curved line.

It is easy to solve linear circuits with It is difficult to solve non-linear circuits

simple techniques. compared to linear circuits.

Examples of linear elements are resistors, Examples of non-linear elements are

inductors, capacitors, etc. diodes, transformers, transistors, etc.

Electronic Circuits
Electronic circuits, on the other hand, involve components like
diodes, transistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits (ICs). While
they too have a power source, a conductive path, and a load, these
circuits are designed to manipulate the current and voltage to do
more complex tasks. It consists of active components. Diode,
transistor, oscillator is the best example of active components.

What is the difference between circuit and network?

The electrical circuit is a path or arrangement of electrical elements in
which there is a potential difference and current flows from higher
potential to lower potential condition being that all the connection of the
circuit should be closed and there must be no open path. An electrical circuit is shown in below,

As you can see above, the circuit contains a DC source and few resistors. The important thing to notice here
is that the circuit is closed and there is no open path. So the current will be flowing through every element
according to the difference in potential. So, the points we can summarize about the Electrical Circuit are:

-There should be no open path in the circuit.

-The current should flow through every element present in the circuit.

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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

Now, talking about electric networks, if a number of electrical elements

are connected in any manner then the network formed will be called an
electric network. There is a chance of an open path in the electrical
network.

You can see in the figure, there is an open path, hence it is called an electrical network. So, the points we
can summarize about the Electrical Network are:

-There is an open path present in the network.

-Current may not be flowing through all the elements of the network.

Types of Electrical Network:

1. Active Network: If the electric network is connected to an electric source or it
contains EMF source in it then the network is called Active Network.

2. Passive Network: If the electrical network is not connected with any electrical
source or it does not contain any EMF source then it is called Passive Network.

1-1 CHARGE AND CURRENT

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena. Also, the
most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which

matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).

When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of electromotive
force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while negative charges
move in the opposite direction.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is

where current is measured in amperes (A), and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of the above Eq.

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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

We obtain

If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).

A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.

By convention, the symbol I is used to represent such a constant current.

A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current is the
sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).

An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

direct current (dc), alternating current (ac).

1-2 VOLTAGE
The voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a
unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage vab or simply v is measured in
volts (V),

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V).

Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V, whereas a
sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v. A dc voltage is commonly
produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an electric generator.

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1.3 POWER AND ENERGY

For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an electric device can handle. We all know from
experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt bulb. Thus, power and energy calculations
are important in circuit analysis.

To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from physics that:

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

It follows that

The power p in the above Eq. is a time-varying quantity and is called the instantaneous power. Thus, the
power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and the current
through it. If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed by the element. If, on the other
hand, the power has a − sign, power is being supplied by the element.

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through

the positive terminal of an element and p = +vi. If the current enters

through the negative terminal, p = −vi.

(a) absorbing power (b) supplying power

For example, the element in both circuits of Fig. 1 has an absorbing power of +12 W because a positive
current enters the positive terminal in both cases. In Fig. 2, however, the element is supplying power of
−12W because a positive current enters the negative terminal. Of course, an absorbing power of +12 W is
equivalent to a supplying power of −12 W. In general,

Power absorbed = −Power supplied

Figure 1 Figure 2

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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

Figure 1 Two cases of an element with an absorbing power of 12 W:

(a) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W. (b) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W.
Figure 2 Two cases of an element with a supplying power of 12 W:
(a) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W. (b) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W.
In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the
algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power
absorbed.

The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

1.4 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the
elements. Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents through) the
elements of the circuit.

There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements. An active
element can generate energy while a passive element is not. Examples of passive elements are resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
Our aim in this section is to gain familiarity with some important active elements. The most important active
elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There
are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage

or current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

Figure 3 shows the symbols for independent voltage sources. Notice that both symbols in Fig. 3. (a) and (b)
can be used to represent a dc voltage source, but only the symbol in Fig.3. (a) can be used for a time-varying
voltage source

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Figure 3 Symbols for independent voltage sources: (a) Used for constant or time-varying voltage, (b) Used
for constant voltage (dc)

Similarly, the symbol for an independent current source is displayed in Fig.4, where the
arrow indicates the direction of current i. Figure 4, Symbol for independent current
source.

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 5. Since the control
of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the circuit, and the
source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).

4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Figure 5, Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source, (b) dependent current source.

An example of a current controlled voltage source (CCVS) is shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 6, where
the voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the current i through element C. The key idea to keep in
mind is that a voltage source comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a current source comes with an
arrow, irrespective of what it depends on.

Figure 6, The source on the right-hand side is a current-controlled voltage source.

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Prof. Saied Mansour Phys 204 (2024)

EXAMPLE1

Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in Fig. 7.

Solution:

For p1, the 5A current is out of the positive terminal (or into the
negative terminal); hence,

p1 = 20(−5) = −100 W Supplied power

For p2 and p3, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.

p2 = 12(5) = 60 W Absorbed power & p3 = 8(6) = 48 W Absorbed power

For p4, we should note that the voltage is 8V (positive at the top), the same as the voltage for p3, since both
the passive element and the dependent source are connected to the same terminals. (Remember that voltage
is always measured across an element in a circuit.) Since the current flows out of the positive terminal,

p4 = 8(−0.2I) = 8(−0.2 × 5) = −8 W Supplied power

We should observe that the 20V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent current source are supplying
power to the rest of the network, while the two passive elements are absorbing power. Also,

p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 = −100 + 60 + 48 − 8 = 0

In agreement with the total power supplied equals the total power
absorbed.

PRACTICEPROBLEM1

Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component of the circuit

PRACTICEPROBLEM2
This figure shows a circuit with five elements. If p1 = −205W, p2 = 60W, p4 =
45 W, p5 = 30W, calculate the power p3 received or delivered by element 3.

PRACTICE PROBLEM3
Find the power absorbed by each of the elements in Figure.