Circuit Elements -Types of resistors

Two types of circuit elements: 1. Fixed value resistor – has a fixed amount of
1. Active circuit elements resistance, and cannot be changed as it set at a
-capable of generating energy specific value
-generators, batteries, operational amplifiers
2. Passive circuit elements
-not capable of generating energy
- resistor, capacitor, inductor (can further be divided according to construction)
Carbon composition resistor
The most important active elements are voltage - used for 100 years but rarely used today
and current sources – they deliver power to the - made by mixing carbon granules with the
circuit connected to them. help of binder as a binding agent and then
converted into a small rod
Two Kinds of Sources: - they can withstand high-level energy pulses
1. Independent Sources - they can be used in RF loads
2. Dependent sources - disadvantage: big size, noise, high negative
temp. coefficient, instability
Active Circuits Elements Carbon Film Resistor
• Independent Voltage Source - have the carbon film on the ceramic former
-characterized by terminal voltage and completely and they are covered with insulation
independent of the current through it. coating material like epoxy
- a combination of generator and battery - formed by cracking of hydrocarbons on a
• Independent current source ceramic former which makes carbon film on
the current through it is completely dependent on it.
the voltage across it - Helix cut- (Trimming line)smooth curve on

• Dependent or Controlled Source the surface that makes the resistor inductive

- the source of quantity is determined by a voltage and makes them usable in RF application

or current existing at some other location in the Metal oxide film resistor

electric system under examination - widely used today

- resistance is adjusted using the trimming line
- R depends upon the thickness and helix
curve
- low noise, can be supplied to more tolerance
Wire wound Resistor
- made by winding metalcore on a ceramic
former
Passive Circuits Elements - gives more resistance than general
• Resistor - used for high-power application

- circuit element used to impede the flow of current 2. Variable resistor – the value of resistance is not

or flow of electric charge fixed, and can change the value of resistance in
- Resistance – the capacity of the resistor to impede variable resistor

the flow of current or flow of electric charge - ohms

Types of Variable resistor:
Potentiometer
- has three terminals and a rotating shaft
that when rotated changes the value of
resistance
Light-dependent resistor
Thermistors

Temperature Resistance effect

Law of Resistance
➢ Rise in temperature – increases the R of pure
➢ it varies directly as its length (l)
metals
➢ it varies inversely as the cross-sectional (A) of
➢ Rise in temperature – increases the R of alloys
the conductor
➢ Rise in temperature – decreases the R of
➢ it depends on the nature of the material
electrolytes and insulators.
➢ it depends on the temperature of the conductor

Where:
➢ R1 = initial resistance
➢ R2 = final resistance
➢ T = inferred absolute temperature
➢ (temperature when the resistance of a given
material is zero)
Specific Resistance or Resistivity ➢ t1 = initial temperature
➢ The resistance of electrical materials in terms of ➢ t2 = final temperature
➢ 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistance=
unit dimensions length and cross – sectional
ohmic change
area. ➢ per degree per ohm of specified temperature.
➢ The amount of change of resistance in a
material per unit change in temperature.
➢ The unit is ohm – circular mils per foot Ω(ohms)-
CM/ft

The resistance is directly proportional to the

conductor length. The resistance is inversely
proportional to the cross – sectional area. INFERRED ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE (T) in 0C
Where:
• COPPER ANNEALED = 234.5
➢ R = Resistance
➢ A = Cross-sectional area • SILVER = 243
➢ ρ = Resistivity • ALUMINUM = 236
➢ L = Length
➢ V = Volume • HDC (Hard drawn copper) = 242
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (@
Resistivity of common elements at 20C 20 0C)
• COPPER = 0.00393/0C
• SILVER = 0.0038/0C
• ALUMINUM = 0.0039/0C
Resistance vs Temperature

solenoidal toroidal
Inductance- whereby an inductor exhibits
opposition to the change of current flowing through
it, henrys(H)

Using Similar Triangles, • Capacitor

R2 R1 -store energy in its electric field
=
[𝑇] + t 2 [𝑇] + t1
-consists of two conducting plates (maybe
CONDUCTORS UNDERGOING DRAWING aluminum foil) separated by an insulator or
PROCESS (Constant Volume, Same Material) dielectric (may be air, ceramic, paper, mica)
- In the process, the waste of the material is Application
assumed negligible (efficiency is 100%), thus 1. turning circuits of radio receiver
keeping the volume to be constant all 2. dynamic memory elements in computer system
throughout the process. 3. to block dc, pass ac, shift phase, store energy, start
motors, and suppress noise.
Types
1. Fixed capacitor
2. Variable capacitor/Trimmer capacitor/padder

Capacitance – a ratio of the charge on one plate of

a capacitor to the voltage difference between the
• Inductor two plater, measured in farads(F)=1coulomb/volt
-designed to store energy in its magnetic field
-consists of a coil conducting wire Ohm’s Law
-fixed/variable(types of inductors) states that the current flowing in an electric circuit
- made of iron, steel, plastic or air(COIL) is directly proportional to the impressed emf
-Application applied to the circuit and inversely to the
• Electronic power system equivalent resistance of the said circuit. Named

• power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars after the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm (1787-

and electric motors 1854)

𝑽
I=𝑹

Where: V= impressed voltage (volt)

I = current drawn (ampere)
R= resistance (ohm)
Conductance - a measure of the material’s ability Current Division
to conduct electric current. only on parallel
-Reciprocal of Resistance
-measured in mho (Ʊ), siemens (S)

1 𝐴 𝛿𝐴
G= = =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝐿
SIEMENS (formerly mho)
Wye-Delta Transformations
• unit of conductance.
- situations often arise in circuit analysis when
• Named after the german engineer, Earnst
the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series.
Werner von Siemens (1816-1892)
- These are the
Conductivity (δ)– reciprocal of resistivity
• wye (Y) or tee (T) network (a)
𝟏 𝑨 𝜹𝑨 𝟏
G= = = δ= • delta or pi network (b)
𝑹 𝝆𝒍 𝑳 𝝆

Where:
δ = conductivity (siemens per meter) ρ = specific
resistance (resistivity)(ohm- meter)
L = length(meter) - These networks occur by themselves or as part
A = cross sectional area(square meter) of a larger network.
G = conductance(siemens) - They are used in three-phase networks,
R = resistance(ohm) electrical filters, and matching networks.
- Our main interest here is in how to identify
Module 2 Series and Parallel Network them when they occur as part of a network
Series and parallel networks There are two and how to apply wye-delta transformation in
ways in which components may be connected the analysis of that network.
together in an electric circuit. One way is ‘in series’
where components are connected ‘end-to-end’; Wye to Delta Connected Resistors
another way is ‘in parallel’ where components are
connected ‘across each other’. When a circuit is more
complicated than two or three elements, it is very
likely to be a network of individual series and
parallel circuits.

Potential Divider - simplest way of producing a

source of lower e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f.,
and is the basic operating mechanism of the
potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately
measuring potential differences
Maximum Power Transfer
‘The power transferred from a supply source to a
load is at its maximum when the resistance of the
load is equal to the internal resistance of the source.’
Module 3: Alternating Current
R=r
➢ AC voltages can be transported through a
Typical practical applications of the maximum
long-distance transmission lines with lower
power transfer theorem are found in stereo
power losses.
amplifier design, seeking to maximize power
➢ AC voltages can be efficiently stepped
delivered to speakers, and in electric vehicle design,
up/down using transformer.
seeking to maximize power delivered to drive a
➢ AC motors are cheaper and simpler in
motor
construction than DC motors.
➢ Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC
Terms
system.
• Network-interconnection of components such
as resistors and batteries forming a complicated
circuit
• branch- represents a single element such as
voltage source or a resistor
• Node- point of connection between two or Electricity entering a substation from the primary
more branches side is dropped to a lower voltage by transformers
• Loop- any closed path in the circuit and sent on to the secondary side.
• Mesh- loop which contain any other loops within
it Generation of a Sine wave of Voltage
Electromotive Force (emf) – the voltage which is
produced by a moving winding in a magnetic field
or by altering the direction of the flux. Alternating
voltage may be generated by rotating a magnetic
field within a stationary coil.

As the coil rotates anti-clockwise around the central

axis which is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
Kirchhoff’s Law the wire loop cuts the lines of force set up between
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) the north and south poles at different angles as the
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the loop rotates. The amount of induced emf in the loop
current and resistance of each conductors in any at any instant is proportional to the angle of
closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the rotation of the wire loop. When the loop rotates one
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero complete cycle of the waveform being produced for
each revolution of the coil. As the coil rotates within
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) the magnetic field, the electrical connections are
In any electric network, the algebraic sum of the made to the coil by means of carbon brushes and
currents meeting at a point (or in junction) is zero slip rings which are used to transfer the electrical
Incoming currents to a junction or point = outqoing current induced in the coil
currents from that junction or point.
• Sinusoidal waveform(sine waves) Impedance (Z)
-signal that has form a sine and cosine function Joint effect of resistance
-most common periodic signal waveforms Z = R ± jX
• Alternating function/waveform Reactance (jX)
-both varies in magnitude and direction in more or The property of inductor or capacitor that opposes
less an even manner with respect to time making it the flow of current.
a “Bi-directional” waveform. Reactance (X) is defined as the property of an
-time-varying waveform with the most common of inductor or a capacitor to oppose current flow in a
all being called a sinusoid better known as given circuit.
sinusoidal waveform 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
• Wave form 1 1
-visual representation of the variation of a voltage 𝑋𝐶 = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓C
or a current plotted to a base of time
Where,
-horizontal base line represents zero condition of
𝑋𝐿 = inductive reactance (Ohm)
either voltage or current
𝑋𝐶 = capacitive reactance (Ohm)
• Periodic Waveform
𝐶 = capacitance (Farad)
-waveforms that repeat at regular intervals
𝐿 = inductance (Henry)
-may be described by a group of attributes such as
𝜔 = angular velocity (Radians per sec)
frequency, period, amplitude, peak value, and so
𝑓 = operating frequency (Hz, or cps)
on regardless of waveshape
Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to current

Parameters flowing in AC Circuit which is the sum of resistance

Frequency(f) and reactance.
-no of cycle per seconds of a waveform
-herts(H) or 1/s

Behavior of Loads of AC Circuits

Period (T)
Purely resistive loads
-duration of one cycle and inverse of frequency
• The current is always in phase with the voltage
(phase angle is zero).
𝑉
Resistance(R), Inductance(L), and Capacitance(C) • The current, I = 𝑅 where V and I are *rms
circuits
values. [Rms=0.707𝐸𝑚 ]
Resistance- the behavior of pure resistor in an AC
• The power consumed (dissipated)
circuit is exactly similar to that DC circuit
𝑉2
Inductor- pure inductor in an AC Circuit takes 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
current that lags behind the impressed voltage by • The impedance, Z = R
exactly 90 electrical degrees.
Capacitor- perfect capacitor in AC Circuit takes Purely inductive loads
current that lead the impressed voltage by exactly • The current always lags behind voltage by
90 electrical degrees. exactly 90 electrical degrees (ELI).
𝑉 𝑉
• The current, I = 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿.
𝐿

• The power consumed (dissipated) is zero.

• The impedance PL = Em Im (sin ωt) sin (ωt – π/2)
𝑉 ∠0 𝑉𝐿
𝐿
Z= 𝐼∠−90 = ∠90 = 𝜔𝐿∠90 = 𝑗𝑋𝐿 PL = Em Im (cos ωt) sin (ωt – π/2)
𝐼

Purely capacitive loads 𝑬𝒎 𝑰𝒎

𝑷𝑳 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝎𝒕
𝟐
• The current always leads the voltage by
R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)
exactly 90 electrical degrees (ICE).
L – inductance of the inductor (henry)
𝑉
• The current, I = 𝑋 = 𝑉(2𝜋𝑓𝐶).
𝐶 C - capacitance of the capacitor (farad)
• The power consumed (dissipated) is zero. XL – reactance of the inductor (ohm)
• The impedance XC – reactance of the capacitor (ohm)
Z=
𝑉𝐶 ∠0
=
𝑉𝐶 1
∠ − 90 = 𝜔𝐶 ∠ − 90 = −𝑗𝑋𝐶 ω – angular velocity (rad/sec)
𝐼∠90 𝐼
f – frequency of supply voltage (hertz)

1. Resistance Circuit Em – maximum value of the value of the voltage

Resistor – it takes a current that is in – phase with wave ( volt)

the voltage across it. Im – maximum value of the resulting current wave
(amp)
e = Em sinωt
E or V – rms value of the voltage (volt)
i = Im sinωt
I - rms value of the current (amp)
𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 3. Capacitance Circuit
𝑅
P = ei • Ideal Capacitor – it takes a current that

P = (Em sinωt) (Im sinωt) leads the voltage across it by 90o.

R – resistance of the resistor (ohm) e = Em sin ωt

L – inductance of the inductor (henry) i = Im sin (ωt + 90o)

C - capacitance of the capacitor (farad) 𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
XL – reactance of the inductor (ohm) 𝑋𝐶

XC – reactance of the capacitor (ohm) 1 1

𝑋𝐶 = =
ωC 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
ω – angular velocity (rad/sec)
PC = Em Im (sin ωt) sin (ωt + 90o)
f – frequency of supply voltage (hertz)
PC = Em Im (sin ωt) (cos ωt)
Em – maximum value of the value of the voltage
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
wave ( volt) 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡
2
Im – maximum value of the resulting current wave
R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)
(amp)
L – inductance of the inductor (henry)
e or v– rms value of the voltage (volt)
C - capacitance of the capacitor (farad)
i - rms value of the current (amp)
XL – reactance of the inductor (ohm)
XC – reactance of the capacitor (ohm)
2. Inductance Circuit
ω – angular velocity (rad/sec)
• Ideal Inductor – it takes a current that lags the
f – frequency of supply voltage (hertz)
voltage across it by 90o.
Em – maximum value of the value of the voltage
e = Em sin ωt
wave ( volt)
i = Im sin (ωt – π/2)
Im – maximum value of the resulting current wave
i = Im sin (ωt – 90o) (amp)
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 E or V – rms value of the voltage (volt)
𝐸𝑚 I - rms value of the current (amp)
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑋𝐿