Chapter 1: principle properties of Building Materials

1. Building materials play a crucial role in construction and engineering fields.

2. Choice of materials is influenced by climate, economics, and industry
advancements.
3. Materials must meet strength, durability, and resistance requirements.
4. Standardization ensures quality and industry growth.
5. Density is the mass per unit volume of a material.
6. Bulk density accounts for voids and pores within a material.
7. Specific gravity compares material weight to water weight.
8. Porosity affects strength, durability, and thermal properties.
9. Water absorption influences material performance under moisture exposure.
10.Fire resistance and thermal conductivity are critical for building safety.
11.Mechanical properties include compressive strength, tensile strength, and
elasticity.
12.Ductile materials deform without breaking, while brittle materials fail
suddenly.
13.Hardness determines resistance to scratching and penetration.
14.Toughness is the ability to withstand shocks without breaking.
15.Corrosion resistance is essential for long-term material durability.
16.Strength of materials varies under different temperature and environmental
conditions.
17.Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow fluids to pass through it.
18.Freezing and thawing cycles affect the durability of porous materials.
19.The water-cement ratio is a key factor in determining the strength of concrete.
20.Elasticity measures the ability of a material to return to its original shape after
deformation.
21.Thermal expansion affects structural integrity due to temperature changes.
22.Abrasion resistance is important for materials exposed to friction and wear.
23.Materials should be selected based on their load-bearing capacity and
application.
24.Fire-resistant materials do not ignite or lose strength under high temperatures.
25.Refractory materials can withstand prolonged exposure to extreme heat.
26.Chemical resistance ensures durability in aggressive environments, such as
acidic or alkaline conditions.
27.Voids and air pockets in materials can reduce strength and increase water
absorption.
28.Durability is defined as a material's ability to resist wear, weathering, and
decay.
29.Tough materials can absorb energy without fracturing.
30.The modulus of elasticity indicates the stiffness of a material under stress.
31.Impact strength determines how well a material can absorb sudden shocks or
loads.
32.High-performance building materials are designed to enhance efficiency and
sustainability.
33.Environmental factors such as humidity, temperature, and pollution impact
material performance.
34.The use of composite materials can enhance strength and durability in modern
construction.
35.Sustainable building materials help reduce environmental impact and improve
energy efficiency.
Chapter 2

1. Clay products are vital structural materials.

2. Raw materials include clay, quartz, sand, chamatte, slag, sawdust, and
pulverized coal.
3. Manufacturing involves molding, drying, and burning clay.
4. Higher bulk specific gravity generally means stronger clay product.
5. Vitrification can decrease the specific gravity of clay.
6. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick ranges from 1.6 to 2.5.
7. Clay products include bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, and porcelain.
8. Clay is classified based on its origin and properties.
9. Physical properties of clay include plasticity, shrinkage, and strength.
10.Good brick earth should have a balanced composition of ingredients.
11.Silica in brick earth prevents shrinkage and warping.
12.Alumina in brick earth imparts plasticity.
13.Lime in brick earth reduces shrinkage.
14.Iron in brick earth gives red color and improves durability.
15.Magnesia in brick earth gives yellow color.
16.Harmful substances in brick earth include excess lime, alkalis, and organic
matter.
17.Manufacturing involves clay preparation, molding, drying, and burning.
18.Bricks are classified based on quality and use.
19.First-class bricks are well-burnt and have uniform shape.
20.Second-class bricks have minor irregularities.
21.Third-class bricks are under-burnt and soft.
22.Fourth-class bricks are over-burnt and distorted.
23.Good bricks should have uniform shape and size.
24.Good bricks should have a smooth surface.
25.Good bricks should have a metallic sound when struck.
26.Good bricks should have low water absorption.
27.Good bricks should have high compressive strength.
28.Testing of bricks is done for strength, water absorption, and efflorescence.
29.Defects in bricks include cracks, bloating, and efflorescence.
30.Heavy-duty burnt clay bricks are used for high-load applications.
31.Burnt clay perforated bricks have holes to reduce weight.
32.Burnt clay paving bricks are used for roads and pavements.
33.Burnt clay soling bricks are used for foundation soling.
34.Burnt clay hollow blocks are used for walls and partitions.
35.Burnt clay jallis are used for ventilation and decoration.
36.Clay tiles are used for roofing and flooring.
37.Fire-clay or refractory clay withstands high temperatures.
38.Fire-clay bricks are used in furnaces and kilns.
39.Terracotta is used for decorative items and cladding.
40.Porcelain is used for high-quality ceramics.
41.Stoneware is used for pipes and containers.
42.Earthenware is used for pottery and utensils.
43.Majolica involves tin-glazed earthenware.
44.Glazing adds a glossy finish to clay products.
45.Clay products have diverse applications in construction.
46.Rice husk ash can be added to clay to reduce shrinkage.
47.Basalt stone dust can modify the properties of brick earth.
48.Clay with high plasticity requires tempering.
49.The drying process removes moisture from molded bricks.
50.Burning hardens the bricks and gives them strength.
51.Kilns are used for burning bricks.
52.The degree of burning affects the quality of bricks.
53.Over-burning can lead to distorted and brittle bricks.
54.Under-burning results in soft and weak bricks.
55.Proper burning ensures uniform color and texture.
56.Water absorption tests determine the porosity of bricks.
57.Compressive strength tests measure the load-bearing capacity.
58.Efflorescence is caused by soluble salts in bricks.
59.Perforated bricks reduce the dead load of structures.
60.Hollow blocks provide thermal insulation.
61.Jallis allow air circulation and provide privacy.
62.Refractory bricks are essential for high-temperature applications.
63.Terracotta is known for its aesthetic appeal.
64.Porcelain is highly durable and non-porous.
65.Stoneware is resistant to chemicals.
66.Earthenware is commonly used for household items.
67.Glazing improves the appearance and durability of clay products.
68.Clay products are used in both residential and commercial buildings.
69.The choice of clay product depends on the specific application.
70.Proper selection of raw materials is crucial for quality products.
71.The manufacturing process should be carefully controlled.
72.Quality control ensures consistent product standards.
73.Environmental factors affect the properties of clay.
74.The composition of clay earth effects the final product.
75.Fine materials within basalt stone dust are preferred.
76.Unburnt carbon within rice husk ash must be controlled.
77.Clay products are used in landscaping.
78.Clay products can be used for decorative facades.
79.Clay products can contribute to sustainable construction.
80.Proper storage of raw materials is essential.
81.The mixing of raw materials affects the homogeneity of the clay mass.
82.Molding techniques vary depending on the type of product.
83.Drying should be done evenly to prevent cracking.
84.The firing temperature influences the strength of the product.
85.Cooling should be gradual to avoid thermal shock.
86.Properly burnt bricks have a clear ringing sound.
87.Bricks with high water absorption are prone to damage.
88.High compressive strength is essential for load-bearing applications.
89.Efflorescence can be prevented by using well-burnt bricks.
90.Perforated bricks reduce material usage.
91.Hollow blocks improve sound insulation.
92.Refractory bricks are used in industrial furnaces.
93.Terracotta is used for architectural details.
94.Porcelain is used in electrical insulators.
95.Stoneware is used in chemical industries.
96.Earthenware is used in sanitary ware.
97.Glazing protects the surface from weathering.
98.Clay products are used in historical buildings.
99.Modern manufacturing techniques improve product quality.
100. Understanding the properties of clay is crucial for its effective use.
Chapter 3

1. Stone is a natural, hard substance formed from minerals.

2. Rock is a portion of the earth's crust with no definite shape.
3. Rocks have a definite chemical composition.
4. Rock-forming minerals include quartz, felspar, mica, and dolomite.
5. Common rock types for building stones are granite, basalt, and marble.
6. Stone use is traditional in production areas but limited by cost.
7. Stone selection depends on cost, fashion, and durability.
8. Stone has been used in important structures since prehistoric times.
9. Taj Mahal and Egyptian pyramids are examples of stone structures.
10.Stone is used in building structures for load carrying and aesthetics.
11.Stone importance decreased with the advent of cement and steel.
12.Strength analysis of stone structures is challenging.
13.Transportation and dressing of stones are time-consuming.
14.Rock properties depend on the character of mineral constituents.
15.Mineral properties include hardness, cleavage, and streak.
16.Quartz has great strength and hardness.
17.Gypsum has poor strength and readily absorbs water.
18.Mica has a tendency to cleavage.
19.Hardness is measured by scratching minerals.
20.Mohs scale is used to measure hardness.
21.Talc has a hardness of 1 and diamond has 10 on Mohs scale.
22.Cleavage is the ability of minerals to split along crystal planes.
23.Streak is the color of the mineral in powder form.
24.Color is valuable for metallic minerals.
25.Lustre is the shine on the surface of a mineral.
26.Crystal form is important when a mineral has its natural shape.
27.Quartz is made of silicon dioxide.
28.Felspar consists of alumino silicates.
29.Mica includes hydrous alumino silicates.
30.Amphibole is a silicate of iron, lime, and magnesia.
31.Pyroxene is a silicate of lime, alumina, and magnesia.
32.Olivine is a silicate of iron and magnesia.
33.Chlorates are aluminium silicates with iron and magnesia.
34.Garnet is a silicate of iron and alumina.
35.Serpentine is a hydrous silicate of magnesia.
36.Talc is a hydrous silicate of magnesia.
37.Calcite is calcium carbonate.
38.Dolomite is calcium magnesium carbonate.
39.Gypsum is hydrous calcium sulphate.
40.Limonite is hydrous sesquioxide of iron.
41.Magnetite is ferrous and ferric oxide of iron.
42.Pyrite is iron disulphide.
43.Rocks are classified based on geological formation.
44.Rocks are classified based on physical characteristics.
45.Rocks are classified based on chemical composition.
46.Geological classification includes igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
47.Igneous rocks are of volcanic origin.
48.Sedimentary rocks are aqueous or stratified.
49.Metamorphic rocks result from igneous or sedimentary rocks.
50.Igneous rocks are also known as primary rocks.
51.Magma is molten mass below the earth's surface.
52.Basalt and trap are formed from magma on the earth's surface.
53.Granite and syenite are deep-seated plutonic rocks.
54.Dolerite is a hypabyssal rock.
55.Quartz, mica, and felspar are constituents of magma.
56.Texture of rock is influenced by the cooling rate of magma.
57.Acid rocks have 70-80% silica.
58.Intermediate rocks have 60-70% silica.
59.Basic rocks have 45-60% silica.
60.Ultra-basic rocks have 30-45% silica.
61.Tuff lava is formed from volcanic eruptions.
62.Sedimentary rocks result from weathering agencies.
63.Examples of sedimentary rocks are gypsum and limestone.
64.Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated structures.
65.Slate and gneiss have foliated structures.
66.Marble and quartzite have non-foliated structures.
67.Stratified rocks can be split into layers.
68.Unstratified rocks cannot be easily split.
69.Foliated rocks split in a definite direction.
70.Argillaceous rocks have clay as the principal constituent.
71.Silicious rocks have silica as the principal constituent.
72.Calcarious rocks have lime as the principal constituent.
73.Quarrying is the process of obtaining natural stone.
74.Quarry site selection depends on stone quality and transportation.
75.Quarrying tools include wedge, hammer, and drill.
76.Quarrying methods include excavating, wedging, and blasting.
77.Excavating is used for stones buried in earth.
78.Wedging is suitable for soft and stratified rocks.
79.Heating is used for quarrying small blocks of stones.
80.Blasting uses explosives to dislodge rocks.
81.Boring involves drilling holes in the rock.
82.Charging involves placing explosives in the holes.
83.Tamping involves packing the holes with clay.
84.Firing involves igniting the explosives.
85.Blasting requires precautions to ensure safety.
86.Natural bed of stone is its original position.
87.Seasoning of stone involves removing moisture.
88.Seasoning improves the strength and durability of stone.
89.Dressing of stone involves shaping and sizing.
90.Dressing tools include chisels and hammers.
91.Stone is used for foundation and masonry.
92.Stone is used for paving and roofing.
93.Stone is used for bridges and dams.
94.Good building stone should be hard and durable.
95.Good building stone should have low porosity.
96.Good building stone should resist weathering.
97.Testing of stones includes hardness and compressive strength tests.
98.Deterioration of stones can be due to weathering and chemical reactions.
99.Durability of stones depends on their resistance to decay.
100. Preservation of stones involves preventing decay.
101. Selection of stones depends on their intended use.
102. Common building stones include granite, sandstone, and limestone.
103. Artificial stones are manufactured from stone aggregates.
104. Applications of stones include structural and decorative uses.
105. Stone aggregates are used in concrete.
106. Stone dust is used in masonry mortars.
107. Stone cladding is used for building facades.
108. Stone is used in landscaping.
109. Stone is used in monuments and sculptures.
110. Stone is used in retaining walls.
111. Stone is used in flooring and wall tiles.
112. Stone is used in kitchen countertops.
113. Stone is used in bathroom vanities.
114. Stone is used in fireplace surrounds.
115. Stone is used in garden pathways.
116. Stone is used in water features.
117. Stone is used in grave markers.
118. Stone is used in art installations.
119. Stone is used in jewelry.
120. Stone is used in tools and implements.
121. Stone is used in traditional medicine.
122. Stone is used in ritualistic practices.
123. Stone is used in ancient writing tablets.
124. Stone is used in prehistoric cave paintings.
125. Stone is used in thermal energy storage.
126. Stone is used in radiation shielding.
127. Stone is used in cutting tools.
128. Stone is used in grinding wheels.
129. Stone is used in sharpening stones.
130. Stone is used in ballast for railways.
131. Stone is used in riprap for erosion control.
132. Stone is used in aggregate for road construction.
133. Stone is used in asphalt pavement.
134. Stone is used in concrete blocks.
135. Stone is used in bricks.
136. Stone is used in tiles.
137. Stone is used in pipes.
138. Stone is used in sanitary ware.
139. Stone is used in electrical insulators.
140. Stone is used in glass making.
141. Stone is used in ceramics.
142. Stone is used in abrasives.
143. Stone is used in filters.
144. Stone is used in desiccants.
145. Stone is used in catalysts.
146. Stone is used in pigments.
147. Stone is used in cosmetics.
148. Stone is used in pharmaceuticals.
149. Stone is used in food processing.
Chapter 4

1. Wood is a hard and fibrous substance.

2. Wood is a natural polymeric material.
3. Wood does not age.
4. Wood is used both in natural and man-made forms.
5. Examples of man-made wood: plywood, fibreboards, chipboards.
6. Wood is easily available.
7. Wood is easy to transport and handle.
8. Wood has more thermal insulation than steel and concrete.
9. Wood has good sound absorption.
10.Wood has high electrical resistance.
11.Wood is ideal for use in sea water.
12.Wood is a good absorber of shocks.
13.Wood is suitable for earthquake-prone hilly areas.
14.Wood is easy to work with.
15.Repairs and alterations to wood work are easy.
16.Wood is widely used in buildings.
17.Wood is used for doors, windows, frames, and partition walls.
18.Wood is used in roof trusses and ceilings.
19.Wood is used in formwork.
20.Trees are classified as endogenous and exogenous.
21.Endogenous trees grow endwards.
22.Exogenous trees grow outwards.
23.Conifers are evergreen trees.
24.Deciduous trees have flat board leaves.
25.Examples of conifers: deodar, chir, fir, kail, pine, larch.
26.Examples of deciduous trees: oak, teak, shishum, poplar, maple.
27.Conifers have distinct annual rings.
28.Deciduous trees have indistinct annual rings.
29.Conifers have straight fibres.
30.Deciduous trees yield hard wood.
31.Conifers are light in colour.
32.Deciduous trees are dark in colour.
33.Conifers are resinous.
34.Deciduous trees are non-resinous.
35.Conifers are light weight.
36.Deciduous trees are heavy weight.
37.Conifers are predominantly used for construction.
38.Cambium layer adds a layer of wood to the outside of tree every year.
39.Annual rings indicate the age of the log.
40.Rapidly growing trees have wide annual rings.
41.Slower growing trees have narrow annual rings.
42.Straight-grained wood has elements parallel to the pith.
43.Cross-grained wood has elements not parallel to the axis.
44.Timber should be felled when matured.
45.Best time to fell timber is midsummer or midwinter.
46.Timber felled when sap is vigorous decays.
47.Young trees yield soft wood.
48.Over matured trees start to decay.
49.Timber and wood are often used synonymously.
50.Timber retains its natural physical structure.
51.Timber is suitable for various engineering works.
52.Standing timber is a living tree.
53.Rough timber is a part of the felled tree.
54.Converted timber is sawn into planks, posts, etc.
55.Structural grading is based on visible defects.
56.Stress grading is based on maximum principle stresses.
57.Commercial grading is based on usefulness and price.
58.Grade A classification is based on dimensions and appearance.
59.Grade B classification is based on best ultimate use.
60.Grade C classification is based on qualitative evaluation of defects.
61.Grade D classification is based on evaluation of units of defects.
62.Timbers are classified based on modulus of elasticity.
63.Group A timbers have modulus above 12.5 kN/mm².
64.Group B timbers have modulus between 9.8 and 12.5 kN/mm².
65.Group C timbers have modulus between 5.6 and 9.8 kN/mm².
66.Timber availability grades: X, Y, Z.
67.Grade X timber is most common.
68.Grade Y timber is common.
69.Grade Z timber is less common.
70.Timber durability is classified based on average life.
71.High durability timber has average life over 120 months.
72.Moderate durability timber has average life 60-120 months.
73.Low durability timber has average life less than 60 months.
74.Timber seasoning characteristics are classified.
75.Highly refractory timbers are slow to season.
76.Moderately refractory timbers need protection against rapid drying.
77.Non-refractory timbers can be rapidly seasoned.
78.Timber treatability is classified based on resistance to preservatives.
79.Easily treatable timbers absorb preservatives well.
80.Refractory timbers resist preservative penetration.
81.Crown, trunk, and roots are the three portions of a tree.
82.Trunk accounts for about 80% of the total bulk of wood.
83.Macro structure is visible to the naked eye.
84.Micro structure is apparent only at great magnifications.
85.Bark protects the wood against mechanical damage.
86.Cambium grows wood cells.
87.Sapwood stores starch and conducts sap.
88.Heartwood gives strong and firm support.
89.Pith is at the centre of the cross-section.
90.Medullary rays pass nutrients from bast to the heart.
91.Good timber has narrow annual rings.
92.Good timber has compact medullary rays.
93.Good timber has dark colour.
94.Good timber has uniform texture.
95.Good timber has sweet smell.
96.Good timber produces sonorous sound when struck.
97.Good timber is free from defects.
98.Good timber is heavy weight.
99.Good timber has no woolliness at fresh cut surface.
100. Seasoning reduces moisture content of timber.
Chapter 5

1. Cement is a cementing material.

2. Cement can be hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
3. Hydraulic cements set and harden in water.
4. Non-hydraulic cements do not set in water.
5. Portland cement is a hydraulic cement.
6. Portland cement is made from calcareous and argillaceous materials.
7. Calcareous materials are limestone, chalk, and marl.
8. Argillaceous materials are clay and shale.
9. Cement is used in mortar, concrete, and plaster.
10.Cement is used in reinforced brickwork and artificial stones.
11.Cement is used in structures requiring high strength.
12.Cement is used in structures exposed to water.
13.Ordinary Portland cement is classified into grades 33, 43, and 53.
14.33-grade cement corresponds to category A.
15.43-grade cement corresponds to category C.
16.53-grade cement corresponds to category E.
17.Most 43-grade cements fall in category D.
18.Most 53-grade cements fall in category F.
19.Hydraulic cements contain lime, silica, and alumina.
20.Cements may contain iron oxide, magnesia, and sulfur trioxide.
21.High lime content can lead to unsound cement.
22.High silica content makes cement difficult to fuse.
23.Chemical composition of Portland cement varies.
24.Oxides in cement interact to form cement clinker.
25.Bogue compounds are formed during clinkering.
26.Bogue compounds include Alite, Belite, Celite, and Felite.
27.Alite is also known as tricalcium silicate (C3S).
28.Belite is also known as dicalcium silicate (C2S).
29.Celite is also known as tricalcium aluminate (C3A).
30.Felite is also known as tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF).
31.C3S is the best cementing material.
32.C3S contributes to early strength and hardness.
33.C2S contributes to strength after a year or more.
34.C3A is responsible for initial set and high heat of hydration.
35.C4AF contributes to flash set and generates less heat.
36.Bogue's method calculates compound composition from oxide analysis.
37.Bogue's method assumes equilibrium during cooling.
38.Errors in chemical analysis affect compound percentages.
39.Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water.
40.Hydration affects the physical properties of concrete.
41.Hydration products deposit on hydrated cement nucleus.
42.Induction period is the initial 2-5 hours of hydration.
43.Hydration rate decreases with time.
44.Hydrated cement paste consists of gel, unreacted cement, and calcium
hydroxide.
45.C-S-H gel is the calcium silicate hydrate.
46.C-S-H gel makes up 50-60% of hydrated Portland cement paste.
47.Calcium hydroxide crystals make up 20-25% of hydrated paste.
48.Setting and hardening are chemical reactions.
49.C3A reaction with water causes flash setting.
50.Calcium sulfate retards C3A hydration.
51.C3S is responsible for strength gain up to 28 days.
52.C2S contributes to strength gain at later ages.
53.Heat evolution order: C3A, C3S, C4AF, C2S.
54.Hydration rate increases with cement fineness.
55.Hydration rate order: C4AF, C3A, C3S, C2S.
56.23% water is needed for complete hydration.
57.15% water fills cement gel pores.
58.Total 38% water is needed for complete hydration.
59.Water/cement ratio less than 0.38 is used in high-strength concretes.
60.Excess water leads to capillary cavities.
61.Cement is manufactured by dry or wet process.
62.Dry process is used for hard raw materials.
63.Wet process is used for soft raw materials.
64.Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder in the dry process.
65.Water is added to make a thick paste in the dry process.
66.Paste cakes are dried and charged into a rotary kiln.
67.Clinker is obtained after calcination in a rotary kiln.
68.Clinker is formed at 1400-1500°C.
69.Ferric oxide acts as a flux.
70.Aeration of cement clinker slakes free lime.
71.Clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve metastable compounds.
72.Clinker is ground in tube mills.
73.2-3% gypsum is added during grinding.
74.Gypsum retards cement setting.
75.Cement is stored in 50 kg bags.
76.Wet process uses soft materials like marine shells.
77.Materials are ground with water in the wet process.
78.Slurry is formed in the wet process.
79.Slurry is stored in storage tanks.
80.Slurry is dried and burnt in a rotary kiln.
81.Clinker is ground with gypsum in the wet process.
82.Cement is stored in silos.
83.Chemical analysis tests cement composition.
84.Fineness test measures particle size.
85.Setting time test measures initial and final set.
86.Soundness test measures volume change.
87.Le Chatelier apparatus is used for soundness test.
88.Compressive strength test measures load-bearing capacity.
89.Tensile strength test measures tensile strength.
90.Specific gravity test measures density.
91.Different types of cement are used for specific purposes.
92.Rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly.
93.Low heat cement generates less heat during setting.
94.Sulfates resisting cement is used in sulfate-rich environments.
95.Portland slag cement uses blast furnace slag.
96.Portland pozzolana cement uses pozzolanic materials.
97.White cement is used for decorative purposes.
98.Colored cement is used for aesthetic applications.
99.Air entraining cement improves workability.
100. Expansive cement expands during hardening.
101. Hydrophobic cement repels water.
102. Ordinary Portland cement is versatile.
103. Proper storage prevents cement deterioration.
104. Cement should be stored in dry conditions.
105. Cement bags should be stacked properly.
106. Oldest cement should be used first.
107. Lumps in cement indicate deterioration.
108. Cement quality affects concrete strength.
109. High-quality cement ensures durable structures.
110. Cement hydration is essential for strength development.
111. Proper curing enhances cement hydration.
112. Curing prevents moisture loss.
113. Curing methods include ponding and spraying.
114. Curing time varies with cement type.
115. Cement paste hardens over time.
116. Hardened cement paste binds aggregates.
117. Cement matrix determines concrete properties.
118. Cement volume affects concrete strength.
119. Cement quality control is crucial.
120. Admixtures modify cement properties.
121. Accelerators speed up setting time.
122. Retarders slow down setting time.
123. Plasticizers improve workability.
124. Air-entraining agents enhance freeze-thaw resistance.
125. Pozzolanic materials react with calcium hydroxide.
126. Fly ash is a common pozzolanic material.
127. Silica fume improves concrete strength.
128. Ground granulated blast furnace slag enhances durability.
129. Chemical admixtures alter cement hydration.
130. Mineral admixtures enhance long-term performance.
131. Admixture dosage affects cement properties.
132. Compatibility of admixtures is essential.
133. Cement hydration generates heat.
134. Heat of hydration affects concrete setting.
135. Low heat cement is used in mass concrete.
136. High heat cement is used in cold weather.
137. Cement fineness affects hydration rate.
138. Fine cement hydrates faster.
139. Coarse cement hydrates slower.
140. Cement particle size distribution is important.
141. Uniform particle size enhances hydration.
142. Cement storage conditions affect quality.
143. Moisture affects cement hydration.
144. Carbonation reduces cement alkalinity.
145. Sulfates attack

146. Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction.

147. Hydration products affect concrete properties.
148. C-S-H gel is the main strength-giving component.
149. Calcium hydroxide contributes to alkalinity.
150. Setting is the change from plastic to solid state.
151. Hardening is the gain of strength with hydration.
152. C3A reaction is responsible for flash setting.
153. Calcium sulfate retards C3A hydration.
154. C3S contributes to strength up to 28 days.
155. C2S contributes to strength at later ages.
156. Heat evolution order: C3A, C3S, C4AF, C2S.
157. Hydration rate increases with cement fineness.
158. Hydration rate order: C4AF, C3A, C3S, C2S.
159. 23% water is needed for complete hydration.
160. 15% water fills cement gel pores.
161. Total 38% water is needed for complete hydration.
162. Water/cement ratio affects concrete strength.
163. Excess water leads to capillary cavities.
164. Dry process is used for hard raw materials.
165. Wet process is used for soft raw materials.
166. Limestone and clay are ground in the dry process.
167. Water is added to make a thick paste in the dry process.
168. Paste cakes are dried and charged into a rotary kiln.
169. Clinker is obtained after calcination.
170. Clinker is formed at 1400-1500°C.
171. Ferric oxide acts as a flux.
172. Aeration slakes free lime.
173. Clinker is cooled rapidly.
174. Clinker is ground in tube mills.
175. 2-3% gypsum is added during grinding.
176. Gypsum retards cement setting.
177. Cement is stored in 50 kg bags.
178. Wet process uses marine shells.
179. Materials are ground with water in the wet process.
180. Slurry is formed and stored.
181. Slurry is dried and burnt in a rotary kiln.
182. Clinker is ground with gypsum.
183. Cement is stored in silos.
184. Chemical analysis tests cement composition.
185. Fineness test measures particle size.
186. Setting time test measures initial and final set.
187. Soundness test measures volume change.
188. Le Chatelier apparatus is used for soundness test.
189. Compressive strength test measures load-bearing capacity.
190. Tensile strength test measures tensile strength.
191. Specific gravity test measures density.
192. Different types of cement are used for specific purposes.
193. Rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly.
194. Low heat cement generates less heat.
195. Sulfates resisting cement is used in sulfate-rich environments.
196. Portland slag cement uses blast furnace slag.
197. Portland pozzolana cement uses pozzolanic materials.
198. White cement is used for decorative purposes.
199. Colored cement is used for aesthetic applications.
200. Air entraining cement improves workability.
 Chapter 6

1. Aggregates are used as filler with binding material in mortar and concrete.
2. They constitute 70-80% of the concrete volume.
3. Aggregates reduce shrinkage and provide economy.
4. They should be clean, hard, strong, and durable.
5. Graded sizes enhance economy and paste utilization.
6. Coarse aggregates are larger, fine aggregates are smaller.
7. Natural aggregates are from igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks.
8. Artificial aggregates include broken bricks and blast furnace slag.
9. Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.
10.Fine aggregates pass through a 4.75 mm sieve.
11.Aggregate size affects concrete properties and economy.
12.Rounded aggregates minimize voids but have poor interlocking.
13.Irregular aggregates need more cement paste.
14.Angular aggregates provide the best bond and high strength.
15.Flaky aggregates adversely affect durability.
16.Aggregate strength should match or exceed concrete strength.
17.Crushing, impact, and abrasion tests evaluate aggregate strength.
18.Aggregate stiffness influences concrete's modulus of elasticity.
19.High modulus reduces dimensional changes but increases internal stresses.
20.Bond strength is crucial for concrete integrity.
21.Rougher surfaces improve bond strength.
22.Specific gravity indicates aggregate quality.
23.Low specific gravity may suggest high porosity and poor durability.
24.Bulk density depends on packing, shape, size, grading, and moisture.
25.Voids affect concrete strength.
26.Porosity influences durability and bond.
27.Moisture content affects the water/cement ratio.
28.Bulking is the volume increase due to moisture.
29.Bulking affects mix proportions and concrete yield.
30.Fineness modulus indicates mean particle size.
31.Deleterious materials harm concrete properties.
32.Organic impurities interfere with hydration.
33.Clay coatings affect bond development.
34.Unsound particles cause chemical reactions.
35.Soundness is the ability to resist volume changes.
36.Freeze-thaw conditions test soundness.
37.Alkali-aggregate reaction causes cracking.
38.It's a reaction between silica in aggregate and alkalis in cement.
39.Reactive aggregates and high alkali cement cause this reaction.
40.Moisture and temperature affect alkali-aggregate reactions.
41.Non-reactive aggregates prevent this reaction.
42.Low alkali cement can be used.
43.Controlling moisture can mitigate the reaction.
44.Puzzolanas can disrupt harmful silica conditions.
45.Air-entraining agents absorb osmotic pressure.
46.Thermal properties include specific heat and conductivity.
47.These are important in mass and lightweight concrete.
48.Coefficient of expansion affects concrete in general.
49.Sand is used as fine aggregate.
50.Standard sand is used for mix design.
51.Ennore Sand is the standard sand in India.
52.Sand is classified by source, mineralogy, and size.
53.Functions of sand include economy and strength.
54.Very fine or coarse sand is unsatisfactory.
55.Impurities like clay and dust are harmful.
56.Grading affects workability.
57.Air entrainment reduces the need for fine aggregates.
58.Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve.
59.They should be hard, strong, and durable.
60.Functions of coarse aggregate are similar to fine aggregate.
61.Cinder aggregates are used in lightweight concrete.
62.They provide thermal insulation.
63.Broken brick aggregates are used in mass concrete.
64.They are not used in reinforced concrete.
65.Testing aggregates ensures quality.
66.Sampling should be representative.
67.Sieve analysis determines particle size distribution.
68.Specific gravity and density tests measure aggregate properties.
69.Strength tests include crushing and impact tests.
70.Shape tests measure angularity and flakiness.
71.Soundness tests evaluate resistance to weathering.
72.Aggregate crushing value indicates strength.
73.Aggregate impact value measures toughness.
74.Los Angeles abrasion test measures hardness.
75.Specific gravity affects concrete density.
76.Water absorption affects durability.
77.Free moisture affects workability.
78.Surface moisture is extra water on aggregate particles.
79.Bulking of sand affects volume.
80.Organic impurities affect setting and hardening.
81.Silt content affects bond strength.
82.Clay content affects workability.
83.Deleterious materials affect durability.
84.Soundness ensures resistance to weathering.
85.Alkali-aggregate reaction causes expansion and cracking.
86.Thermal properties affect concrete performance.
87.Fine aggregate grading affects workability.
88.Coarse aggregate size affects concrete strength.
89.Cinder aggregates are lightweight.
90.Broken brick aggregates are economical.
91.Testing ensures aggregate quality.
92.Sampling should be representative.
93.Sieve analysis determines grading.
94.Strength tests measure load-bearing capacity.
95.Shape tests measure particle form.
96.Soundness tests measure resistance to volume changes.
97.Impurities affect concrete properties.
98.Proper grading improves concrete density.
99.Moisture content affects workability.
100. Aggregate quality is crucial for concrete durability.
Chapter 7

1. Water causes hydration of cement.

2. Excess water reduces concrete strength.
3. Optimum water is needed for quality concrete.
4. Water is also used for washing aggregates.
5. Water is used for curing concrete.
6. Potable water is acceptable for concrete mix.
7. Unsuitable drinking water may be used for concrete.
8. Water samples should be tested for suitability.
9. Impurities affect setting time and strength.
10.Impurities affect durability and cause corrosion.
11.Impurities cause efflorescence and discoloration.
12.Setting time difference should be within ± 30 minutes.
13.Compressive strength should not differ by 10%.
14.Tolerable impurity concentrations are specified.
15.Dissolved solids up to 2000 ppm are acceptable.
16.Higher concentrations affect certain cements.
17.Organic matter retards setting and reduces strength.
18.Inorganic salts affect setting.
19.Acids and alkalis are unsuitable.
20.pH value should be between 6-8.
21.Sugar up to 0.05% is harmless.
22.Higher sugar content affects setting and strength.
23.Mineral oil up to 2% may reduce strength.
24.Vegetable oils have detrimental effect on strength.
25.Algae reduces bond and entrains air.
26.Ground waters may contain iron.
27.Iron salts up to 40,000 ppm do not affect strength.
28.Sea water can be used if fresh water is unavailable.
29.Sea water reduces concrete strength by 10-20%.
30.Sea water accelerates setting time.
31.Sea water may lead to reinforcement corrosion.
32.Permeability and cover affect corrosion.
33.Entrained air can mitigate corrosion.
34.Sea water is recommended for unreinforced concrete.
35.Chlorides in sea water cause efflorescence.
36.Sea water is not recommended for prestressed concrete.
37.Industrial waste water may contain harmful impurities.
38.Test waste water before using it for concrete.
39.Dilute sewage water to reduce organic matter.
40.Impurities in washing water affect bond.
41.Curing water should be free from impurities.
42.Impurities in curing water cause stains.
43.Water with more than 0.08 ppm iron is not recommended.
44.Initial setting time is a key parameter.
45.Final setting time is also important.
46.Soundness of concrete is affected by water quality.
47.Organic matter should be limited.
48.Suspended particles have an upper limit.
49.Sea water affects setting and durability.
50.Good quality concrete minimizes corrosion risk.
51.Water quality affects concrete performance.
52.Testing ensures water suitability.
53.Impurities can have deleterious effects.
54.Water is crucial for cement hydration.
55.Excess water leads to laitance.
56.Honeycombed concrete results from water leakage.
57.Non-uniform mixing weakens concrete.
58.Water quality affects long-term durability.
59.Potable water is generally safe.
60.Doubtful water sources should be tested.
61.Impurities can cause surface discoloration.
62.Setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.
63.Strength difference should be within 10%.
64.Tolerance concentrations guide impurity limits.
65.Dissolved solids affect concrete properties.
66.Organic matter acts as a retarder.
67.Inorganic salts can accelerate or retard setting.
68.Acids and alkalis are generally harmful.
69.pH value indicates acidity or alkalinity.
70.Sugar content affects setting and strength.
71.Mineral oil in high concentrations reduces strength.
72.Vegetable oils are detrimental to concrete.
73.Algae affects bond and strength.
74.Ground water may contain iron salts.
75.Sea water contains various salts.
76.Sea water affects setting time and strength.
77.Corrosion risk is higher with sea water.
78.Industrial waste water needs testing.
79.Sewage water can be used after dilution.
80.Washing water impurities affect bond.
81.Curing water should not cause stains.
82.Iron content in curing water is limited.
83.Water quality affects concrete setting.
84.Water quality affects concrete strength.
85.Water quality affects concrete durability.
86.Water quality affects reinforcement corrosion.
87.Testing ensures water suitability for concrete.
88.Impurities can have adverse effects.
89.Water is essential for concrete quality.
90.Excess water weakens concrete.
91.Optimum water content is crucial.
92.Water quality affects long-term performance.
93.Potable water is generally acceptable.
94.Doubtful water sources require testing.
95.Impurities can cause discoloration.
96.Setting time should be within acceptable limits.
97.Strength difference should be minimal.
98.Tolerance concentrations guide impurity limits.
99.Dissolved solids affect concrete properties.
100. Organic matter retards setting.
Chapter 8
 Puzzolanas are siliceous materials.
 They lack cementitious properties.
 They react with lime in the presence of water.
 Reaction forms compounds with cementitious properties.
 Puzzolanas can be natural or artificial.
 They are used to replace a proportion of cement.
 This replacement is done when making concrete.
 Advantages include economy and improved workability.
 They reduce bleeding and segregation.
 Puzzolanas enhance imperviousness.
 They improve resistance to freezing and thawing.
 They resist attack by sulfates and natural waters.
 Disruptive effects of alkali-aggregate reaction are reduced.
 Heat of hydration is also reduced.
 Natural puzzolanas reduce leaching of soluble compounds.
 They contribute to the impermeability of concrete at later ages.
 Main justification is the possibility of reducing costs.
 They must be obtained locally to reduce costs.
 Natural puzzolanas are rich in silica and alumina.
 They contain a small quantity of alkalis.
 Examples include clays and shales.
 Diatomaceous earth and opaline cherts are natural puzzolanas.
 Volcanic tuffs and pumicites are also natural.
 Rhenish and Bavarian trass are other examples.
 Artificial puzzolanas include fly ash.
 Ground blast-furnace slag is an artificial type.
 Silica fume and surkhi are artificial.
 Rice husk ash is also an artificial puzzolana.
 Silica of puzzolana combines with free lime.
 This happens during the hydration of cement.
 This action is called puzzolanic action.
 It is due to finely divided glassy silica and lime.
 It produces calcium silicate hydrate.
 This is similar to that produced during hydration of Portland cement.
 Silica reacts with lime and contributes to strength.
 Additional calcium silicate hydrate is formed.
 This formation gives impermeability and durability.
 It also provides ever increasing strength.
 Hydration of Portland cement involves C3S and water.
 It results in C-S-H and Ca(OH)2.
 Lime produced combines with silica of puzzolana.
 This forms additional C-S-H.
 Amorphous silicas react readily with lime.
 This is compared to crystalline forms.
 This constitutes the difference between active puzzolanas.
 And materials of similar chemical composition.
 Puzzolanic action needs enough moisture.
 Moisture is needed for a long time.
 This completes puzzolanic action.
 Lime-silica reaction is commonly thought to be the main one.
 Recent information indicates alumina and iron also take part.
 Optimum amount of puzzolana ranges between 10-30%.
 It may be as low as 4-6% for natural puzzolanas.
 It may be higher for some fly ashes.
 Heat of hydration of a puzzolana is same as low heat cement.
 Addition of air entraining agent may reduce water.
 This is compared to concrete containing cement only.
 It may lead to an increase in strength.
 Less cement may be permitted for the same strength.
 At early ages, replacement of cement results in decreased strength.
 Difference becomes less at 3 months.
 It may disappear at ages of 3 months or more.
 Shrinkage and moisture movement are similar to Portland cement.
 Puzzolana is used where reduction in heat of hydration is important.
 Slower rate of gain in strength is not of much conscience.
 It is used where mass concreting is to be done.
 Improvement in workability is obtained.
 This is by using puzzolana in lean harsh mixes.
 These mixes are used in mass concreting.
 Examples are dams and retaining walls.
 Wharf walls and breakwaters are examples.
 Harbour works and massive foundations are examples.
 Lime-puzzolana mixtures are used for masonry mortars.
 They are used for plasters and foundation concrete.
 Fly ash is a residue from combustion of pulverized coal.
 It is collected from flue gases of power plants.
 It constitutes about 75 per cent of total ash produced.
 Properties and composition vary widely.
 Variation is between different plants.
 It also varies from hour to hour in the same plant.
 Composition depends on type of fuel burnt.
 It also depends on variation of load on boiler.
 Fly ash from cyclone separators is coarse.
 It contains a large proportion of unburnt fuel.
 Fly ash from electrostatic precipitators is fine.
 It has a specific surface of about 3500 cm²/g.
 It may be as high as 5000 cm²/g.
 It is normally finer than Portland cement.
 Fly ash consists of spherical particles.
 Some particles may be like glass and hollow.
 Some are irregularly shaped particles of unburnt fuel or carbon.
 It may vary in colour from light grey to dark grey or brown.
 Carbon content is important for use with cement.
 It should be as low as possible.
 Fineness should be as high as possible.
 Silica should be in finely divided state.
 It combines slowly with lime.
 Lime is liberated during hydration of cement.
 Curing at 38°C accelerates strength contribution.
 High pressure and temperature promote reaction.
 Reaction is between lime and silica.
 It tends to prevent release of free lime.
 This reduces efflorescence.
 Fly ash is supplied in two grades.
 Grade I and grade II.
 General use is in cement mortar and concrete.
 It is also used in lime pozzolana mixture.
 Only grade I is recommended for Portland pozzolana cement.
 Fly ash consists of spherical glassy particles.
 Particles range from 1 to 150 µm.
 Most pass through a 45 µm sieve.
 More than 40 per cent of particles are under 10 microns.
 These contribute to early age strength.
 Particles of sizes 10 to 45 microns react slowly.
 They are responsible for gain in strength from 28 days to one year.
 Use of fly ash requires more water for same slump.
 This is due to fineness of fly ash.
 It reduces segregation and bleeding.
 If sand is coarse, fly ash produces beneficial results.
 For fine sands, it may increase water requirement.
 Puzzolanic action is very slow.
 Addition up to 30 per cent may result in lower strength.
 This is at 7 and 28 days.
 Strength may be equal at 3 months.
 It may increase at ages greater than 3 months.
 This is if curing is continued.
 Modulus of elasticity is lower at early ages.
 It is higher at later ages.
 Curing conditions are similar to Portland cement concrete.
 Coarser fly ashes increase drying shrinkage.
 High carbon content also increases shrinkage.
 Finer fly ashes and low carbon content reduce it.
 Permeability of concrete reduces on addition of fly ash.
 28 days fly-ash-concrete may be three times as permeable.
 After 6 months, it may be less than one quarter permeable.
 Fly ash slightly improves resistance to sulphate attack.
 It reduces the heat of hydration in concrete.
 30 per cent substitution may result in 50-60% reduction.
 Fly ash reduces the amount of air entraining agent.
 30 per cent substitution may increase initial setting time.
 Increase can be up to 2 hours.
 Surkhi is obtained by burning clay soils.
 It is an artificial puzzolana.
Chapter 09

1. Clay products are vital structural materials.

2. Raw materials include clay, quartz, sand, chamatte, slag, sawdust, and
pulverized coal.
3. Manufacturing involves molding, drying, and burning clay.
4. Higher bulk specific gravity generally means stronger clay product.
5. Vitrification can decrease the specific gravity of clay.
6. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick ranges from 1.6 to 2.5.
7. Clay products include bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, and porcelain.
8. Clay is classified based on its origin and properties.
9. Physical properties of clay include plasticity, shrinkage, and strength.
10.Good brick earth should have a balanced composition of ingredients.
11.Silica in brick earth prevents shrinkage and warping.
12.Alumina in brick earth imparts plasticity.
13.Lime in brick earth reduces shrinkage.
14.Iron in brick earth gives red color and improves durability.
15.Magnesia in brick earth gives yellow color.
16.Harmful substances in brick earth include excess lime, alkalis, and organic
matter.
17.Manufacturing involves clay preparation, molding, drying, and burning.
18.Bricks are classified based on quality and use.
19.First-class bricks are well-burnt and have uniform shape.
20.Second-class bricks have minor irregularities.
21.Third-class bricks are under-burnt and soft.
22.Fourth-class bricks are over-burnt and distorted.
23.Good bricks should have uniform shape and size.
24.Good bricks should have a smooth surface.
25.Good bricks should have a metallic sound when struck.
26.Good bricks should have low water absorption.
27.Good bricks should have high compressive strength.
28.Testing of bricks is done for strength, water absorption, and efflorescence.
29.Defects in bricks include cracks, bloating, and efflorescence.
30.Heavy-duty burnt clay bricks are used for high-load applications.
31.Burnt clay perforated bricks have holes to reduce weight.
32.Burnt clay paving bricks are used for roads and pavements.
33.Burnt clay soling bricks are used for foundation soling.
34.Burnt clay hollow blocks are used for walls and partitions.
35.Burnt clay jallis are used for ventilation and decoration.
36.Clay tiles are used for roofing and flooring.
37.Fire-clay or refractory clay withstands high temperatures.
38.Fire-clay bricks are used in furnaces and kilns.
39.Terracotta is used for decorative items and cladding.
40.Porcelain is used for high-quality ceramics.
41.Stoneware is used for pipes and containers.
42.Earthenware is used for pottery and utensils.
43.Majolica involves tin-glazed earthenware.
44.Glazing adds a glossy finish to clay products.
45.Clay products have diverse applications in construction.
46.Rice husk ash can be added to clay to reduce shrinkage.
47.Basalt stone dust can modify the properties of brick earth.
48.Clay with high plasticity requires tempering.
49.The drying process removes moisture from molded bricks.
50.Burning hardens the bricks and gives them strength.
51.Kilns are used for burning bricks.
52.The degree of burning affects the quality of bricks.
53.Over-burning can lead to distorted and brittle bricks.
54.Under-burning results in soft and weak bricks.
55.Proper burning ensures uniform color and texture.
56.Water absorption tests determine the porosity of bricks.
57.Compressive strength tests measure the load-bearing capacity.
58.Efflorescence is caused by soluble salts in bricks.
59.Perforated bricks reduce the dead load of structures.
60.Hollow blocks provide thermal insulation.
61.Jallis allow air circulation and provide privacy.
62.Refractory bricks are essential for high-temperature applications.
63.Terracotta is known for its aesthetic appeal.
64.Porcelain is highly durable and non-porous.
65.Stoneware is resistant to chemicals.
66.Earthenware is commonly used for household items.
67.Glazing improves the appearance and durability of clay products.
68.Clay products are used in both residential and commercial buildings.
69.The choice of clay product depends on the specific application.
70.Proper selection of raw materials is crucial for quality products.
71.The manufacturing process should be carefully controlled.
72.Quality control ensures consistent product standards.
73.Environmental factors affect the properties of clay.
74.The composition of clay earth effects the final product.
75.Fine materials within basalt stone dust are preferred.
76.Unburnt carbon within rice husk ash must be controlled.
77.Clay products are used in landscaping.
 78.Clay products can be used for decorative facades.
79.Clay products can contribute to sustainable construction.
80.Proper storage of raw materials is essential.
81.The mixing of raw materials affects the homogeneity of the clay mass.
82.Molding techniques vary depending on the type of product.
83.Drying should be done evenly to prevent cracking.
84.The firing temperature influences the strength of the product.
85.Cooling should be gradual to avoid thermal shock.
86.Properly burnt bricks have a clear ringing sound.
87.Bricks with high water absorption are prone to damage.
88.High compressive strength is essential for load-bearing applications.
89.Efflorescence can be prevented by using well-burnt bricks.
90.Perforated bricks reduce material usage.
91.Hollow blocks improve sound insulation.
92.Refractory bricks are used in industrial furnaces.
93.Terracotta is used for architectural details.
94.Porcelain is used in electrical insulators.
95.Stoneware is used in chemical industries.
96.Earthenware is used in sanitary ware.
97.Glazing protects the surface from weathering.
98.Clay products are used in historical buildings.
99.Modern manufacturing techniques improve product quality.
100. Understanding the properties of clay is crucial for its effective use.

Chapter 10:

1. Stone is a natural, hard substance formed from minerals.

2. Rock is a portion of the earth's crust with no definite shape.
3. Rocks have a definite chemical composition.
4. Rock-forming minerals include quartz, felspar, mica, and dolomite.
5. Common rock types for building stones are granite, basalt, and marble.
6. Stone use is traditional in production areas but limited by cost.
7. Stone selection depends on cost, fashion, and durability.
8. Stone has been used in important structures since prehistoric times.
9. Taj Mahal and Egyptian pyramids are examples of stone structures.
10.Stone is used in building structures for load carrying and aesthetics.
11.Stone importance decreased with the advent of cement and steel.
12.Strength analysis of stone structures is challenging.
13.Transportation and dressing of stones are time-consuming.
14.Rock properties depend on the character of mineral constituents.
15.Mineral properties include hardness, cleavage, and streak.
16.Quartz has great strength and hardness.
17.Gypsum has poor strength and readily absorbs water.
18.Mica has a tendency to cleavage.
19.Hardness is measured by scratching minerals.
20.Mohs scale is used to measure hardness.
21.Talc has a hardness of 1 and diamond has 10 on Mohs scale.
22.Cleavage is the ability of minerals to split along crystal planes.
23.Streak is the color of the mineral in powder form.
24.Color is valuable for metallic minerals.
25.Lustre is the shine on the surface of a mineral.
26.Crystal form is important when a mineral has its natural shape.
27.Quartz is made of silicon dioxide.
28.Felspar consists of alumino silicates.
29.Mica includes hydrous alumino silicates.
30.Amphibole is a silicate of iron, lime, and magnesia.
31.Pyroxene is a silicate of lime, alumina, and magnesia.
32.Olivine is a silicate of iron and magnesia.
33.Chlorates are aluminium silicates with iron and magnesia.
34.Garnet is a silicate of iron and alumina.
35.Serpentine is a hydrous silicate of magnesia.
36.Talc is a hydrous silicate of magnesia.
37.Calcite is calcium carbonate.
38.Dolomite is calcium magnesium carbonate.
39.Gypsum is hydrous calcium sulphate.
40.Limonite is hydrous sesquioxide of iron.
41.Magnetite is ferrous and ferric oxide of iron.
42.Pyrite is iron disulphide.
43.Rocks are classified based on geological formation.
44.Rocks are classified based on physical characteristics.
45.Rocks are classified based on chemical composition.
46.Geological classification includes igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
47.Igneous rocks are of volcanic origin.
48.Sedimentary rocks are aqueous or stratified.
49.Metamorphic rocks result from igneous or sedimentary rocks.
50.Igneous rocks are also known as primary rocks.
51.Magma is molten mass below the earth's surface.
52.Basalt and trap are formed from magma on the earth's surface.
53.Granite and syenite are deep-seated plutonic rocks.
54.Dolerite is a hypabyssal rock.
55.Quartz, mica, and felspar are constituents of magma.
56.Texture of rock is influenced by the cooling rate of magma.
57.Acid rocks have 70-80% silica.
58.Intermediate rocks have 60-70% silica.
59.Basic rocks have 45-60% silica.
60.Ultra-basic rocks have 30-45% silica.
61.Tuff lava is formed from volcanic eruptions.
62.Sedimentary rocks result from weathering agencies.
63.Examples of sedimentary rocks are gypsum and limestone.
64.Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated structures.
65.Slate and gneiss have foliated structures.
66.Marble and quartzite have non-foliated structures.
67.Stratified rocks can be split into layers.
68.Unstratified rocks cannot be easily split.
69.Foliated rocks split in a definite direction.
70.Argillaceous rocks have clay as the principal constituent.
71.Silicious rocks have silica as the principal constituent.
72.Calcarious rocks have lime as the principal constituent.
73.Quarrying is the process of obtaining natural stone.
74.Quarry site selection depends on stone quality and transportation.
75.Quarrying tools include wedge, hammer, and drill.
76.Quarrying methods include excavating, wedging, and blasting.
77.Excavating is used for stones buried in earth.
78.Wedging is suitable for soft and stratified rocks.
79.Heating is used for quarrying small blocks of stones.
80.Blasting uses explosives to dislodge rocks.
81.Boring involves drilling holes in the rock.
82.Charging involves placing explosives in the holes.
83.Tamping involves packing the holes with clay.
84.Firing involves igniting the explosives.
85.Blasting requires precautions to ensure safety.
86.Natural bed of stone is its original position.
87.Seasoning of stone involves removing moisture.
88.Seasoning improves the strength and durability of stone.
89.Dressing of stone involves shaping and sizing.
90.Dressing tools include chisels and hammers.
91.Stone is used for foundation and masonry.
92.Stone is used for paving and roofing.
93.Stone is used for bridges and dams.
94.Good building stone should be hard and durable.
95.Good building stone should have low porosity.
96.Good building stone should resist weathering.
97.Testing of stones includes hardness and compressive strength tests.
98.Deterioration of stones can be due to weathering and chemical reactions.
99.Durability of stones depends on their resistance to decay.
100. Preservation of stones involves preventing decay.
101. Selection of stones depends on their intended use.
102. Common building stones include granite, sandstone, and limestone.
103. Artificial stones are manufactured from stone aggregates.
104. Applications of stones include structural and decorative uses.
105. Stone aggregates are used in concrete.
106. Stone dust is used in masonry mortars.
107. Stone cladding is used for building facades.
108. Stone is used in landscaping.
109. Stone is used in monuments and sculptures.
110. Stone is used in retaining walls.
111. Stone is used in flooring and wall tiles.
112. Stone is used in kitchen countertops.
113. Stone is used in bathroom vanities.
114. Stone is used in fireplace surrounds.
115. Stone is used in garden pathways.
116. Stone is used in water features.
117. Stone is used in grave markers.
118. Stone is used in art installations.
119. Stone is used in jewelry.
120. Stone is used in tools and implements.
121. Stone is used in traditional medicine.
122. Stone is used in ritualistic practices.
123. Stone is used in ancient writing tablets.
124. Stone is used in prehistoric cave paintings.
125. Stone is used in thermal energy storage.
126. Stone is used in radiation shielding.
127. Stone is used in cutting tools.
128. Stone is used in grinding wheels.
129. Stone is used in sharpening stones.
130. Stone is used in ballast for railways.
131. Stone is used in riprap for erosion control.
132. Stone is used in aggregate for road construction.
133. Stone is used in asphalt pavement.
134. Stone is used in concrete blocks.
135. Stone is used in bricks.
136. Stone is used in tiles.
137. Stone is used in pipes.
138. Stone is used in sanitary ware.
139. Stone is used in electrical insulators.
140. Stone is used in glass making.
141. Stone is used in ceramics.
142. Stone is used in abrasives.
143. Stone is used in filters.
144. Stone is used in desiccants.
145. Stone is used in catalysts.
146. Stone is used in pigments.
147. Stone is used in cosmetics.
148. Stone is used in pharmaceuticals.
149. Stone is used in food processing.

Chapter 11

1. Wood is a hard and fibrous substance.

2. Wood is a natural polymeric material.
3. Wood does not age.
4. Wood is used both in natural and man-made forms.
5. Examples of man-made wood: plywood, fibreboards, chipboards.
6. Wood is easily available.
7. Wood is easy to transport and handle.
8. Wood has more thermal insulation than steel and concrete.
9. Wood has good sound absorption.
10.Wood has high electrical resistance.
11.Wood is ideal for use in sea water.
12.Wood is a good absorber of shocks.
13.Wood is suitable for earthquake-prone hilly areas.
14.Wood is easy to work with.
15.Repairs and alterations to wood work are easy.
16.Wood is widely used in buildings.
17.Wood is used for doors, windows, frames, and partition walls.
18.Wood is used in roof trusses and ceilings.
19.Wood is used in formwork.
20.Trees are classified as endogenous and exogenous.
21.Endogenous trees grow endwards.
22.Exogenous trees grow outwards.
23.Conifers are evergreen trees.
24.Deciduous trees have flat board leaves.
25.Examples of conifers: deodar, chir, fir, kail, pine, larch.
26.Examples of deciduous trees: oak, teak, shishum, poplar, maple.
27.Conifers have distinct annual rings.
28.Deciduous trees have indistinct annual rings.
29.Conifers have straight fibres.
30.Deciduous trees yield hard wood.
31.Conifers are light in colour.
32.Deciduous trees are dark in colour.
33.Conifers are resinous.
34.Deciduous trees are non-resinous.
35.Conifers are light weight.
36.Deciduous trees are heavy weight.
37.Conifers are predominantly used for construction.
38.Cambium layer adds a layer of wood to the outside of tree every year.
39.Annual rings indicate the age of the log.
40.Rapidly growing trees have wide annual rings.
41.Slower growing trees have narrow annual rings.
42.Straight-grained wood has elements parallel to the pith.
43.Cross-grained wood has elements not parallel to the axis.
44.Timber should be felled when matured.
45.Best time to fell timber is midsummer or midwinter.
46.Timber felled when sap is vigorous decays.
47.Young trees yield soft wood.
48.Over matured trees start to decay.
49.Timber and wood are often used synonymously.
50.Timber retains its natural physical structure.
51.Timber is suitable for various engineering works.
52.Standing timber is a living tree.
53.Rough timber is a part of the felled tree.
54.Converted timber is sawn into planks, posts, etc.
55.Structural grading is based on visible defects.
56.Stress grading is based on maximum principle stresses.
57.Commercial grading is based on usefulness and price.
58.Grade A classification is based on dimensions and appearance.
59.Grade B classification is based on best ultimate use.
60.Grade C classification is based on qualitative evaluation of defects.
61.Grade D classification is based on evaluation of units of defects.
62.Timbers are classified based on modulus of elasticity.
63.Group A timbers have modulus above 12.5 kN/mm².
64.Group B timbers have modulus between 9.8 and 12.5 kN/mm².
65.Group C timbers have modulus between 5.6 and 9.8 kN/mm².
66.Timber availability grades: X, Y, Z.
67.Grade X timber is most common.
68.Grade Y timber is common.
69.Grade Z timber is less common.
70.Timber durability is classified based on average life.
71.High durability timber has average life over 120 months.
72.Moderate durability timber has average life 60-120 months.
73.Low durability timber has average life less than 60 months.
74.Timber seasoning characteristics are classified.
75.Highly refractory timbers are slow to season.
76.Moderately refractory timbers need protection against rapid drying.
77.Non-refractory timbers can be rapidly seasoned.
78.Timber treatability is classified based on resistance to preservatives.
79.Easily treatable timbers absorb preservatives well.
80.Refractory timbers resist preservative penetration.
81.Crown, trunk, and roots are the three portions of a tree.
82.Trunk accounts for about 80% of the total bulk of wood.
83.Macro structure is visible to the naked eye.
84.Micro structure is apparent only at great magnifications.
85.Bark protects the wood against mechanical damage.
86.Cambium grows wood cells.
87.Sapwood stores starch and conducts sap.
88.Heartwood gives strong and firm support.
89.Pith is at the centre of the cross-section.
90.Medullary rays pass nutrients from bast to the heart.
91.Good timber has narrow annual rings.
92.Good timber has compact medullary rays.
93.Good timber has dark colour.
 94.Good timber has uniform texture.
95.Good timber has sweet smell.
96.Good timber produces sonorous sound when struck.
97.Good timber is free from defects.
98.Good timber is heavy weight.
99.Good timber has no woolliness at fresh cut surface.
100. Seasoning reduces moisture content of timber.

Chapter 11:

1. Cement is a cementing material.

2. Cement can be hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
3. Hydraulic cements set and harden in water.
4. Non-hydraulic cements do not set in water.
5. Portland cement is a hydraulic cement.
6. Portland cement is made from calcareous and argillaceous materials.
7. Calcareous materials are limestone, chalk, and marl.
8. Argillaceous materials are clay and shale.
9. Cement is used in mortar, concrete, and plaster.
10.Cement is used in reinforced brickwork and artificial stones.
11.Cement is used in structures requiring high strength.
12.Cement is used in structures exposed to water.
13.Ordinary Portland cement is classified into grades 33, 43, and 53.
14.33-grade cement corresponds to category A.
15.43-grade cement corresponds to category C.
16.53-grade cement corresponds to category E.
17.Most 43-grade cements fall in category D.
18.Most 53-grade cements fall in category F.
19.Hydraulic cements contain lime, silica, and alumina.
20.Cements may contain iron oxide, magnesia, and sulfur trioxide.
21.High lime content can lead to unsound cement.
22.High silica content makes cement difficult to fuse.
23.Chemical composition of Portland cement varies.
24.Oxides in cement interact to form cement clinker.
25.Bogue compounds are formed during clinkering.
26.Bogue compounds include Alite, Belite, Celite, and Felite.
27.Alite is also known as tricalcium silicate (C3S).
28.Belite is also known as dicalcium silicate (C2S).
29.Celite is also known as tricalcium aluminate (C3A).
30.Felite is also known as tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF).
31.C3S is the best cementing material.
32.C3S contributes to early strength and hardness.
33.C2S contributes to strength after a year or more.
34.C3A is responsible for initial set and high heat of hydration.
35.C4AF contributes to flash set and generates less heat.
36.Bogue's method calculates compound composition from oxide analysis.
37.Bogue's method assumes equilibrium during cooling.
38.Errors in chemical analysis affect compound percentages.
39.Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water.
40.Hydration affects the physical properties of concrete.
41.Hydration products deposit on hydrated cement nucleus.
42.Induction period is the initial 2-5 hours of hydration.
43.Hydration rate decreases with time.
44.Hydrated cement paste consists of gel, unreacted cement, and calcium
hydroxide.
45.C-S-H gel is the calcium silicate hydrate.
46.C-S-H gel makes up 50-60% of hydrated Portland cement paste.
47.Calcium hydroxide crystals make up 20-25% of hydrated paste.
48.Setting and hardening are chemical reactions.
49.C3A reaction with water causes flash setting.
50.Calcium sulfate retards C3A hydration.
51.C3S is responsible for strength gain up to 28 days.
52.C2S contributes to strength gain at later ages.
53.Heat evolution order: C3A, C3S, C4AF, C2S.
54.Hydration rate increases with cement fineness.
55.Hydration rate order: C4AF, C3A, C3S, C2S.
56.23% water is needed for complete hydration.
57.15% water fills cement gel pores.
58.Total 38% water is needed for complete hydration.
59.Water/cement ratio less than 0.38 is used in high-strength concretes.
60.Excess water leads to capillary cavities.
61.Cement is manufactured by dry or wet process.
62.Dry process is used for hard raw materials.
63.Wet process is used for soft raw materials.
64.Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder in the dry process.
65.Water is added to make a thick paste in the dry process.
66.Paste cakes are dried and charged into a rotary kiln.
67.Clinker is obtained after calcination in a rotary kiln.
68.Clinker is formed at 1400-1500°C.
69.Ferric oxide acts as a flux.
70.Aeration of cement clinker slakes free lime.
71.Clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve metastable compounds.
72.Clinker is ground in tube mills.
73.2-3% gypsum is added during grinding.
74.Gypsum retards cement setting.
75.Cement is stored in 50 kg bags.
76.Wet process uses soft materials like marine shells.
77.Materials are ground with water in the wet process.
78.Slurry is formed in the wet process.
79.Slurry is stored in storage tanks.
80.Slurry is dried and burnt in a rotary kiln.
81.Clinker is ground with gypsum in the wet process.
82.Cement is stored in silos.
83.Chemical analysis tests cement composition.
84.Fineness test measures particle size.
85.Setting time test measures initial and final set.
86.Soundness test measures volume change.
87.Le Chatelier apparatus is used for soundness test.
88.Compressive strength test measures load-bearing capacity.
89.Tensile strength test measures tensile strength.
90.Specific gravity test measures density.
91.Different types of cement are used for specific purposes.
92.Rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly.
93.Low heat cement generates less heat during setting.
94.Sulfates resisting cement is used in sulfate-rich environments.
95.Portland slag cement uses blast furnace slag.
96.Portland pozzolana cement uses pozzolanic materials.
97.White cement is used for decorative purposes.
98.Colored cement is used for aesthetic applications.
99.Air entraining cement improves workability.
100. Expansive cement expands during hardening.
101. Hydrophobic cement repels water.
102. Ordinary Portland cement is versatile.
103. Proper storage prevents cement deterioration.
104. Cement should be stored in dry conditions.
105. Cement bags should be stacked properly.
106. Oldest cement should be used first.
107. Lumps in cement indicate deterioration.
108. Cement quality affects concrete strength.
109. High-quality cement ensures durable structures.
110. Cement hydration is essential for strength development.
111. Proper curing enhances cement hydration.
112. Curing prevents moisture loss.
113. Curing methods include ponding and spraying.
114. Curing time varies with cement type.
115. Cement paste hardens over time.
116. Hardened cement paste binds aggregates.
117. Cement matrix determines concrete properties.
118. Cement volume affects concrete strength.
119. Cement quality control is crucial.
120. Admixtures modify cement properties.
121. Accelerators speed up setting time.
122. Retarders slow down setting time.
123. Plasticizers improve workability.
124. Air-entraining agents enhance freeze-thaw resistance.
125. Pozzolanic materials react with calcium hydroxide.
126. Fly ash is a common pozzolanic material.
127. Silica fume improves concrete strength.
128. Ground granulated blast furnace slag enhances durability.
129. Chemical admixtures alter cement hydration.
130. Mineral admixtures enhance long-term performance.
131. Admixture dosage affects cement properties.
132. Compatibility of admixtures is essential.
133. Cement hydration generates heat.
134. Heat of hydration affects concrete setting.
135. Low heat cement is used in mass concrete.
136. High heat cement is used in cold weather.
137. Cement fineness affects hydration rate.
138. Fine cement hydrates faster.
139. Coarse cement hydrates slower.
140. Cement particle size distribution is important.
141. Uniform particle size enhances hydration.
142. Cement storage conditions affect quality.
143. Moisture affects cement hydration.
144. Carbonation reduces cement alkalinity.
145. Sulfates attack

146. Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction.

147. Hydration products affect concrete properties.
148. C-S-H gel is the main strength-giving component.
149. Calcium hydroxide contributes to alkalinity.
150. Setting is the change from plastic to solid state.
151. Hardening is the gain of strength with hydration.
152. C3A reaction is responsible for flash setting.
153. Calcium sulfate retards C3A hydration.
154. C3S contributes to strength up to 28 days.
155. C2S contributes to strength at later ages.
156. Heat evolution order: C3A, C3S, C4AF, C2S.
157. Hydration rate increases with cement fineness.
158. Hydration rate order: C4AF, C3A, C3S, C2S.
159. 23% water is needed for complete hydration.
160. 15% water fills cement gel pores.
161. Total 38% water is needed for complete hydration.
162. Water/cement ratio affects concrete strength.
163. Excess water leads to capillary cavities.
164. Dry process is used for hard raw materials.
165. Wet process is used for soft raw materials.
166. Limestone and clay are ground in the dry process.
167. Water is added to make a thick paste in the dry process.
168. Paste cakes are dried and charged into a rotary kiln.
169. Clinker is obtained after calcination.
170. Clinker is formed at 1400-1500°C.
171. Ferric oxide acts as a flux.
172. Aeration slakes free lime.
173. Clinker is cooled rapidly.
174. Clinker is ground in tube mills.
175. 2-3% gypsum is added during grinding.
176. Gypsum retards cement setting.
177. Cement is stored in 50 kg bags.
178. Wet process uses marine shells.
179. Materials are ground with water in the wet process.
180. Slurry is formed and stored.
181. Slurry is dried and burnt in a rotary kiln.
182. Clinker is ground with gypsum.
183. Cement is stored in silos.
184. Chemical analysis tests cement composition.
185. Fineness test measures particle size.
186. Setting time test measures initial and final set.
187. Soundness test measures volume change.
188. Le Chatelier apparatus is used for soundness test.
189. Compressive strength test measures load-bearing capacity.
190. Tensile strength test measures tensile strength.
191. Specific gravity test measures density.
192. Different types of cement are used for specific purposes.
193. Rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly.
194. Low heat cement generates less heat.
195. Sulfates resisting cement is used in sulfate-rich environments.
196. Portland slag cement uses blast furnace slag.
197. Portland pozzolana cement uses pozzolanic materials.
198. White cement is used for decorative purposes.
199. Colored cement is used for aesthetic applications.
200. Air entraining cement improves workability.
 Chapter 12

1. Aggregates are used as filler with binding material in mortar and concrete.
2. They constitute 70-80% of the concrete volume.
3. Aggregates reduce shrinkage and provide economy.
4. They should be clean, hard, strong, and durable.
5. Graded sizes enhance economy and paste utilization.
6. Coarse aggregates are larger, fine aggregates are smaller.
7. Natural aggregates are from igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks.
8. Artificial aggregates include broken bricks and blast furnace slag.
9. Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.
10.Fine aggregates pass through a 4.75 mm sieve.
11.Aggregate size affects concrete properties and economy.
12.Rounded aggregates minimize voids but have poor interlocking.
13.Irregular aggregates need more cement paste.
14.Angular aggregates provide the best bond and high strength.
15.Flaky aggregates adversely affect durability.
16.Aggregate strength should match or exceed concrete strength.
17.Crushing, impact, and abrasion tests evaluate aggregate strength.
18.Aggregate stiffness influences concrete's modulus of elasticity.
19.High modulus reduces dimensional changes but increases internal stresses.
20.Bond strength is crucial for concrete integrity.
21.Rougher surfaces improve bond strength.
22.Specific gravity indicates aggregate quality.
23.Low specific gravity may suggest high porosity and poor durability.
24.Bulk density depends on packing, shape, size, grading, and moisture.
25.Voids affect concrete strength.
26.Porosity influences durability and bond.
27.Moisture content affects the water/cement ratio.
28.Bulking is the volume increase due to moisture.
29.Bulking affects mix proportions and concrete yield.
30.Fineness modulus indicates mean particle size.
31.Deleterious materials harm concrete properties.
32.Organic impurities interfere with hydration.
33.Clay coatings affect bond development.
34.Unsound particles cause chemical reactions.
35.Soundness is the ability to resist volume changes.
36.Freeze-thaw conditions test soundness.
37.Alkali-aggregate reaction causes cracking.
38.It's a reaction between silica in aggregate and alkalis in cement.
39.Reactive aggregates and high alkali cement cause this reaction.
40.Moisture and temperature affect alkali-aggregate reactions.
41.Non-reactive aggregates prevent this reaction.
42.Low alkali cement can be used.
43.Controlling moisture can mitigate the reaction.
44.Puzzolanas can disrupt harmful silica conditions.
45.Air-entraining agents absorb osmotic pressure.
46.Thermal properties include specific heat and conductivity.
47.These are important in mass and lightweight concrete.
48.Coefficient of expansion affects concrete in general.
49.Sand is used as fine aggregate.
50.Standard sand is used for mix design.
51.Ennore Sand is the standard sand in India.
52.Sand is classified by source, mineralogy, and size.
53.Functions of sand include economy and strength.
54.Very fine or coarse sand is unsatisfactory.
55.Impurities like clay and dust are harmful.
56.Grading affects workability.
57.Air entrainment reduces the need for fine aggregates.
58.Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve.
59.They should be hard, strong, and durable.
60.Functions of coarse aggregate are similar to fine aggregate.
61.Cinder aggregates are used in lightweight concrete.
62.They provide thermal insulation.
63.Broken brick aggregates are used in mass concrete.
64.They are not used in reinforced concrete.
65.Testing aggregates ensures quality.
66.Sampling should be representative.
67.Sieve analysis determines particle size distribution.
68.Specific gravity and density tests measure aggregate properties.
69.Strength tests include crushing and impact tests.
70.Shape tests measure angularity and flakiness.
71.Soundness tests evaluate resistance to weathering.
72.Aggregate crushing value indicates strength.
73.Aggregate impact value measures toughness.
74.Los Angeles abrasion test measures hardness.
75.Specific gravity affects concrete density.
76.Water absorption affects durability.
77.Free moisture affects workability.
78.Surface moisture is extra water on aggregate particles.
79.Bulking of sand affects volume.
80.Organic impurities affect setting and hardening.
81.Silt content affects bond strength.
82.Clay content affects workability.
83.Deleterious materials affect durability.
84.Soundness ensures resistance to weathering.
85.Alkali-aggregate reaction causes expansion and cracking.
86.Thermal properties affect concrete performance.
87.Fine aggregate grading affects workability.
88.Coarse aggregate size affects concrete strength.
89.Cinder aggregates are lightweight.
90.Broken brick aggregates are economical.
91.Testing ensures aggregate quality.
92.Sampling should be representative.
93.Sieve analysis determines grading.
94.Strength tests measure load-bearing capacity.
95.Shape tests measure particle form.
96.Soundness tests measure resistance to volume changes.
97.Impurities affect concrete properties.
98.Proper grading improves concrete density.
99.Moisture content affects workability.
100. Aggregate quality is crucial for concrete durability.

Chapter 13

1. Excess water reduces concrete strength.

2. Optimum water is needed for quality concrete.
3. Water is also used for washing aggregates.
4. Water is used for curing concrete.
5. Potable water is acceptable for concrete mix.
6. Unsuitable drinking water may be used for concrete.
7. Water samples should be tested for suitability.
8. Impurities affect setting time and strength.
9. Impurities affect durability and cause corrosion.
10.Impurities cause efflorescence and discoloration.
11.Setting time difference should be within ± 30 minutes.
12.Compressive strength should not differ by 10%.
13.Tolerable impurity concentrations are specified.
14.Dissolved solids up to 2000 ppm are acceptable.
15.Higher concentrations affect certain cements.
16.Organic matter retards setting and reduces strength.
17.Inorganic salts affect setting.
18.Acids and alkalis are unsuitable.
19.pH value should be between 6-8.
20.Sugar up to 0.05% is harmless.
21.Higher sugar content affects setting and strength.
22.Mineral oil up to 2% may reduce strength.
23.Vegetable oils have detrimental effect on strength.
24.Algae reduces bond and entrains air.
25.Ground waters may contain iron.
26.Iron salts up to 40,000 ppm do not affect strength.
27.Sea water can be used if fresh water is unavailable.
28.Sea water reduces concrete strength by 10-20%.
29.Sea water accelerates setting time.
30.Sea water may lead to reinforcement corrosion.
31.Permeability and cover affect corrosion.
32.Entrained air can mitigate corrosion.
33.Sea water is recommended for unreinforced concrete.
34.Chlorides in sea water cause efflorescence.
35.Sea water is not recommended for prestressed concrete.
36.Industrial waste water may contain harmful impurities.
37.Test waste water before using it for concrete.
38.Dilute sewage water to reduce organic matter.
39.Impurities in washing water affect bond.
40.Curing water should be free from impurities.
41.Impurities in curing water cause stains.
42.Water with more than 0.08 ppm iron is not recommended.
43.Initial setting time is a key parameter.
44.Final setting time is also important.
45.Soundness of concrete is affected by water quality.
46.Organic matter should be limited.
47.Suspended particles have an upper limit.
48.Sea water affects setting and durability.
49.Good quality concrete minimizes corrosion risk.
50.Water quality affects concrete performance.
51.Testing ensures water suitability.
52.Impurities can have deleterious effects.
53.Water is crucial for cement hydration.
54.Excess water leads to laitance.
55.Honeycombed concrete results from water leakage.
56.Non-uniform mixing weakens concrete.
57.Water quality affects long-term durability.
58.Potable water is generally safe.
59.Doubtful water sources should be tested.
60.Impurities can cause surface discoloration.
61.Setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.
62.Strength difference should be within 10%.
63.Tolerance concentrations guide impurity limits.
64.Dissolved solids affect concrete properties.
65.Organic matter acts as a retarder.
66.Inorganic salts can accelerate or retard setting.
67.Acids and alkalis are generally harmful.
68.pH value indicates acidity or alkalinity.
69.Sugar content affects setting and strength.
70.Mineral oil in high concentrations reduces strength.
71.Vegetable oils are detrimental to concrete.
72.Algae affects bond and strength.
73.Ground water may contain iron salts.
74.Sea water contains various salts.
75.Sea water affects setting time and strength.
76.Corrosion risk is higher with sea water.
77.Industrial waste water needs testing.
78.Sewage water can be used after dilution.
79.Washing water impurities affect bond.
80.Curing water should not cause stains.
81.Iron content in curing water is limited.
82.Water quality affects concrete setting.
83.Water quality affects concrete strength.
84.Water quality affects concrete durability.
85.Water quality affects reinforcement corrosion.
86.Testing ensures water suitability for concrete.
87.Impurities can have adverse effects.
88.Water is essential for concrete quality.
89.Excess water weakens concrete.
90.Optimum water content is crucial.
91.Water quality affects long-term performance.
92.Potable water is generally acceptable.
93.Doubtful water sources require testing.
94.Impurities can cause discoloration.
95.Setting time should be within acceptable limits.
96.Strength difference should be minimal.
97.Tolerance concentrations guide impurity limits.
98.Dissolved solids affect concrete properties.
99.Organic matter retards setting.

Chapter 14

1. Puzzolanas are siliceous materials.

2. They lack cementitious properties.
3. They react with lime in the presence of water.
4. Reaction forms compounds with cementitious properties.
5. Puzzolanas can be natural or artificial.
6. They are used to replace a proportion of cement.
7. This replacement is done when making concrete.
8. Advantages include economy and improved workability.
9. They reduce bleeding and segregation.
10.Puzzolanas enhance imperviousness.
11.They improve resistance to freezing and thawing.
12.They resist attack by sulfates and natural waters.
13.Disruptive effects of alkali-aggregate reaction are reduced.
14.Heat of hydration is also reduced.
15.Natural puzzolanas reduce leaching of soluble compounds.
16.They contribute to the impermeability of concrete at later ages.
17.Main justification is the possibility of reducing costs.
18.They must be obtained locally to reduce costs.
19.Natural puzzolanas are rich in silica and alumina.
20.They contain a small quantity of alkalis.
21.Examples include clays and shales.
22.Diatomaceous earth and opaline cherts are natural puzzolanas.
23.Volcanic tuffs and pumicites are also natural.
24.Rhenish and Bavarian trass are other examples.
25.Artificial puzzolanas include fly ash.
26.Ground blast-furnace slag is an artificial type.
27.Silica fume and surkhi are artificial.
28.Rice husk ash is also an artificial puzzolana.
29.Silica of puzzolana combines with free lime.
30.This happens during the hydration of cement.
31.This action is called puzzolanic action.
32.It is due to finely divided glassy silica and lime.
33.It produces calcium silicate hydrate.
34.This is similar to that produced during hydration of Portland cement.
35.Silica reacts with lime and contributes to strength.
36.Additional calcium silicate hydrate is formed.
37.This formation gives impermeability and durability.
38.It also provides ever increasing strength.
39.Hydration of Portland cement involves C3S and water.
40.It results in C-S-H and Ca(OH)2.
41.Lime produced combines with silica of puzzolana.
42.This forms additional C-S-H.
43.Amorphous silicas react readily with lime.
44.This is compared to crystalline forms.
45.This constitutes the difference between active puzzolanas.
46.And materials of similar chemical composition.
47.Puzzolanic action needs enough moisture.
48.Moisture is needed for a long time.
49.This completes puzzolanic action.
50.Lime-silica reaction is commonly thought to be the main one.
51.Recent information indicates alumina and iron also take part.
52.Optimum amount of puzzolana ranges between 10-30%.
53.It may be as low as 4-6% for natural puzzolanas.
54.It may be higher for some fly ashes.
55.Heat of hydration of a puzzolana is same as low heat cement.
56.Addition of air entraining agent may reduce water.
57.This is compared to concrete containing cement only.
58.It may lead to an increase in strength.
59.Less cement may be permitted for the same strength.
60.At early ages, replacement of cement results in decreased strength.
61.Difference becomes less at 3 months.
62.It may disappear at ages of 3 months or more.
63.Shrinkage and moisture movement are similar to Portland cement.
64.Puzzolana is used where reduction in heat of hydration is important.
65.Slower rate of gain in strength is not of much conscience.
66.It is used where mass concreting is to be done.
67.Improvement in workability is obtained.
68.This is by using puzzolana in lean harsh mixes.
69.These mixes are used in mass concreting.
70.Examples are dams and retaining walls.
71.Wharf walls and breakwaters are examples.
72.Harbour works and massive foundations are examples.
73.Lime-puzzolana mixtures are used for masonry mortars.
74.They are used for plasters and foundation concrete.
75.Fly ash is a residue from combustion of pulverized coal.
76.It is collected from flue gases of power plants.
77.It constitutes about 75 per cent of total ash produced.
78.Properties and composition vary widely.
79.Variation is between different plants.
80.It also varies from hour to hour in the same plant.
81.Composition depends on type of fuel burnt.
82.It also depends on variation of load on boiler.
83.Fly ash from cyclone separators is coarse.
84.It contains a large proportion of unburnt fuel.
85.Fly ash from electrostatic precipitators is fine.
86.It has a specific surface of about 3500 cm²/g.
87.It may be as high as 5000 cm²/g.
88.It is normally finer than Portland cement.
89.Fly ash consists of spherical particles.
90.Some particles may be like glass and hollow.
91.Some are irregularly shaped particles of unburnt fuel or carbon.
92.It may vary in colour from light grey to dark grey or brown.
93.Carbon content is important for use with cement.
94.It should be as low as possible.
95.Fineness should be as high as possible.
96.Silica should be in finely divided state.
97.It combines slowly with lime.
98.Lime is liberated during hydration of cement.
99.Curing at 38°C accelerates strength contribution.
100. High pressure and temperature promote reaction.
101. Reaction is between lime and silica.
102. It tends to prevent release of free lime.
103. This reduces efflorescence.
104. Fly ash is supplied in two grades.
105. Grade I and grade II.
106. General use is in cement mortar and concrete.
107. It is also used in lime pozzolana mixture.
108. Only grade I is recommended for Portland pozzolana cement.
109. Fly ash consists of spherical glassy particles.
110. Particles range from 1 to 150 µm.
111. Most pass through a 45 µm sieve.
112. More than 40 per cent of particles are under 10 microns.
113. These contribute to early age strength.
114. Particles of sizes 10 to 45 microns react slowly.
115. They are responsible for gain in strength from 28 days to one year.
116. Use of fly ash requires more water for same slump.
117. This is due to fineness of fly ash.
118. It reduces segregation and bleeding.
119. If sand is coarse, fly ash produces beneficial results.
120. For fine sands, it may increase water requirement.
121. Puzzolanic action is very slow.
122. Addition up to 30 per cent may result in lower strength.
123. This is at 7 and 28 days.
124. Strength may be equal at 3 months.
125. It may increase at ages greater than 3 months.
126. This is if curing is continued.
127. Modulus of elasticity is lower at early ages.
128. It is higher at later ages.
129. Curing conditions are similar to Portland cement concrete.
130. Coarser fly ashes increase drying shrinkage.
131. High carbon content also increases shrinkage.
132. Finer fly ashes and low carbon content reduce it.
133. Permeability of concrete reduces on addition of fly ash.
134. 28 days fly-ash-concrete may be three times as permeable.
135. After 6 months, it may be less than one quarter permeable.
136. Fly ash slightly improves resistance to sulphate attack.
137. It reduces the heat of hydration in concrete.
138. 30 per cent substitution may result in 50-60% reduction.
139. Fly ash reduces the amount of air entraining agent.
140. 30 per cent substitution may increase initial setting time.
141. Increase can be up to 2 hours.
142. Surkhi is obtained by burning clay soils.
143. It is an artificial puzzolana.
144.
Chapter 15

1. Concrete mix design aims to achieve desired properties.

2. Workability, strength, and durability are key properties.
3. IS:456-2000 provides acceptance criteria for concrete.
4. Test strength should not be less than characteristic strength.
5. Average strength of samples should meet specific criteria.
6. Standard deviation indicates strength variation.
7. Target strength is calculated using standard deviation.
8. Quality control ensures optimum benefit from materials.
9. It involves choice of materials, design, and workmanship.
10.28-day compressive strength is commonly specified.
11.Test specimens indicate potential strength.
12.Poor workmanship reduces actual strength.
13.Statistical analysis helps in setting realistic standards.
14.Quality control leads to savings in cement.
15.It also results in uniform workability.
16.Honeycombed patches and weak patches are avoided.
17.Uniform concrete is less permeable and more durable.
18.Various methods exist for concrete mix design.
19.Indian Standard Method is widely used.
20.RRL, DOE, ACI are other methods.
21.Surface Index, Trial Mix, Maximum Density methods are used.
22.Minimum Voids and Fineness Modulus methods are also used.
23.Preliminary mixes help in judging fresh concrete properties.
24.Trial mixes are used to ensure designed strength.
25.Adjustments are made based on test results.
26.Water-cement ratio is crucial for strength.
27.Aggregate source change requires mix proportion adjustment.
28.Mix design gives weights of ingredients per m³.
29.Surface wet condition of aggregates affects water quantity.
30.Dry aggregates absorb water from the mix.
31.SSD condition is ideal for mix design.
32.Tests on trial mixes include slump and Vee-Bee test.
33.Unit weight of fresh concrete is determined.
34.Test cubes are made for compression test.
35.Adjustments are made based on test results.
36.IS method is used for general construction types.
37.It uses continuously graded aggregates.
38.Design is for specified compressive strength and workability.
39.Basic assumption is compressive strength depends on water-cement ratio.
40.Water content determines workability.
41.Other factors also affect concrete properties.
42.Proportions are basis for trial and subject to modification.
43.IS method uses standard deviation based on quality control.
44.Target strength is calculated using standard deviation.
45.Water-cement ratio is selected based on target strength.
46.Aggregate content is estimated based on maximum size.
47.Workability is estimated based on slump value.
48.Mix proportions are calculated.
49.Adjustments are made based on trial mix results.
50.IS method is widely used in India.
51.It is suitable for reinforced and prestressed concretes.
52.It is not used for flexural strength design.
53.It is not used for gap graded aggregates.
54.It is not used when puzzolana or admixtures are used.
55.Quality control is essential for good concrete.
56.It ensures uniformity and durability.
57.Proper curing is important for strength development.
58.Statistical methods help in setting realistic standards.
59.Trial mixes are crucial for mix design.
60.Adjustments are made based on test results.
61.Water-cement ratio affects concrete strength.
62.Aggregate properties influence concrete behavior.
63.Workability is essential for proper placement.
64.Compressive strength is a key parameter.
65.Durability ensures long-term performance.
66.IS method provides a systematic approach.
67.It is suitable for various construction projects.
68.Proper selection of materials is crucial.
69.Mixing and placing techniques affect concrete quality.
70.Curing conditions influence strength development.
71.Quality control minimizes defects.
72.It reduces the need for repairs.
73.It enhances the overall performance of concrete.
74.Statistical analysis helps in achieving desired strength.
75.Trial mixes validate the mix design.
76.Adjustments are made based on trial mix performance.
77.Water content affects workability and strength.
78.Aggregate grading influences concrete properties.
79.Proper compaction is essential for strength.
80.Curing duration affects strength development.
81.IS method is widely accepted.
82.It provides a reliable approach to mix design.
83.It ensures consistency in concrete properties.
84.It helps in achieving desired strength and durability.
85.It minimizes the risk of defects.
86.It enhances the overall quality of construction.
87.Statistical methods help in optimizing mix proportions.
88.Trial mixes are essential for validation.
89.Adjustments are made based on performance.
90.Water-cement ratio is a critical factor.
91.Aggregate properties influence concrete behavior.
92.Workability is crucial for proper placement.
93.Compressive strength is a key performance indicator.
94.Durability ensures long-term serviceability.
95.IS method provides a structured approach.
96.It is suitable for a wide range of applications.
97.Proper material selection is essential.
98.Mixing and placing techniques affect quality.
99.Curing conditions influence strength.
Chapter 16

1. Mortars are used for jointing bricks and stones.

2. Mortar is a paste of fine aggregates and binding material.
3. Clay, gypsum, lime, or cement are used as binding materials.
4. Egypt's pyramids used clay-gypsum, gypsum-lime, and lime mortars.
5. Indians used lime mortar for structures like the Taj Mahal.
6. Portland cement is the strongest binding material for mortar.
7. Mortar composition is by volume or weight of material.
8. Simple mortars use one binding material.
9. Combined mortars use two binding materials.
10.Mortars are used in brick and stone masonry.
11.They are used in plastering and pointing.
12.Mortars are used as a matrix in concrete.
13.Mortars are classified by bulk density and binding material.
14.They are also classified by application.
15.Physical and mechanical properties are a basis for classification.
16.Heavyweight mortars have a bulk density >1500 kg/m³.
17.Lightweight mortars have a bulk density <1500 kg/m³.
18.Cement mortars use Portland cement.
19.Lime mortars use air hardening or hydraulic lime.
20.Gypsum mortars use gypsums or anhydride binding materials.
21.Mud mortars use clay nodules.
22.Composite mortars include surkhi-mortar and lime-cement mortar.
23.Brick laying mortars are for brickwork.
24.Finishing mortars are for architectural parts.
25.Special mortars are for acoustics and X-ray shielding.
26.Strength of concrete is the basis for physical and mechanical properties.
27.Mortars are graded by compressive strength.
28.Good mortar has good bond with building units.
29.It has resistance to weathering.
30.Green mortar mixes have mobility and placability.
31.They also have water retention.
32.Mortar should be cheap and durable.
33.It should not affect the durability of building units.
34.Joints should not develop cracks.
35.Masonry strength depends on mortar and building unit.
36.Strong cement mortars can lead to shrinkage cracks.
37.Weak mortars produce porous joints.
38.Strength depends on binding materials and water-cement ratio.
39.It also depends on sand quality.
40.Density and strength decrease with more fine aggregate.
41.Fine sand requires more cement for the same strength.
42.Increased mixing water reduces density and strength.
43.Mica lowers tensile and compressive strength.
44.Lime reduces compressive strength.
45.Cement lime mortars help in healing cracks.
46.Mortar should protect masonry joints.
47.It should form an impermeable sheet.
48.Good bond is needed between units, mortar, and plaster.
49.Mobility indicates mortar consistency.
50.Placeability is the ease of applying mortar.
51.Mortar consistency ranges from stiff to fluid.
52.Mortars are made sufficiently mobile.
53.Mobility determines placability.
54.Portland cement mortars may need plasticizers.
55.Water retention is the ability to retain humidity.
56.Low water retention leads to defects.
57.Mortar should not lose too much water.
58.Mineral and organic plasticizing agents enhance water retention.
59.Binding materials impart adhesive power and strength.
60.Sand increases crushing strength and reduces shrinkage.
61.Surkhi is used for economy.
62.Flyash and cinders replace surkhi.
63.Molasses increase lime solubility.
64.Water lubricates aggregate surfaces.
65.It spreads binding material.
66.It causes hydration of cement.
67.pH of water should not be less than 6.
68.Cement mortar mixes cement, sand, and water.
69.Portland and blast furnace slag cement are excellent.
70.Puzzolana and sulfate-resisting cement are used for aggressive waters.
71.Cement mortars are used for plastering.
72.They are used for smooth finishes.
73.They are used for damp proof courses.
74.Manual mixing involves sieving and cleaning sand.
75.Mechanical mixing uses a cylindrical container.
76.Cement mortar should be of uniform consistency.
77.It should be consumed within 30 minutes.
78.Bricks should be saturated before laying.
79.Masonry should be kept wet for 7 days.
80.Alkali waters can disintegrate cement paste.
81.Sulfates and chlorides remove lime.
82.Carbonate of soda withdraws silica.
83.Alternate wetting and drying accelerates disintegration.
84.Oil affects lean mortars.
85.Mineral oils retard cement set.
86.Animal and vegetable oils attack lime compounds.
87.Sugar delays setting time.
88.It destroys early strength.
89.High sugar content increases strength at 2-3 months.
90.Low temperatures slow cement setting.
91.Freezing temperatures can damage unset cement paste.
92.Retempering reduces strength.
93.Lime mortar mixes lime, sand, and water.
94.Fat lime is used for plastering.
95.Hydraulic lime is used for masonry.
96.Lime mortars have plasticity and placability.
97.They have good cohesion.
98.They have little shrinkage.
99.They gain strength slowly.
100. Fat lime mortars stiffen as water is lost.
Chapter 16

1. Metals are the most useful building materials.

2. They exist as compounds in nature.
3. Ores are compounds like oxides, carbonates, sulfides, and phosphates.
4. Metals are derived from ores by removing impurities.
5. Ferrous metals have iron as the main constituent.
6. Examples of ferrous metals are cast iron, wrought iron, and steel.
7. Non-ferrous metals do not have iron as the main constituent.
8. Examples of non-ferrous metals are aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and tin.
9. Iron is a pure element.
10.It occurs in four different allotropic structures.
11.The structures are alpha, beta, delta, and gamma iron.
12.Alpha-iron is weak and ductile.
13.It possesses magnetic properties.
14.It cannot dissolve carbon.
15.Beta-iron is hard and brittle.
16.It is non-magnetic.
17.It dissolves carbon.
18.Gamma-iron has properties similar to alpha-iron.
19.Delta-iron absorbs negligible carbon.
20.It is non-magnetic.
21.Common commercial forms are gamma iron.
22.It has an fcc structure.
23.It forms at temperatures from 1394°C to 912°C.
24.Alpha iron has a bcc structure.
25.It forms at temperatures from 912°C to 273°C.
26.The delta form is commercially unimportant.
27.Gamma iron containing carbon is called austenitic.
28.Alpha iron containing carbon is called ferritic.
29.Steel alloys with gamma structures are called austenitic.
30.Alloys with alpha structure are called ferritic.
31.Closed-packed metallic structures contain empty spaces.
32.About 26% of the volume is empty in fcc structures.
33.About 29% of the bcc volume is empty.
34.Holes in gamma iron are nearly half the diameter of the carbon atom.
35.This causes the solubility of carbon to be practically zero.
36.In alpha iron, holes are comparable to the size of the carbon atom.
37.This allows an interstitial solubility of about 2% carbon.
38.The number of available spaces limits the amount of carbon to dissolve.
39.The relative size of the carbon atom also limits the amount of carbon to
dissolve.
40.This forms useful kinds of carbon alloys.
41.Iron is the most important metal in engineering construction.
42.It is available in abundance.
43.It does not occur freely in nature.
44.Iron ores are classed according to the predominant iron mineral.
45.Magnetite (Fe3O4) has 70-75% iron content.
46.Hematite (Fe2O3) has 70% iron content.
47.Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O) has 60% iron content.
48.Iron pyrite (FeS3) has 47% iron content.
49.Siderite (FeCO3) has 40% iron content.
50.The extraction of iron from ores involves heating.
51.Heating is done in the presence of a reducing agent.
52.This results in the formation of CO or CO2.
53.These are liberated as gas.
54.Metallic iron is also formed.
55.Iron alloys freely with other elements.
56.Its inherent properties are altered and improved.
57.This is done for varying conditions of service.
58.Pig iron is made by crushing iron ore to about 50 mm cubes.
59.Impurities are removed, and the ore is calcined.
60.Calcined ore is smelted in a blast furnace.
61.Iron is deoxidized, and part of the sulfur is removed.
62.Limestone is added as a flux to remove sulfur.
63.Molten metal is tapped and cast in the form of pigs.
64.Pig iron is classified as Bessemer pig, foundry pig, forge pig, and mottled pig.
65.Bessemer pig is used in the manufacture of steel.
66.Foundry pig, or grey pig, contains sufficient free carbon.
67.Forge pig, or white pig, is produced with insufficient fuel.
68.Mottled pig is between grey and white varieties.
69.Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon.
70.It contains 0.5-3.5% silicon.
71.It contains 0.5-2% manganese.
72.It contains 0.02-0.1% sulfur.
73.It contains 0.03-1% phosphorus.
74.Pig iron is hard and brittle.
75.It has a fusion temperature of 1200°C.
76.It melts easily.
77.It can be hardened but not tempered or magnetized.
78.Its compressive strength is high.
79.It is weak in tension and shear.
80.Pig iron does not rust.
81.It cannot be riveted or welded.
82.It is suitable for columns and base plates.
83.It is suitable for door brackets.
84.Cast iron is made by remelting pig iron with limestone and coke.
85.Refining is done in a Cupola furnace.
86.Molten iron is poured into molds.
87.Cast iron contains 2-4% carbon.
88.Carbon exists as cementite and free carbon.
89.Combined carbon is the compound cementite.
90.Free carbon is graphite.
91.Quality depends on the state of carbon.
92.Steel with less than 2% carbon can also be cast.
93.Steel is plastic and forgeable.
94.Cast iron is not plastic and forgeable.
95.Some modern cast iron has fair plasticity.
96.Sand casting is common.
97.Molten metal is poured into a sand cavity.
98.Wooden patterns are used for molds.
99.Hollow casting uses a solid core.
100. Vertical sand casting is used for pipes.
Chapter 12

 The chapter discusses rocks and stones as building materials.

 Stone has been used in construction since the Stone Age.
 Stone is a natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material.
 Rock is a portion of the earth's crust with no definite shape and structure.
 Examples of rocks used for building stones are granite, basalt, marble, and
sandstone.
 Stone has lost importance as a building material due to the advent of cement
and steel.

Rock-Forming Minerals

 Rocks are aggregations of minerals.

 Properties of rocks depend on the character of their mineral constituents.
 Minerals are identified by their physical properties like hardness, cleavage,
and color.
 Hardness is measured using Mohs scale.
 Cleavage is the ability of minerals to split along certain planes.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in powder form.
 Color is a valuable characteristic of metallic minerals.
 Lustre is the shine on the surface of a mineral.
 Crystal form is important when a mineral has had the opportunity to develop
its natural shape.
 Common mineral constituents of building stones include quartz, felspar, and
mica.

Classification of Rocks
  Rocks are classified based on geological formation, physical characteristics,
and chemical composition.
 Geological classification includes igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
 Igneous rocks are of volcanic origin and formed from the solidification of
molten magma.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and cementation of
sediments.
 Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks due to heat, pressure, or
chemical reactions.
 Physical classification includes stratified, unstratified, and foliated rocks.
 Stratified rocks show distinct layers.
 Unstratified rocks do not show any stratification.
 Foliated rocks have a tendency to split in a definite direction.
 Chemical classification includes argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous rocks.
 Argillaceous rocks have clay as the principal constituent.
 Siliceous rocks have silica as the principal constituent.
 Calcareous rocks have lime as the principal constituent.

Quarrying of Stones

 Quarrying is the process of extracting natural stone from the earth.

 The open part of the rock from which stone is obtained is called a quarry.
 Quarrying methods include excavating, wedging, heating, and blasting.
 Excavating is used for stones buried in earth or under loose overburden.
 Wedging is suitable for costly, soft, and stratified rocks.
 Heating is used for quarrying small, thin, and regular blocks of stones.
 Blasting uses explosives to dislodge rocks.
  Quarrying tools include wedges, hammers, and drills.

Characteristics of Good Building Stone

 A good building stone should have high strength and durability.

 It should be free from weathering and have a uniform texture.
 The stone should be hard and tough.
 It should have a pleasing appearance.
 The stone should be able to resist fire and water.

Testing of Stones

 Stones are tested for various properties like hardness, strength, and durability.
 Tests include the Smith's test, hardness test, and compressive strength test.
 The Smith's test determines the presence of soluble matter in stones.
 The hardness test measures the resistance of the stone to abrasion.
 The compressive strength test measures the ability of the stone to withstand
compressive loads.

Deterioration of Stones

 Stones can deteriorate due to various factors like weathering, chemical

reactions, and biological growth.
 Weathering agents include rain, wind, and temperature variations.
 Chemical reactions can be caused by acidic rain or pollutants.
 Biological growth like algae and moss can also damage stones.

Preservation of Stones

 Stones can be preserved by applying protective coatings.

  Preservation methods include the use of preservatives like coal tar and paint.
 Stones can also be preserved by proper maintenance and cleaning.

Selection of Stones

 The selection of stones depends on the intended use and location.

 Factors to consider include the strength, durability, and appearance of the
stone.
 The availability and cost of the stone are also important considerations.

Common Building Stones

 Common building stones include granite, basalt, sandstone, and limestone.

 Granite is a hard and durable igneous rock.
 Basalt is a dark-colored volcanic rock.
 Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of sand grains.
 Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate.

Artificial Stones

 Artificial stones are man-made stones that mimic the properties of natural
stones.
 Examples include concrete blocks and bricks.
 Artificial stones can be made in various shapes and sizes.

Applications of Stones

 Stones are used in various applications like foundations, walls, and flooring.
 They are also used in the construction of bridges and dams.
 Stones are used for decorative purposes in buildings and gardens.
Exercises

 The chapter includes exercises on the classification of rocks and quarrying

methods.
 It also covers the characteristics and testing of stones.

Objective Type Questions

 The chapter includes objective type questions to test the reader's

understanding of the concepts discussed.
 The questions cover topics such as the properties and uses of different types
of rocks and stones

Chapter 13

1. Ceramics are polycrystalline materials formed by baking natural clays and

mineral admixtures at high temperature.
2. They can also be formed by sintering oxides of various metals and inorganic
substances having high melting points.
3. Ceramics are usually hard and brittle.
4. They are in the form of amorphous or glassy solids.
5. The bond in ceramic materials is mixed ionic and covalent.
6. Ceramics can be made in single crystal forms, but their more common
structure is glassy.
7. Due to covalent ionic bonds, electrons are not free, making ceramics thermal
and electrical insulators.
8. At low temperatures, ceramics behave elastically.
9. Under proper conditions of stress and temperature, ceramics deform by
viscous flow.
10.On the basis of their internal structure, ceramics are classified as clay
products, refractories, and glasses.
11.Refractories are materials capable of withstanding high temperatures in
different industrial processes.
12.A refractory should resist the chemical action of the material being heated.
13.It should also withstand the mechanical load.
14.Refractories have high dimensional and chemical stability.
15.They do not lose their physical shape and chemical composition.
16.Refractories confine heat and prevent heat loss from furnace walls.
17.They do not possess a sharp fusion point.
18.Softening temperature is determined rather than fusion point.
19.Refractoriness is the ability to withstand prolonged action of high temperature
without appreciable softening.
20.It is expressed in degrees Celsius.
21.Refractoriness is measured by the softening or melting point of the material.
22.The pyrometric cone method is used to determine refractoriness.
23.Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) is the value obtained from the test.
24.Fire-clay and high alumina clay soften gradually over a range of temperature.
25.Silica softens over a relatively narrow range.
26.Acid refractories combine readily with bases.
27.Their chief constituent is silica.
28.Basic refractories consist mainly of basic oxides.
29.Examples of basic refractories are magnesite and dolomite.
30.Neutral refractories do not combine with either basic or acidic oxides.
31.Examples of neutral refractories are silicon carbide, chromite, and carbon.
32.Siliceous refractories contain not less than 93% SiO2.
33.They are used for roof, metallurgical furnaces, and glass tanks.
34.Alumo-silicate refractories may be semi-acid type containing silica.
35.Chamotte with 30-45% alumina is used in brickwork and furnace linings.
36.High-alumina variety with more than 45% alumina is used in the glass
industry.
37.Magnesian refractories consist chiefly of MgO (80-85%).
38.Their refractoriness may be as high as 2000°C.
39.They find application in extractive metallurgy.
40.Chromous refractories are obtained from chromous iron ore blended with
magnesia and alumina.
41.Their refractoriness is 1800-2000°C.
42.They withstand attack by iron ore slags.
43.Carbonaceous refractories are manufactured from graphite or coke.
44.These have refractoriness above 1700°C.
45.They are resistant to attack by molten slags.
46.Refractories are capable of withstanding high temperatures, thermal shocks,
and rough usage.
47.The expansion and contraction of these materials is minimum.
48.They are chemically inactive at high temperatures.
49.Refractories are resistant to the fluxing action of slags and corrosive action of
gases.
50.They are good thermal insulators and have low electrical conductivity.
51.Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture.
52.It is a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material.
53.Glass is commonly used for doors, windows, and curtain walls.
54.Ordinary colourless glasses are alkali-lime silicate and alkali-lead silicate.
55.They have tensile and compressive strengths of about 30-60 N/mm² and 700-
1000 N/mm², respectively.
56.The modulus of elasticity of glass is in the range 0.45 x 10^5 to 0.8 x 10^5
N/mm².
57.The strength of glass is affected by internal defects, cords, and foreign
intrusions.
58.The main shortcoming of glass is its brittleness.
59.The brittleness depends on the ratio of the modulus of elasticity to its tensile
strength.
60.The raw materials used in manufacturing glass are sand, lime, and soda or
potash.
61.These are fused over 1000°C.
62.Oxides of iron, lead, and borax are added to modify hardness, brilliance, and
colour.
63.Silica is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone, and pulverised
flint.
64.It should be free from iron contents for best quality glass.
65.Carbonates of sodium or potassium are added to lower the fusing temperature
of silica.
66.Lime is used in the form of limestone, chalk, or pure marble.
67.The addition of lime makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing,
rolling, pressing, or spinning.
68.It also imparts durability and toughness to glass.
69.Excess of lime makes the molten mass too thin for fabrication.
70.Soda acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass.
71.An excess of soda is harmful.
72.Potash renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.
73.Lead oxide imparts colour, brightness, and shine.
74.Cullets are broken glasses added to act as a flux.
75.They prevent loss of alkali by volatilization during the process of forming
glass.
76.Cullets also lower the fusion temperature.
77.Flux may reduce the resistance of glass to chemical attack.
78.It may render glass water-soluble.
79.Flux may make glass subject to partial or complete devitrification on cooling.
80.Titanic acid, oxides of nickel and cobalt are used for chromatic neutralisation.
81.Iron is not desirable as a constituent in glass.
82.It imparts a bottle green colour to the glass.
83.Manganese dioxide is added to remove the colour.
84.Glass is manufactured in four steps: melting, forming and shaping, annealing,
and finishing.
85.The raw materials are fused in a continuous type (tank) furnace or batch-type
(pot) furnace.
86.The charge in the first stage melts, forming a bubbly, sticky mass.
87.As the temperature is raised, it turns to a more watery liquid.
88.The bubbles rise to the surface.
89.Decolourisers such as MnO2 or nitre are added to do away with ferrous
compounds and carbon.
90.Colouring salts are added at this stage.
91.Heating is continued till the molten mass is free from bubbles and glass balls.
92.The molten glass is fabricated to desired shapes by blowing, flat drawing,
compression moulding, or spinning.
93.Glass articles are allowed to cool under room temperature by passing through
different chambers with descending temperature.
94.This process is called annealing.
 95.After annealing, the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished, cut, and sand
blasted.
96.Depending upon the constituents, glasses are classified as soda-lime glass,
lead glass, and boro-silicate glass.
97.Soda-lime glass is also known as soda-ash glass, soda glass, or soft glass.
98.It is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lime, and soda.
99.Lead glass is also known as flint glass.
100. It is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead, and potash.

Chapter 15

1. Paint is a liquid surface coating that forms a thin film on drying.

2. Oil paints, water paints, cement paints, and bituminous paints are examples of
paints.
3. Paints protect surfaces from mechanical and chemical stresses.
4. They also protect surfaces from physical and environmental deterioration.
5. Paints decorate structures by providing a smooth and colorful finish.
6. They check water penetration through reinforced cement concrete.
7. Paints prevent the formation of bacteria and fungus.
8. They check the corrosion of metal structures.
9. Paints prevent the decay of woodwork.
10.They varnish the surface to display it to better advantage.
11.The base is the principal constituent of paint.
12.It makes the paint film opaque.
13.The base possesses binding properties.
14.It reduces shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.
15.White lead, red lead, zinc white, aluminum powder, and iron oxide are
examples of bases.
16.Lead-based paints are affected by the atmosphere.
17.Zinc white is weather resistant.
18.Lithophone is used for inferior works.
19.Aluminum powder is used as a base for aluminum paints.
20.The vehicle is an oil to which the base is mixed.
21.It holds the constituents of paint in suspension.
22.The vehicle helps spread the paint over the surface.
23.It imparts durability, toughness, and water proofness to the paint film.
24.The vehicle provides resistance to weathering and gloss to the painted surface.
25.It forms the body of the paint.
26.Natural drying oils, animal, paint, artificial and synthetic glues are examples
of vehicles.
27.Linseed oil is the most widely used vehicle.
28.It contains acid which reacts readily with oxygen and hardens by forming a
thin film.
29.A priming coat of pure linseed oil induces corrosion.
30.Raw linseed oil has a slow drying rate.
31.Pale boiled linseed oil has better drying properties.
32.Double boiled linseed oil requires a thinning agent like turpentine.
33.Pigments are used to hide surface imperfections.
34.They impart the desired color.
35.Pigments protect the paint film by reflecting destructive ultra violet light.
36.They improve the impermeability of the paint film.
37.Pigments enhance the paint's resistance to weathering.
38.They affect the flow characteristics, making it possible to paint vertical and
uneven surfaces smoothly.
39.Natural and artificial pigments are the two types of pigments.
40.Ground natural ochre, burnt umber, and red lead are examples of natural
pigments.
41.Titanium dioxide, zinc white, and lead white are examples of artificial
pigments.
42.Solvents are oils used to thin paints and increase spread.
43.They are also known as thinners.
44.Solvents make the paint of workable consistency.
45.They evaporate during the drying of the film.
46.Petroleum, spirit, naptha, and turpentine oil are common thinning agents.
47.Driers, also known as plasticizers, are chemicals added to paint for specific
purposes.
48.They act as a catalyst for the oxidation, polymerization, and condensation of
the vehicle in paint.
49.The quantity of drier is limited to 8 percent.
50.Excess drier affects the elasticity of paint, leading to flaking failure.
51.Letharge, lead acetate, red lead, manganese dioxide, and cobalt are examples
of driers.
52.Red lead is the best for primary coat over steel and metal work.
53.It produces an extremely hard and tough film.
54.Red lead is almost impervious to air and moisture.
55.It adheres firmly to the metal and is extremely effective in protecting steel
from corrosion.
56.The cost of zinc and lead chromates is high.
57.Adultrants bring down the overall cost of paint.
58.They reduce the weight and increase durability.
59.Adultrants help to reduce cracking of dry paint.
60.They sometimes help to keep the pigment in suspension.
61.Barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, magnesium silicate, and silica are
examples of adultrants.
62.Barium sulfate is the best adultrant.
63.Silica is used only in the undercoats.
64.It helps in the development of bond with the next coat.
65.Ideal paints should have uniform spread as a thin film.
66.They should have high coverage and good workability.
67.Ideal paints should be durable and have sufficient elasticity.
68.They should be impervious to air and water.
69.Ideal paints should be cheap and economical.
70.They should form a hard surface.
71.The base is ground in a vehicle to the consistency of paste in a stone pestle.
72.Linseed oil is added intermittently to the paste in small quantities.
73.The mixture is stirred with a wooden puddle.
74.In the case of colored paints, the pigment is mixed with linseed oil separately.
75.Driers are also ground separately in linseed oil.
76.The three pastes are mixed, and a little linseed oil is added further to soften
the paste.
77.The mixture is continuously stirred until a consistency of cream is obtained.
78.The mixture is strained through fine canvas or a sieve.
79.The paint is ready for use after adding oil or a thinner.
80.For commercial manufacturing of paints, a four-story building is used.
81.Pigments, oil, thinner, plasticizer, and drier are stored on the fourth floor.
82.They are fed by chutes in proper proportions to the grinding mill on the third
floor.
83.The thoroughly ground materials are sent to storage tanks on the second floor.
84.The charge in the tanks is kept in motion by agitation mechanism.
85.An additional quantity of vehicle is added to get the desired composition.
86.The batch is tested for quality control.
87.The paint material is strained and sent to the first floor for packing.
88.The packed material is sent to the ground floor.
89.The quality of ingredients, grinding, and intimate mixing affects the quality
of paint.
90.Proportioning, straining, and packing also affect the quality of paint.
91.Ready mixed paints are available in the market with different trade names.
92.The covering power is the capacity of a given quantity of paint to cover an
area.
93.It depends on the type of paint, its constituents, the surface to be painted, and
the number of coats.
94.The area covered by different paints varies.
95.Pigment volume concentration (PVC) is the concentration by volume of
pigments.
96.It is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of non-volatile constituents
of the paint.
97.The PVC value is essential in determining the amount of pigment that can be
added to the polymer of the coating.
98.The pigment must have sufficient wetting to create a protective coating.
99.There must be enough polymer or binder to completely wet or surround all
the pigment particles.
100. There must be enough polymer to completely fill the voids between the
pigment particles.
Chapter 16

1. Aggregates are used as filler materials in mortar and concrete.

2. They constitute 70-80 percent of the concrete volume.
3. They influence the concrete properties significantly.
4. They should be clean, hard, strong, durable, and graded.
5. They are graded in size to achieve maximum economy from the paste.
6. They may be chemically active.
7. They may exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregates and cement
paste.
8. They are available in different sizes.
9. The bigger ones are known as coarse aggregate (grit).
10.The smaller ones are known as fine aggregate (sand).
11.The coarse aggregate forms the main matrix of concrete.
12.The fine aggregate forms the filler matrix between the coarse aggregate.
13.Aggregates are classified based on geological origin.
14.They are classified as natural aggregates and artificial aggregates.
15.Natural aggregates are obtained from igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rocks.
16.Gravels and sand reduced by natural agencies are examples of natural
aggregates.
17.Aggregates obtained from pits or dredged from river, creek or sea are
examples of natural aggregates.
18.They often require sieving and washing before use.
19.Artificial aggregates include broken bricks, blast furnace slag, and synthetic
aggregates.
20.Broken bricks are suitable for mass concreting.
21.They are not used for reinforced concrete works.
22.Blast furnace slag aggregate is obtained from slow cooling of the slag
followed by crushing.
23.It is used for making precast concrete products.
24.It has good fire resisting properties.
25.It is responsible for corrosion of reinforcement due to sulfur content.
26.Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed materials.
27.Expanded clay and shale are used for making lightweight concrete.
28.Aggregates are classified as coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and all-in-
aggregate based on size.
29.Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.
30.They are obtained by natural disintegration or artificial crushing of rocks.
31.The maximum size of coarse aggregate can be 80 mm.
32.The size is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of reinforcement,
and clear cover.
33.It is also governed by mixing, handling, and placing methods.
34.For economy, the maximum size should be as large as possible.
35.It should not be more than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the
member.
36.For reinforced sections, the maximum size should be at least 5 mm less than
the clear spacing between the reinforcement.
37.It should also be at least 5 mm less than the clear cover.
38.Aggregate more than 20 mm size are seldom used for reinforced cement
concrete structural members.
39.Naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and coarse sizes
are known as all-in-aggregate.
40.They are not recommended for quality concrete.
41.Aggregate most of which passes through a particular size of sieve are known
as graded aggregate.
42.Fine aggregates pass through a 4.75 mm sieve.
43.They may be natural sand, crushed stone sand, or crushed gravel sand.
44.The smallest size of fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06 mm.
45.Fine aggregates are described as fine, medium, and coarse sands.
46.They are classified into four zones based on particle size distribution.
47.The grading zones are progressively finer from grading zone I to grading zone
IV.
48.Aggregates are classified as rounded, irregular, angular, and flaky based on
shape.
49.Rounded aggregates are obtained from river or sea shore.
50.They produce minimum voids (about 32 percent) in the concrete.
51.They have minimum ratio of surface area to the volume.
52.The cement paste required is minimum.
53.Poor interlocking bond makes them unsuitable for high strength concrete and
pavements.
54.Irregular aggregates have voids about 36 percent.
55.They require more cement paste compared to rounded aggregate.
56.They develop good bond and are suitable for high strength concrete and
pavements.
57.The requirement of cement paste is relatively more.
58.Angular aggregates have sharp, angular, and rough particles.
59.They have maximum voids (about 40 percent).
60.They provide very good bond.
61.They are most suitable for making ordinary concrete.
62.Flaky aggregates are sometimes wrongly called elongated aggregates.
63.They influence the concrete properties adversely.
64.The least lateral dimension of flaky aggregate should be less than 0.6 times
the mean dimension.
65.Elongated aggregates are those whose length is 1.8 times its mean dimension.
66.Flaky aggregates generally orient in one plane with water and air voids
underneath.
67.They adversely affect durability and are restricted to a maximum of 15
percent.
68.Aggregates are classified as normal-weight, heavyweight, and lightweight
based on unit weight.
69.Normal-weight aggregates have a unit weight of 1520-1680 kg/m³.
70.Heavyweight aggregates have a unit weight > 2080 kg/m³.
71.Lightweight aggregates have a unit weight < 1120 kg/m³.
72.Examples of normal-weight aggregates are sand, gravel, limestone, and
sandstone.
73.Examples of heavyweight aggregates are magnetite and baryte.
74.Examples of lightweight aggregates are pumice and cinder.
75.The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for concrete are
strength, stiffness, bond strength, shape and texture, specific gravity, bulk
density, voids, porosity, moisture content, and bulking.
76.The strength should be at least equal to that of the concrete.
77.Rocks commonly used as aggregates have a compressive strength much
higher than the usual range of concrete strength.
78.The test conducted for strength evaluation are crushing test, impact-test, and
ten percent fines test.
79.The crushing test is the most reliable.
80.Generally, the specifications prescribe 45 percent for aggregate used for
concrete other than wearing surface.
81.30 percent for concrete for wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads, etc. limit
for the crushing value.
82.The toughness of aggregate is measured by impact test.
83.The impact value should not exceed 30 percent for wearing surface and 45
percent for remaining concretes.
84.Hardness of aggregate is tested by abrasion test.
85.The abrasion value is restricted to 30 percent for wearing surfaces and 50
percent for concrete for other purposes.
86.The modulus of elasticity of concrete is approximately equal to the weighted
average of the moduli of the cement paste and the aggregate.
87.The modulus of the coarse aggregate has an important influence on the
stiffness of concrete.
88.A high value reduces the dimensional changes due to creep and shrinkage of
cement paste, but at the cost of higher internal stresses.
89.In concrete that is to be subjected to wide variations of temperature and
humidity, internal cracking is reduced by the use of a more compressible
aggregate.
90.The stresses are likely to be greatest at the paste-aggregate interfaces where
minute cracks exist, even in concrete that has never been loaded.
91.Under increasing external load, these cracks spread along the interfaces before
extending into the paste or aggregate particles.
92.The strength of the bond between aggregate and cement paste thus has an
important influence on the strength of concrete.
93.There is no standard test for bond but it is known that the rougher the surface
texture of the particles, the better the bond.
 94.The role of particle shape is less well understood; the greater specific surface
of angular particles should enable greater adhesive force to be developed, but
the angular shape probably causes more severe concentrations of internal
stress.
95.The shape influences the properties of fresh concrete more than when it has
hardened.
96.Rounded aggregate are highly workable but yield low strength concrete.
97.Same is the case with irregular shaped aggregate.
98.Flaky aggregate require more cement paste, produce maximum voids and are
not desirable.
99.Angular shape is the best.
100. Crushed and uncrushed aggregates generally give essentially the same
strength for the same cement content.

Chapter 17

100 important one linear answer from this chapter:

1. Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder.

2. Gypsum occurs naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand.
3. Pure gypsum is a white translucent crystalline mineral.
4. Pure gypsum is so soft that it can be scratched by a finger nail.
5. When heated to 205°C, pure gypsum loses its luster.
6. The specific gravity of pure gypsum increases from 2.3 to 2.95 due to the loss
of water of crystallization.
7. Gypsum has a unique property of moulding.
8. When heated, gypsum gives up combined water and easily turns into powder.
9. On adding water to the powder, gypsum can easily be shaped and moulded.
10.In a short time, gypsum hardens again and becomes similar to what it was in
its natural state.
11.When water is added, gypsum forms interlocking crystals.
12.As the gypsum hardens, it is this crystallization that makes it such an effective
fire resisting material.
13.There are two commercial varieties of crude gypsum: rock gypsum and
gypsum or gypsite.
14.These substances consist principally of a hydrous sulphate of lime (CaSO4 +
2H2O) with varying percentages of silica, carbonate of lime, carbonate of
magnesia, and iron oxide.
15.Building gypsum is an air-setting binder composed mainly of semihydrate
gypsum and obtained by processing gypsum at temperatures 150°C-160°C.
16.Gypsum items have a number of valuable properties like relatively small bulk
density, incombustibility, good sound absorbing capacity, good fire
resistance, rapid drying and hardening with negligible shrinkage, superior
surface finish, resistance to insects and rodents and low energy input during
burning to produce gypsum plaster.
17.The major shortcomings of gypsum are its poor strength in wet state and high
creep under load.
18.Gypsum plaster, e.g., Plaster of Paris, Gypsum wall plaster stucco, and hard
finish plaster are extensively used in wall construction.
19.Flooring plaster, made by calcining gypsum at a high temperature has been
considerably used.
20.In all of these powders, gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the
essential element.
21.Gypsum-based items should be used only in dry state and in premises of not
more than 60 per cent relative air humidity.
22.The water of crystallization in the gypsum (CaSO4 2H₂O) is not held firmly
by the mineral.
23.When gypsum is heated to about 160°C it loses a part of water of
crystallization and is known as half-hydrate gypsum.
24.At still higher temperatures (About 200°C), gypsum loses all its water of
crystallization and turns out into an hydrate gypsum.
25.The lost water of crystallization can be regained under favourable damp or
moist conditions.
26.The setting and strengthening of gypsum are due to intergrowth of very fine
and poorly soluble crystals of dehydrated gypsum as they precipitate from a
solution which remains oversaturated as long as the hydration of gypsum
proceeds.
27.According to the crystallization theory proposed by Le-chatelier, when water
is added to gypsum, the latter dissolves forming a saturated solution of
dehydrate gypsum.
28.Since the solubility of semihydrate gypsum is about 3.5 times more than of
dehydrated gypsum, the solution that is saturated with respect to the
semihydrate gypsum causes dehydrated gypsum to crystallize.
29.In this process the concentration of semihydrate gypsum is reduced causing
more of it to dissolve until again the solution is oversaturated and
consequently again yielding crystals of dehydrate gypsum.
30.The process continues until all the semihydrate gypsum is hydrated and
crystallized.
31.According to colloidal theory when water is added to gypsum, the
semihydrate gypsum goes into solution until the latter is saturated.
32.In an oversaturated solution, the interaction of water with the solid
semihydrate continues on their surface due to high mutual chemical affinity.
33.The resultant dehydrated gypsum fails to dissolve further and precipitates as
an unstable disperse colloid mass in the form of gel, the process being
accompanied by the setting of the mass.
34.The resultant crystals grow both in number and size, while orienting randomly
and intertwining, convert the jelly like mass into a crystalline growth.
35.The resultant CaSO4.2H2O crystals grow into a single crystalline concretion
which on drying becomes very strong.
36.Gypsum sets within 20 minutes and it is difficult to use it for some purpose.
37.Suitable setting retarders like lime-keratin glue and sulphite-alcohol vinasse
may be used.
38.Gypsum binders are classified as low and high burning varieties.
39.The low burning variety is manufactured by heating dehydrated gypsum to a
temperature of 170°C-200°C.
40.The high burning variety is manufactured by calcining gypsum at a
temperature of 400°C-1200°C.
41.Depending upon the temperature of calcination, the gypsum is classified as
Plaster of Paris, flooring plaster and Keene's plaster.
42.Plaster of Paris is obtained by calcining gypsum at a temperature of 170°C-
200°C.
43.It sets and hardens quickly with addition of water.
44.It is used for interior works only.
45.Flooring plaster is obtained by calcining gypsum at a temperature of 400°C-
800°C.
46.It sets and hardens slowly with addition of water.
47.It is used for exterior works also.
48.Keene's plaster is obtained by calcining gypsum at a temperature of 1200°C.
49.It sets and hardens very slowly with addition of water.
50.It is used for both interior and exterior works.
51.The purpose of using water with cement is to cause hydration of the cement.
52.Water in excess of that required for hydration acts as a lubricant between
coarse and fine aggregates and produces a workable and economical concrete.
53.There is a definite optimum water requirement for a particular concrete and
mortar.
54.In case of excess water, the cement along with water comes to the surface by
capillary action and forms a thin layer over surface known as laitance.
55.This weakens bond between the successive lifts of concrete.
56.The excess water may leak through the form work, resulting in honeycombed
concrete and on evaporation makes the concrete porous.
57.On the other hand lesser water makes it difficult to work with concrete and
because of nonuniform mixing the resultant concrete is weaker in strength.
58.The amount of water must therefore be limited to produce concrete of the
quality required for a job.
59.Water is also used for washing aggregates and curing.
60.Almost any natural potable water that has no pronounced taste or odour is
acceptable for the concrete mix.
61.Many sources of water unsuitable for drinking may also be used.
62.In case of a doubt, water samples should be tested for suitability.
63.Excessive impurities may affect setting time, strength, durability and may
cause efflorescence, surface discolouration, and corrosion of steel.
64.The effects of impurities in water are mainly expressed in terms of setting
time of Portland cement.
65.The initial setting time of the mixes with impure water and that with the pure
water are obtained.
66.Their difference in the initial setting time of ± 30 minutes with initial setting
time not less than 30 minutes is supposed to be acceptable.
67.The 7 day and 28 day compressive strengths of the cube/cylinder specimens
prepared with impure water should not differ by 10 per cent from that of
cubes/cylinders prepared with pure water.
68.The tolerable concentrations of some of the impurities in water are given in
Table 7.1.
69.The presence of solids can generally be used satisfactorily for making
concrete.
70.A higher concentration affects certain cements adversely.
71.The presence of salts of zinc, manganese, tin, copper and lead considerably
accelerate or retard the setting of cement.
72.Water with pH value between 6-8 should only be used.
73.The limit of acidity is guided by the requirement that the amount of 0.1 N
NaOH required to neutralise 100 ml sample of water using phenolphthalein
as indicator should not be more than 1 ml.
74.This acidity is equivalent to 49 ppm of H₂SO₄ or 36 ppm of HCl.
75.The limit of alkalinity is guided by the requirement that the amount of 0.1 N
HCl required to neutralize 100 ml of sample should be less than 5 ml.
76.This alkalinity is equivalent to 265 and 420 ppm of carbonates and
bicarbonates, respectively.
77.Sugar up to 0.05 per cent by weight of water is harmless.
78.Sugar up to 0.15 per cent by weight of water retards the set of concrete and
the 3-day strength test cannot be performed.
Chapter 18

1. Acid-resistant cements use sodium silicate, acid-resistant aggregate, and

sodium fluosilicate.
2. Soluble glass in acid-resistant cement is a water solution of sodium silicate or
potassium silicate.
3. The glass modulus in soluble glass is the ratio of silica to alkali oxide
molecules.
4. Soluble glass hardens in the air due to atmospheric carbon dioxide forming
amorphous silica.
5. Sodium fluosilicate accelerates the hardening of soluble glass.
6. Acid-resistant cement should not be used with water, alkalis, or certain acids
for long periods.
7. Linseed oil or ceresit can be added to acid-resistant cement to enhance water
resistance.
8. Acid-resistant cements are used for lining chemical apparatus and building
chemical industry installations.
9. Expanding cements increase in volume during hardening under moist
conditions.
10.Water-impermeable expanding cement contains aluminous cement, gypsum,
and calcium aluminate.
11.Calcium aluminate is obtained by hydrothermal curing of aluminous cement
and lime.
12.Water-impermeable expanding cement is used for repairing concrete and
waterproofing.
13.Gypsum-aluminous expanding cement is made from high-alumina slag and
gypsum.
14.Gypsum-aluminous cement is used for non-shrinking mortars and
waterproofing mines.
15.Oil-well cement secures oil-well pipe casing with earth and rocks.
16.Oil-well cement is made from hydraulic calcium silicates.
17.Set modifying agents can be added to certain classes of oil-well cement.
18.Oil-well cements are classified based on depth and ground conditions.
19.Class A oil-well cement is for surface to 1830m depth without special
requirements.
20.Class B oil-well cement is for surface to 1830m depth with moderate to high
sulfate resistance.
21.Class C oil-well cement is for surface to 1830m depth with high early strength.
22.Class D oil-well cement is for 1830 to 3050m depth with moderate to high
sulfate resistance.
23.Class E oil-well cement is for 3050 to 4270m depth under high temperatures
and pressures.
24.Class F oil-well cement is for 3050 to 4880m depth under extremely high
temperatures and pressures.
25.Class G oil-well cement is a basic cement for surface to 2440m with sulfate
resistance.
26.Class H oil-well cement is a basic cement for surface to 2440m with moderate
sulfate resistance.
27.Class J oil-well cement is for 3660 to 4880m depth under extremely high
temperatures and pressures.
28.Reinforced cement concrete is a composite of cement concrete and steel bars.
29.Steel in reinforced concrete compensates for concrete's poor tensile resistance.
30.Reinforced concrete is versatile and used in various structural elements.
31.Steel bars in reinforced concrete enhance compressive load bearing capacity.
32.Lateral ties in reinforced concrete columns prevent buckling and confine
concrete.
33.Prestressed concrete introduces compressive force to counteract tensile stress.
34.Prestressed concrete eliminates cracking and improves load reversal capacity.
35.Prestressed concrete reduces shrinkage cracks and enables longer spans.
36.High strength concrete and steel are used in prestressed concrete.
37.Prestressing is achieved by pre-tensioning or post-tensioning.
38.Polymer concrete improves strength and resistance to abrasion.
39.Polymer concrete is brittle and expensive.
40.Polymer impregnated concrete uses monomers like methylmethacrylate.
41.Polymer cement concrete mixes cement, aggregates, water, and monomers.
42.Polymer concrete uses a polymer binder without cement.
43.Fibre reinforced concrete uses short discrete fibres like asbestos and steel.
44.Fibre reinforced concrete improves structural performance based on fibre
properties.
45.Fibre reinforced concrete requires more fine aggregate and cement paste.
46.Fibre reinforced concrete's tensile cracking strain is about 1/50th of steel
fibres.
47.Fibre reinforced concrete's first flexural cracking load increases due to crack
arresting.
48.Fibre reinforced concrete improves ductility, impact resistance, and tensile
strength.
49.Steel fibres in fibre reinforced concrete can intermesh and form balls during
mixing.
50.Fibre reinforced concrete is used in hydraulic structures, pavements, and
tunnel linings.
51.Ferrocement is a composite of cement mortar and steel mesh.
52.Ferrocement reinforcement consists of small diameter wire meshes.
53.Ferrocement is used for thin shell structures and liquid retainers.
54.Lightweight concrete has a density of 300 to 1850 kg/m³.
55.Lightweight concrete reduces dead load and is used in multistory buildings.
56.Lightweight concrete improves thermal insulation and reduces sound
transmission.
57.High strength concrete has a compressive strength above 40 MPa.
58.High strength concrete uses a water-reducing agent and silica fumes.
59.High strength concrete is used in high-rise buildings and long-span bridges.
60.Shrinkage compensating concrete expands slightly to prevent shrinkage.
61.Shrinkage compensating concrete is used in large floor slabs and pavements.
62.Heavyweight concrete has a density above 3000 kg/m³.
63.Heavyweight concrete uses heavy aggregates like magnetite and barite.
64.Heavyweight concrete is used in radiation shielding and marine construction.
65.Roller compacted concrete is dry concrete compacted by vibratory rollers.
66.Roller compacted concrete is used in dams and pavements.
67.Ready mixed concrete is batched at a central plant and delivered to the site.
68.Ready mixed concrete ensures quality control and reduces on-site mixing.
69.Self-compacting concrete flows and compacts under its own weight.
70.Self-compacting concrete is used in complex formwork and heavily
reinforced structures.
71.Shotcrete is sprayed concrete propelled by compressed air.
72.Shotcrete is used in tunnel linings and slope stabilization.
73.High performance concrete is designed for durability and high strength.
74.High performance concrete uses supplementary cementitious materials and
chemical admixtures.
75.Bacterial concrete uses bacteria to precipitate calcium carbonate for self-
healing.
76.Bacterial concrete is used to improve durability and reduce maintenance.
77.Puzzolana is a siliceous material that reacts with lime in the presence of water.
78.Puzzolanas are natural or artificial and improve concrete workability and
durability.
79.Natural puzzolanas include clays, diatomaceous earth, and volcanic tuffs.
80.Artificial puzzolanas include fly ash, ground blast-furnace slag, and silica
fume.
81.Puzzolanic activity is due to finely divided glassy silica and lime.
82.Puzzolanas reduce heat of hydration and may decrease early compressive
strength.
83.Puzzolanas are used in mass concreting like dams and harbour works.
84.Fly ash is residue from combustion of pulverized coal and varies in
composition.
85.Fly ash is finer than Portland cement and consists of spherical particles.
86.Carbon content in fly ash should be low for use with cement.
87.Fly ash is supplied in grades I and II, with grade I recommended for Portland
pozzolana cement.
88.Fly ash reduces permeability and slightly improves resistance to sulfate attack.
89.Surkhi is calcined clay puzzolana obtained by burning clay soils.
90.Surkhi is used in mortar and concrete to impart strength and hydraulic
properties.
91.Ground blast furnace slag is a by-product of iron ore smelting.
92.Ground blast furnace slag exhibits hydraulic action with calcium hydroxide.
93.Silica fume is a by-product of silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys.
 94.Silica fume enhances concrete strength and durability through pozzolanic
reaction.
95.Rice husk ash is produced from combustion of rice husks and has high silica
content.
96.Rice husk ash can be mixed with lime or Portland cement for hydraulic
binders.
97.Aggregates are inert materials in concrete, classified as fine or coarse.
98.Aggregates constitute 70-80 percent of concrete volume and influence its
properties.
99.Aggregates are classified by geological origin, size, shape, and unit weight.
100. Coarse aggregates are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve and include gravel
and crushed rock.

Chapter 19
 Adhesives are natural or synthetic binders used for surface coatings.
 Natural binders have been replaced by synthetic binders.
 High load bearing adhesives have been developed for engineering applications.
 Structural adhesives are based on specially cured rubber-toughened epoxies,
acrylics and silanes.
 Silane resins are used to prevent moisture penetration.
 Adhesives distribute stress over larger areas of a joint compared to rivets and bolts.
 Adhesives reduce galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals.
 Adhesives can cement together extremely thin sheets.
 Bonding with adhesives is economical.
 Adhesives lose stability at high temperatures.
 Adhesives have poor resistance to peeling.
 Special care is to be exercised in the application of adhesives.
 Adhesives take a long time to form the bond.
 Adhesives should have high tensile strength.
 The important physical properties of adhesives are cohesive strength, adherence,
fluidity, and wettability of the substrate.
 Adhesive should have more cohesive strength than either of the surfaces being
held together.
 Usually the adhesive becomes more brittle as its cohesive strength is increased.
 For an adhesive to hold two surfaces together the former should form a strong
bond at each of the interfaces between the surface and the adhesive.
 The adhesive must have strong cohesive strength.
 Since adhesive failure occurs in the weakest bond, failure can occur at either
interface, as also for cohesive failure.
 Failure may also occur inside the adhesive itself.
 In practice the bond failure at the interface is rare.
 Clean surfaces are necessary to get the best results with adhesives.
 When liquids are stirred, they become temporarily more fluid because of
alignment of their tiny crystals.
 The fluid thickens as soon as stirring is stopped.
 This property is called thixotropy of adhesives and paints.
 Thixotropy helps to prevent a sag or run when coatings are applied on vertical
surfaces.
 If the viscosity of a liquid increases with the shear stress of stirring, it is called
dilatency.
 Since the viscosity decreases with increase in temperature, an adhesive should be
applied while hot.
 Adhesive must wet the surface thoroughly as it spreads.
 It must be able to flow into the surface crevices displacing dirt, moisture, and
trapped air.
 The surface tension of adhesive can be lowered by adding a surfactant wetting
agent.
 Organic Solvent Thinned Adhesives are applied to each of the two surfaces.
 The solvent is allowed to escape before the two surfaces are put together.
 Solvents are classified as active and nonpolar, e.g., ethyl acetate, methyl ketone,
and poor and polar such as aliphatic paint thinner.
 Latex Adhesives are natural or synthetic rubber or vinyl copolymers.
 These water-dispersed or latex adhesives contain, elastomeric film former,
emulsifiers, thickeners, and antifoaming agents.
 The examples of synthetic rubber-based adhesives are styrene butadiene and
neoprene.
 Water-dispersed Adhesives depend on natural materials for bonding.
 The bond of these can be destroyed by soaking in water.
 The examples are glue made by hydrolysis of collagen extracted from skin and
bones of fish and animals.
 Natural adhesives are casein and soybean used in wood working industry.
 Dextrin adhesives are made from starch for use with paper products.
 Two-package Adhesives do not require solvent.
 The examples are epoxy adhesives.
 These are made by using a low-molecular-weight partially polymerised polymer.
 Asbestos occurs in nature mostly in form of veins among rock of specific
composition.
 Asbestos minerals are fibrous in structure and split into fine fibres under
mechanical force.
 Natural asbestos may be subdivided into two groups: acid-resistant and non-acid-
resistant.
 Acid-resistant asbestos comprises crocidolite asbestos, anthophyllite asbestos,
amosite asbestos, actinolite asbestos and tremolite asbestos.
 The group of non-acid-resistant asbestos is represented by chrysotile asbestos
only, which is of great industrial importance.
 In chemical composition chrysotile asbestos (theoretical) is a magnesium
hydrosilicate 3MgO.2SiO2. 2H2O.
 Asbestos molecules are strongly bound together only in one direction, whereas
the lateral bond with adjacent molecules is quite weak.
 This property explains the very high tensile strength of asbestos along the fibres
and its good fluffing ability and ready transversal (across the fibres) splitting.
 Diameter of chrysotile-asbestos fibres lies between 0.00001 to 0.000003 mm.
 Chrysotile-asbestos can be fluffed to fibres of a mean diameter of 0.02 mm.
 Such a fibre is actually a bunch of numerous elementary fibres.
 On the average, the tensile strength of asbestos fibres is 3000 N/mm².
 The fibres are subjected to compression, impact and other types of action in the
process of fluffing.
 Their strength drops to 600-800 N/mm² which corresponds to the strength of high-
quality steel wire.
 Asbestos has a good absorption capacity.
 When mixed with Portland cement and wetted by water, it absorbs, i.e., retains
firmly on its surface, the products of cement hydration, which bind the asbestos
fibres.
 Asbestos-cement can be considered a finely reinforced cement stone.
 Chrysotile-asbestos is incombustible.
 At about 110°C it begins to lose absorption water and its tensile strength drops by
10%.
 At 368°C all of the absorption water evaporates and asbestos strength decreases
by 25-30%.
 After asbestos is cooled, it readsorbs from the air the moisture it has previously
lost and regains its original properties.
 When asbestos is heated to over 550°C, chemically bound water is removed,
asbestos loses elasticity and strength, becomes brittle and fails to restore its
properties on cooling.
 Chrysotile-asbestos melts at a temperature of about 1550°C.
 Asbestos has low heat and electric conductivity, high resistance to alkali and poor
resistance to acids.
 The quality of asbestos-cement items depends greatly on that of asbestos and on
fineness of cement.
 Asbestos is used to make sheets (A.C. sheets) and boards for roofing, false-
ceilings, paneling, partitions, wall linings, door panels, window panes, sign boards,
wardrobes, etc.
 In the form of pipes it is used to drain rain water, soil water, etc.
 It is also used for making paints.
 Linoleum is a plastic material obtained by oxidizing linseed oil into a rubber like
substance mixed with ground cork, wood flour and pigments.
 The resulting material is pressed upon a backing of burlap.
 Linoleum is classified as plain, printed and inlaid.
 It is available in the form of tiles and rolls.
 The plain linoleum of a uniform colour is available in thickness 2-4.5 mm.
 The printed linoleum has a pattern printed on it in oil paints.
 Its thickness ranges from 1.25-2 mm.
 The inlaid linoleum has small units of linoleum in different colours and shapes
patterned and pressed on a burlap back.
 Linoleum floors are durable, resilient, quiet and comfortable.
 They are cheap easy to install and maintain.
 This is most suitable decorative floor covering for wood and concrete floors.
 Thermocol is a light and cellular plastic material used for sound and heat insulation
of ceiling, walls, refrigerators and for air conditioning of the buildings.
 It is soft, light, strong and durable having compressive strength in the range of
11.7 to 14.4 N/mm².
 It has excellent heat, sound and electric insulating properties.
 The purpose of thermal insulation is to restrict the heat transfer from warmer to
cooler areas.
 The commonly used heat insulating materials work on principle of either air spaces
formed between structural components, surface insulation or internal insulation.
 Well known products are aerated concrete, gypsum boards, fibre boards, asbestos
cement boards, chip boards, cork boards, foam plastic, aluminium foil, reflecting
paints, expanded blast furnance slag, vermiculite*, fibre glass, glass wool, etc.
 Cavity wall, though costly, provides good insulation.
 Heat insulating material should be impermeable to water, fire proof, resists insect
attacks, have low thermal conductivity (0.0228 kCals-cm/m²°C).
 Since a good heat insulating material has porous structure the strength is lowered
affecting its stability.