Explore the full ebook collection and download it now at textbookfull.

com

Mastering Linux Shell Scripting a practical guide

to Linux command line Bash scripting and Shell
programming Ebrahim

https://textbookfull.com/product/mastering-linux-shell-
scripting-a-practical-guide-to-linux-command-line-bash-
scripting-and-shell-programming-ebrahim/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Browse and Get More Ebook Downloads Instantly at https://textbookfull.com

Click here to visit textbookfull.com and download textbook now
 Your digital treasures (PDF, ePub, MOBI) await
Download instantly and pick your perfect format...

Read anywhere, anytime, on any device!

Mastering Linux shell scripting a practical guide to Linux

command line Bash scripting and Shell programming Second
Edition. Edition Mokhtar Ebrahim
https://textbookfull.com/product/mastering-linux-shell-scripting-a-
practical-guide-to-linux-command-line-bash-scripting-and-shell-
programming-second-edition-edition-mokhtar-ebrahim/
textbookfull.com

Linux Shell Scripting Cookbook - Third Edition Clif Flynt

https://textbookfull.com/product/linux-shell-scripting-cookbook-third-
edition-clif-flynt/

textbookfull.com

BASH SCRIPT Linux Command Line Reference 1st Edition

Aditya Tiwari

https://textbookfull.com/product/bash-script-linux-command-line-
reference-1st-edition-aditya-tiwari/

textbookfull.com

Shell Programming in Unix Linux and OS X Stephen G. Kochan

https://textbookfull.com/product/shell-programming-in-unix-linux-and-
os-x-stephen-g-kochan/

textbookfull.com
The Linux Command Line: A Complete Introduction 2nd
Edition William E. Shotts

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-linux-command-line-a-complete-
introduction-2nd-edition-william-e-shotts/

textbookfull.com

Linux Basics for Hackers Getting Started with Networking

Scripting and Security in Kali Occupytheweb

https://textbookfull.com/product/linux-basics-for-hackers-getting-
started-with-networking-scripting-and-security-in-kali-occupytheweb/

textbookfull.com

Wicked Cool Shell Scripts 101 Scripts for Linux OS X and

UNIX Systems Dave Taylor

https://textbookfull.com/product/wicked-cool-shell-
scripts-101-scripts-for-linux-os-x-and-unix-systems-dave-taylor/

textbookfull.com

Computing with the Raspberry Pi: Command Line and GUI

Linux 1st Edition Brian Schell

https://textbookfull.com/product/computing-with-the-raspberry-pi-
command-line-and-gui-linux-1st-edition-brian-schell/

textbookfull.com

Linux Basics for Hackers Getting Started with Networking

Scripting and Security in Kali 1st Edition Occupytheweb

https://textbookfull.com/product/linux-basics-for-hackers-getting-
started-with-networking-scripting-and-security-in-kali-1st-edition-
occupytheweb/
textbookfull.com
Mastering Linux Shell Scripting
Second Edition

A practical guide to Linux command-line, Bash scripting, and Shell

programming

Mokhtar Ebrahim
Andrew Mallett
BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Mastering Linux Shell
Scripting Second Edition
Copyright © 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information
presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express or implied.
Neither the authors, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and products
mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the
accuracy of this information.

Commissioning Editor: Vijin Boricha

Acquisition Editor: Rohit Rajkumar
Content Development Editor: Ron Mathew
Technical Editor: Prachi Sawant
Copy Editor: Safis Editing
Project Coordinator: Judie Jose
Proofreader: Safis Editing
Indexer: Mariammal Chettiyar
Graphics: Tom Scaria
Production Coordinator: Aparna Bhagat

First published: December 2015

Second edition: April 2018

Production reference: 1180418

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78899-055-4

www.packtpub.com
mapt.io

Mapt is an online digital library that gives you full access to over
5,000 books and videos, as well as industry leading tools to help you
plan your personal development and advance your career. For more
information, please visit our website.
Why subscribe?
Spend less time learning and more time coding with practical
eBooks and Videos from over 4,000 industry professionals

Improve your learning with Skill Plans built especially for you

Get a free eBook or video every month

Mapt is fully searchable

Copy and paste, print, and bookmark content

PacktPub.com
Did you know that Packt offers eBook versions of every book
published, with PDF and ePub files available? You can upgrade to the
eBook version at www.PacktPub.com and as a print book customer, you are
entitled to a discount on the eBook copy. Get in touch with us at
[email protected] for more details.

At www.PacktPub.com, you can also read a collection of free technical

articles, sign up for a range of free newsletters, and receive
exclusive discounts and offers on Packt books and eBooks.
Contributors
About the authors
Mokhtar Ebrahim started working as a Linux system administrator
in 2010. He is responsible for maintaining, securing, and
troubleshooting Linux servers for multiple clients around the world.
He loves writing shell and Python scripts to automate his work. He
writes technical articles on the Like Geeks website about Linux,
Python, web development, and server administration. He is a father
to a beautiful girl and a husband to a faithful wife.
I would like to thank my wife for helping me with all her efforts to finish this book. Thank you, Doaa, for being
a part of that. Also, I would like to thank everyone at Packt for working with me to make sure the book is
released. Last but not least, I'd like to thank Brian Fox, the author of the bash shell, for creating such an
awesome piece of software; without it, such a book would not exist.

Andrew Mallett is the owner of The Urban Penguin, and he is a

comprehensive provider of professional Linux software development,
training, and services. Having always been a command-line fan, he
feels that so much time can be saved through knowing command-
line shortcuts and scripting. TheUrbanPenguin YouTube channel,
maintained by Andrew, has well over 800 videos to support this, and
he has authored four other Packt titles.
About the reviewer
Sebastiaan Tammer is a Linux enthusiast from The Netherlands.
After attaining his BSc in Information Sciences, he graduated with
MSc in Business Informatics, both from Utrecht University. His
professional career started in Java development before he pivoted
into Linux.

He has worked on number of technologies, such as Puppet, Chef,

Docker, and Kubernetes. He spends a lot of time in and around his
terminal of choice: bash. Whether it is creating complex scripting
solutions or just automating simple tasks, there is hardly anything he
hasn't done with bash!
I would like to thank my girlfriend, Sanne, for all the help and support she has given me throughout the years.
She has had to endure the late nights studying, me fixing stuff (which I had inevitably broken only hours
earlier), and my endless storytelling about all those exciting new technologies. Thanks for the enormous
amount of patience and love, I could not have done it without you!
Packt is searching for authors
like you
If you're interested in becoming an author for Packt, please visit autho
rs.packtpub.com and apply today. We have worked with thousands of

developers and tech professionals, just like you, to help them share
their insight with the global tech community. You can make a
general application, apply for a specific hot topic that we are
recruiting an author for, or submit your own idea.
Table of Contents
Title Page

Copyright and Credits

Mastering Linux Shell Scripting Second Edition

Packt Upsell

Why subscribe?

PacktPub.com

Contributors

About the authors

About the reviewer

Packt is searching for authors like you

Preface

Who this book is for

What this book covers

To get the most out of this book

Download the example code files

Download the color images

Conventions used

Get in touch

Reviews

1. The What and Why of Scripting with Bash

Technical requirements

Types of Linux shells

What is bash scripting?

The bash command hierarchy

Command type

Command PATH

Preparing text editors for scripting

Configuring vim

Configuring nano

Configuring gedit

Creating and executing scripts

 Hello World!

Executing the script

Checking the exit status

Ensuring a unique name

Hello Dolly!

Running the script with arguments

The importance of correct quotes

Printing the script name

Declaring variables

User-defined variables

Environment variables

Variable scope

Command substitution

Debugging your scripts

Summary

Questions

Further reading

2. Creating Interactive Scripts

Technical requirements

Using echo with options

Basic script using read

Script comments

Enhancing scripts with read prompts

Limiting the number of entered characters

Controlling the visibility of the entered text

Passing options

Passing parameters with options

Read options values

Try to be standard
Enhancing learning with simple scripts

Backing-up with scripts

Connecting to a server

Version 1 – ping

Version 2 – SSH

Version 3 – MySQL/MariaDB

Reading files
 Summary
Questions

Further reading
3. Conditions Attached

Technical requirements
Simple decision paths using command-line lists

Verifying user input with lists

Using the test shell built-in

Testing strings
Testing integers

Testing file types

Creating conditional statements using if

Extending if with else

Test command with the if command

Checking strings
Checking files and directories

Checking numbers
Combining tests

More conditions with elif

Creating the backup2.sh using elif

Using case statements

Recipe – building a frontend with grep

Summary
Questions

Further reading
4. Creating Code Snippets

Technical requirements
Abbreviations

Using code snippets

Bringing color to the Terminal

Creating snippets using VS Code

Summary

Questions
Further reading

5. Alternative Syntax
Technical requirement
 Recapping the test command
Testing files

Adding logic
Square brackets as not seen before

Providing parameter defaults

Variables
Special parameters

Setting defaults
When in doubt – quote!
Advanced tests using [[
White space

Other advanced features

Pattern matching
Regular expressions
Regular expression script

Arithmetic operations using ((

Simple math
Parameter manipulation
Standard arithmetic tests

Summary
Questions
Further reading
6. Iterating with Loops

Technical requirement
for loops
Advanced for loops
The IFS

Counting directories and files

C-style for loops 
Nested loops
Redirecting loop output

Controlling the loop

while loops and until loops
Reading input from files
Creating operator menus

Summary
 Questions
Further reading
7. Creating Building Blocks with Functions

Technical requirements
Introducing functions
Passing parameters to functions

Passing arrays
Variable scope
Returning values from functions
Recursive functions

Using functions in menus

Summary
Questions
Further reading

8. Introducing the Stream Editor

Technical requirements
Using grep to display text
Displaying received data on an interface

Displaying user account data

Listing the number of CPUs in a system
Parsing CSV files
The CSV file

Isolating catalog entries

Understanding the basics of sed
The substitute command
Global replacement

Limiting substitution
Editing the file
Other sed commands
The delete command

The insert and append commands

The change command
The transform command
Multiple sed commands

Summary
Questions
 Further reading
9. Automating Apache Virtual Hosts

Technical requirements
Apache name-based Virtual Hosts
Creating the virtual host template
First steps

Isolating lines
sed script files
Automating virtual host creation
Prompting for data during site creation

Summary
Questions
Further reading
10. AWK Fundamentals

Technical requirements
The history behind AWK
Displaying and filtering content from files
AWK variables

User-defined variables
Conditional statements
The if command
while loops

for loops
Formatting output
Further filtering to display users by UID
AWK control files

Built-in functions
Summary
Questions
Further reading

11. Regular Expressions

Technical requirements
Regular expression engines
Defining BRE patterns

Anchor characters
The dot character
 The character class
Ranges of characters

Special character classes

The asterisk
Defining ERE patterns
The question mark

The plus sign

Curly braces
The pipe character
Expression grouping

Using grep
Summary

Questions

Further reading
12. Summarizing Logs with AWK

Technical requirements

The HTTPD log file format

Displaying data from web logs

Selecting entries by date

Summarizing 404 errors

Summarizing HTTP access codes

Resources hits
Identify image hotlinking

Displaying the highest ranking IP address

Displaying the browser data

Working with email logs

Summary
Questions

Further reading

13. A Better lastlog with AWK

Technical requirements

Using AWK ranges to exclude data

The lastlog command

Horizontally filtering rows with AWK

Counting matched rows

Conditions based on the number of fields
 Manipulating the AWK record separator to report on XML data

Apache Virtual Hosts

XML catalog

Summary

Questions
Further reading

14. Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative

Technical requirements

What is Python?

Saying Hello World the Python way

Pythonic arguments

Supplying arguments

Counting arguments
Significant whitespace

Reading user input

Using Python to write to files

String manipulation

Summary
Questions

Further reading

Assessments
Chapter 1

Chapter 2
Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5
Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8
Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11
Chapter 12

Chapter 13
Chapter 14

Other Books You May Enjoy

Leave a review - let other readers know what you think
Preface
First, you'll learn about Linux shells and why we chose the bash
shell. Then, you'll learn how to write a simple bash script and how to
edit your bash script using Linux editors.

Following this, you will learn how to define a variable and the
visibility of a variable. After this, you will learn how to store
command execution output into a variable, which is called command
substitution. Also, you will learn how to debug your code using bash
options and Visual Studio Code. You will learn how to make your
bash script interactive to the user by accepting input from the user
using the read command. Then, you will learn how to read options
and its values if the user passed them to the script. Following this,
you will learn how to write conditional statements such as if
statements and how to use case statements. After this, you will
learn how to create code snippets using vim and Visual Studio Code.
For repetitive tasks, you will see how to write for loops, how to
iterate over simple values, and how to iterate over directory content.
Also, you will learn how to write nested loops. Along with this, you
will write while and until loops. Then, we will move on to functions,
the reusable chunks of code. You will learn how to write functions
and how to use them. After this, you will be introduced to one of the
best tools in Linux, which is Stream Editor. As we are still talking
about text processing, we will introduce AWK, one of the best text
processing tools in Linux that you will ever see.

After this, you will learn how to empower your text processing skills
by writing better regular expressions. Finally, you will be introduced
to Python as an alternative to bash scripting.
Who this book is for
This book targets system administrators and developers who would
like to write a better shell script to automate their work. Some
programming experience is preferable. If you don't have any
background in shell scripting, no problem, the book will discuss
everything from the beginning.
What this book covers
, The What and Why of Scripting with Bash, will introduce
Chapter 1

Linux shells, how to write your first shell script, how to prepare your
editor, how to debug your shell script, and some basic bash
programming, such as declaring variables, variable scope, and
command substitution.

, Creating Interactive Scripts, covers how to read input from

Chapter 2

the user using read command, how to pass options to your script,
how to control the visibility of the entered text, and how to limit the
number of entered characters.

, Conditions Attached, will introduce the

Chapter 3 if statement, the case

statement, and other testing command such as else and elif.

, Creating Code Snippets, covers creating and using code

Chapter 4

snippets using editors, such as vim and Visual Studio Code.

, Alternative Syntax, will discuss advanced testing using

Chapter 5 [[

and how to perform arithmetic operations.

Chapter 6, Iterating with Loops, will teach you how to use for loops,
while loops, and until loops to iterate over simple values and complex

values.

, Creating Building Blocks with Functions, will introduce

Chapter 7

functions and explains how to create a function, list builtin functions,

pass parameters to functions, and writing recursive functions.

, Introducing the Stream Editor, will introduce the basics of

Chapter 8

sed tool to manipulate files, such as adding, replacing deleting, and

transforming text.
 , Automating Apache Virtual Hosts, contains a practical
Chapter 9

example of sed and explains how to create virtual hosts

automatically using sed.

, AWK Fundamentals, will discuss AWK and how to filter file

Chapter 10

content using it. Also, we will discuss some AWK programming

basics.

, Regular Expressions, covers regular expressions, their

Chapter 11

engines, and how to use them with sed and AWK to empower your
script.

Chapter 12, Summarizing Logs with AWK, will show how to process the
httpd.conf Apache log file using AWK and extract useful well-formatted

data.

, A Better lastlog with AWK, will show you how to use AWK
Chapter 13

to output beautiful reports using the lastlog command by filtering

and processing the lastlog output.

, Using Python as a Bash Scripting Alternative, will discuss

Chapter 14

Python programming language basics and explains how to write

some Python scripts as a bash script alternative.
To get the most out of this
book
I assume that you have a little programming background. Even if
you don't have a programming background, the book will start from
the beginning.

You should know some Linux basics such as the basic commands
such as ls, cd, and which.
Download the example code
files
You can download the example code files for this book from your
account at www.packtpub.com. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you
can visit www.packtpub.com/support and register to have the files emailed
directly to you.

You can download the code files by following these steps:

1. Log in or register at www.packtpub.com.

2. Select the SUPPORT tab.
3. Click on Code Downloads & Errata.
4. Enter the name of the book in the Search box and follow the
onscreen instructions.

Once the file is downloaded, please make sure that you unzip or
extract the folder using the latest version of:

WinRAR/7-Zip for Windows

Zipeg/iZip/UnRarX for Mac
7-Zip/PeaZip for Linux

The code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at https://githu
b.com/PacktPublishing/Mastering-Linux-Shell-Scripting-Second-Edition. In case

there's an update to the code, it will be updated on the existing

GitHub repository.

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and
videos available at https://github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!
Download the color images
We also provide a PDF file that has color images of the
screenshots/diagrams used in this book. You can download it from ht

tps://www.packtpub.com/sites/default/files/downloads/MasteringLinuxShellScriptingSec

ondEdition_ColorImages.pdf .
Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

CodeInText: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder

names, filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user
input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example: "Edit your script so
that it reads like the following complete code block
for $HOME/bin/hello2.sh"

A block of code is set as follows:

if [ $file_compression = "L" ] ; then
tar_opt=$tar_l
elif [ $file_compression = "M" ]; then
tar_opt=$tar_m
else
tar_opt=$tar_h
fi

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

$ type ls
ls is aliased to 'ls --color=auto'

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you

see onscreen. For example, words in menus or dialog boxes appear
in the text like this. Here is an example: "Another very useful feature
is found on the Preferences | Plugins tab"
Warnings or important notes appear like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
an eclipse. It is believed that by so doing the woman will bear a child, and
the trees will also bear flowers and fruits.66

At Medhe in the Roha taluka of the Kolába District, the following methods
are in vogue for the cure of barrenness:—

(1) To worship the god Shiva and to observe fasts on Mondays.

(2) To worship the god Ganpati and to observe fasts on Sankasthi chaturthi,
i.e., the fourth day of the dark half of every month.

(3) To walk round the temple of Máruti and Pipal and Umbar trees every
day, in the morning.67

At Padaghe in the Bhiwandi taluka of the Thána District, images of Ráma

and Krishna are put into the lap of a barren woman on their respective
birthdays i.e., the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, and the 8th day of
the dark half of Shráwan. Cocoanuts are also placed in her lap with these
images.68

At Mánikpur in the Thána District the goddess Shitala is worshipped by

women to cure barrenness. They observe fasts, and go to the temple of the
goddess bare-footed with their hair loose and throwing milk on their path.
They offer to the goddess wooden cradles and children’s toys in fulfilment
of their vows.69

At Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District, it is said that the
repetition of the mantra “Santán Gopál jáy” is resorted to as a cure for
barrenness.70

At Wáde in the Thána District, women make vows even to minor deities
such as Chedoba to get rid of barrenness. They also use copper amulets and
cotton strings procured from a sorcerer well versed in the use of mantras.71

At Dahigaon in the Thána District the worship of the god Shri Satya
Náráyan is held to cure barrenness. Some women also distribute to the poor
jágri equal to the weight of a child.72

At Dehari in the Murbád taluka of the Thána District, the village deity
Dehari Máta is invoked and worshipped by women for the cure of
barrenness.73 In the Kolhápur District, the help of the family deities and of
the household deities is invoked. Women take turns round the Banyan,
Pipal and Umbar, trees. Some make vows to the gods, and perform certain
propitiatory rites as well as the Náráyan Nágabali. It is believed that the
children do not live long if a member of the family has killed a snake, or if
the funeral rites of a person in the family have remained unperformed. The
following ceremony is known as Náráyan Nágabali. A snake is made from
the flour of Rála (panie seed), and another made of gold is put into it. It is
then burnt like a dead body. All the ordinary funeral rites are performed.
After performing the eleventh day rites, homa, i.e., sacred fire, is kindled at
night time, and after keeping vigil for the whole night, milk and a dakshana
are given to Bráhmans. A feast is given to eleven Bráhmans on that day. On
the twelfth day sixteen Bráhmans are fed, and on the thirteenth, five
Bráhmans are given a feast, after performing the Shráddha rites. On the
fourteenth day, again, a feast is given to about 100 to 500 Bráhmans
according to the means of the host. It is believed that, after the performance
of these rites, the soul of the deceased reaches heaven, and there is an end to
the troubles and misfortunes of the family.74

1 School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. ↑

2 School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. ↑
3 School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. ↑
4 School Master, Navare, Ratnágiri. ↑
5 School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. ↑
6 School Master, Dabhol, Ratnágiri. ↑
7 School Master, Shiravde, Ratnágiri. ↑
8 School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. ↑
9 School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. ↑
10 School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. ↑
11 School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. ↑
12 School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. ↑
13 School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. ↑
14 School Master, Devgad, Ratnágiri. ↑
15 School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. ↑
16 School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. ↑
17 School Master, Chaul, Kolába. ↑
18 School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. ↑
19 School Master, Nágothane, Kolába. ↑
20 School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. ↑
21 School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. ↑
22 School Master, Málád, Thána. ↑
23 Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. ↑
24 School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. ↑
25 School Master, Shiroda, Ratnágiri. ↑
26 School Master, Sakharane, Ratnágiri. ↑
27 School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. ↑
28 School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. ↑
29 School Master, Chauk, Ratnágiri. ↑
30 School Master, Akshi, Kolába. ↑
31 School Master, Váda, Thána. ↑
32 School Master, Padghe, Thána. ↑
33 School Master, Dahánu, Thána. ↑
34 School Master, Umbergaon, Thána. ↑
35 School Master, Shirosi, Thána. ↑
36 School Master, Mánikpur, Thána. ↑
37 School Master, Umela, Thána. ↑
38 Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. ↑
39 School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. ↑
40 School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. ↑
41 School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. ↑
42 School Master, Murud, Ratnágiri. ↑
43 School Master, Devagad, Ratnágiri. ↑
44 School Master, Vijaydurg, Ratnágir. ↑
45 School Master, Chauk, Kolába. ↑
46 School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. ↑
47 School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. ↑
48 School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. ↑
49 School Master, Chowl, Kolába. ↑
50 School Master, Akshi, Kolába. ↑
51 School Master, Bhuwan, Thána. ↑
52 School Master, Málád, Thána. ↑
53 School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. ↑
54 School Master, Shirosi, Thána. ↑
55 Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. ↑
56 School Master, Dábhol, Ratnágiri. ↑
57 School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. ↑
58 School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. ↑
59 School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. ↑
60 School Master, Achre, Ratnágiri. ↑
61 School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. ↑
62 School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri: ↑
63 School Master, Chauk, Kolába. ↑
64 School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. ↑
65 School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. ↑
66 School Master, Náta, Kolába. ↑
67 School Master, Medhe, Kolába. ↑
68 School Master, Padaghe, Thána. ↑
69 School Master, Mánikpur, Thána. ↑
70 School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. ↑
71 School Master, Wáde, Thána. ↑
72 School Master, Dahigaon, Thána. ↑
73 School Master, Dehari, Thána. ↑
74 Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. ↑
CHAPTER V.
 THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
At Ubhádánda in the Ratnágiri District the following dreams are believed to
be lucky and propitious. To swim through the river or sea, to rise to the sky,
to see the Sun, the Moon and the other planets, to eat meat, to bathe in
blood, and to eat rice and curds. It is also believed that the sight of white
objects in dreams foretells success in any work or undertaking that may be
in view. A deity, a Bráhman, a king, a married woman decked with
ornaments, a bullock, a mountain, trees full of fruits, climbing the Umber
tree, a looking glass, meat and flowers, if seen in dreams, are good omens.
Climbing the Palas tree, Warul, i.e., an ant heap, the bitter lime tree, to
marry, to use red clothes or red flower garlands, to eat cooked meat, to see
the sun and the moon without lustre, and to see shooting stars during
dreams, are said to be bad omens.1

At Mithbáv in the Devgad taluka of the Ratnágiri District dreams are

believed to be caused by indigestion and restlessness. To embrace a dead
body in a dream, to see troubled waters, to dine heartily, are said to be bad
omens. Feasting friends and receiving gifts from them are said to be good
omens.2

At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District dreams are said to indicate things that
have happened, or are about to happen in the near future. All white
substances other than cotton, salt, and bones, are considered auspicious, and
all black substances excepting a lotus, a horse, an elephant, and a deity are
considered inauspicious.3

At Ibrámpur in the Chiplun taluka, horrible dreams are good omens, while
pleasing dreams indicate approaching calamities.4

At Pendur in the Ratnágiri District it is believed that dreams foretell future

events. It is believed that the dream will prove correct and effective if the
person dreaming has asked three questions and received three answers in
his dream. Those dreams which are caused through cold are called Jalap.
They are generally false dreams, and no good omens are derived
therefrom.5

At Basani in the Ratnágiri District it is believed that the ancestors who take
interest in the welfare of their descendants appear in dreams and foretell
future events, so that the dreaming person may take the needful precautions
for the prevention of future calamities.6

At Kálshe in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District it is believed that

dreams in the last part of the night, i.e., just before daybreak, and in which
great men are seen, generally prove effective. If anybody sees himself
married in a dream it is supposed that he will hear of the death of some
relative.7

At Chauk in the Kolába District it is believed that, when calamities are

threatened, the guardian deity of the family as well as the dead ancestors
appear in dreams and give warnings of the coming calamities.8

The people of Poladpur in the Kolába District believe in dreams; and when
some of their deities appear in dreams and give them advice or directions,
they are careful to follow them. Sometimes even evil spirits appear in
dreams, and advise the people to do certain things to avert calamities.
People who have faith in such spirits act according to their wishes, and if
they fail to do so, trouble is sure to follow.9

The people of Khopoli in the Kolába District believe that if a person sees in
a dream, the dead body of a near relative, it indicates that the person whose
corpse was seen in the dream will live long.10

At Birwadi in the Kolába District it is believed that if a person sees a snake

in a dream, a son will be born to him; if he sees a hell, he is sure to get
wealth. If he sees gold, it is a sure sign of losing wealth. Again, if a person
sees himself taking his meals in a dream, it indicates that his death is nigh at
hand.11
At Málád in the Thána District, omens are derived from dreams. In case of
bad dreams the god Vishnu is remembered, and the gods Shankar and
Máruti are also worshipped.12

At Belápur, wood, cowdung cakes and turbid water, if seen in dreams,

foretell calamities. White clothes, beautiful flowers, and food containing
sweetmeat are considered auspicious.13

At Murbád in the Thána District it is believed that all black things, and
white things such as ashes, are inauspicious when seen in dreams, but a
black cow, white flowers, and pearls are auspicious. Considering the four
parts of the night, the dreams that occur in the first part prove effective
within one year, that of the second part within six months, that of the third
within three months, and of the fourth within one month, and those caused
at daybreak are realized immediately.14

At Kolhápur, dreams are believed to be caused through some mental

derangement or bodily disorder. It is customary to derive omens from
dreams, but their nature greatly depends upon the different times at which
these dreams occur. The dreams caused in the latter part of the night, i.e.
just before daybreak, are believed to come true.15

At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka it is believed that the soul of a person

leaves the body temporarily during his sleep; hence it is said that no
changes or marks of colour, etc. should be made on the body of a person
during sleep, because it is believed that, while returning, the soul identifies
the body, and if it is satisfied with the marks of the body it enters it;
otherwise it might not return.16

At Adivare it is believed that only Hindu saints and ascetics, after deep and
devout meditation, are capable of removing the soul from the body. It is
believed that their souls go to heaven during that period and return at
pleasure. At present there are no such sádhus in the district.17

Many Hindus in the Ratnágiri District believe that the soul goes to drink
water at night, and therefore keep a pot filled with water at their sleeping
place.18

The people of Chaul in the Kolába District do not consider it possible

ordinarily for the soul to leave the body, but they state that the Swámi of
Alandi, who died in or about the year 1886, used to remove his soul from
the body by means of Yoga.19

At Kolhápur, it is believed that the soul leaves the body temporarily at night
when a person is asleep.20

At Bankavali in the Dápoli taluka, it is believed that ghosts or evil spirits

have the form of a human being, but their feet are turned backwards. They
can assume any form they choose. Their character is ordinarily to trouble
the people, but when satisfied they are said to prove friendly. The following
story is narrated of a person who went to reside in one of the villages of the
Konkan. His wife was first attacked by a ghost called Girha. The Girha
troubled him much by playing mischief in his house, viz.: by taking away
eatables or by mixing dirt in his food. At night he used to divest the couple
of their clothes, and on one occasion an ornament was removed by the spirit
from the person of the wife. Tired of these annoyances, the man left the
village and went to reside at a distance, when, to the astonishment of the
public, it happened that the ornament which was lost at the old village was
restored to the man’s wife while she was asleep in the new village, and
nobody knew who brought it there. All this was believed to be the work of
the Girha.21

At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka people believe that a Bhut is fierce in

aspect and very troublesome, but when its wishes are complied with, it
becomes harmless. The Bhuts reside in jungles, burial or cremation
grounds, old trees, sacred groves and deserted houses. They assume all sorts
of shapes and forms. Sometimes they appear very tall, and they can
instantly assume the shape of a dog, a cat, a tiger, or any other animal.
Some ghosts are even seen fishing on the banks of rivers.22

At Mithbáv in the Devgad taluka it is believed that the souls of those who
die with their wishes unfulfilled take the form of a Bhut. They enter the
bodies of people. Any woman who is attacked by the Bhut of a Pir becomes
able to speak in the Hindi language although it may not be her mother
tongue. When a child or a person is suffering from the attacks of a spirit,
incense is burnt, and it at once begins to tell the whereabouts of the spirit
and the reason why the person has been attacked. He is then asked to state
what he wants, and when the things which the spirit wants are offered, it
goes away.23 Spirits are generally invisible.

The spirits that belong to the class of malignant Bhuts are of a ferocious
appearance; but those that belong to the class of friendly Bhuts possess
bodies like human beings.24

At Náringre in the Devgad taluka, it is believed that spirits are cruel by

nature and have no shadow, that they are capable of taking any form they
like, and can perform miracles.25 At Pendur it is believed that Bhuts eat
chillies, and that they do not speak with human beings. Spirits are said to
remove and conceal their victims for a certain period of time.26 At
Vijayadurg, a Bhut is considered to be of mean character. People perform
certain rites to bring it under subjection. Their actions are always contrary
to nature. When a person begins to cry, dance, to eat forbidden things etc.
he is said to be attacked by a Bhut. When there is enmity between two
persons, the one who dies first becomes a sambandh and troubles his living
enemy.27 At Basani, there is a belief that there are two kinds of spirits.
Some aim at the welfare of the people, and others are always troublesome.
As they have no regular form they cannot easily be recognised. They can
change their forms at any time.28

The character of a Bhut is to trouble people and to take revenge on an old

enemy. A person attacked by a spirit speaks incoherently and acts like a
mad man. In such cases the leaves of the herb satáp are used. The leaves are
pounded and put under the patient’s nose. In a few minutes, the person who
is possessed by the spirit begins to speak.29

The people of Chauk in the Kolába District believe that the main function
of a Bhut is to frighten people, to beat them, and to make them perform
unpleasant tasks and thereby to obtain food from them.30 At Poládpur it is
believed that if a person is able to bring a Bhut under his control he can
make it do every kind of work for himself.31 The people of Akshi believe
that kindling fire without any reason and throwing stones at certain houses
are the main functions of Bhuts.32 At Vávashi in the Pen taluka, it is
believed that Bhuts, while walking, never touch the earth but always move
through the air, and that they have no shadow.33 The old men of Shirgaum
in the Máhim taluka advise young children not to respond to the call of
anybody at night unless the person calling is an acquaintance. For such calls
are sometimes those of an evil spirit.34

In the Kolhápur District, it is believed that the character of a Bhut is like

that of a human being. When a person is attacked by a spirit, a great change
is observed in his language and actions. He begins to speak in the language
of the Bhut by which he is attacked. If the ghost is of the female sex, the
person speaks the language of females. It is believed that the souls of those
who have been murdered or tortured assume the form of a spirit known as
Sambandh, and trouble the murderer or the torturer, by entering his body. It
is said that in some cases the spirit does not leave the body of such a person
till he dies, thus exacting revenge for his past misdeeds.35 In Khopoli in
Ratnágiri it is said that the cow which is given to a Bráhman while
performing the funeral rites of a dead person helps him to reach heaven. He
gets there by catching hold of her tail. There are three paths to the other
world. They are Bhaktimárga, Karmamárga, and Yogamárga. The
Karmamárga is believed to be superior to all.36 At Málád, a belief prevails
that the path to the other world is through the Himálayas. While going
through the mountains of the Himálayas, souls find happiness or sorrow
according to their actions in life-time. The people also believe that the soul
returns every month on the date of the man’s death to accept Kágvás, i.e.,
cooked food given to the manes, and reaches heaven at the end of one
year.37 At Dahigaon in the Murbád taluka, it is customary among the
Hindus to smear with cow dung the place from which a dead body has been
removed to the burning ground. The place is then covered with rice flour,
and is hidden under a basket, an oil-lamp being kept, burning near by. The
persons who accompany the corpse return home to look at the lamp, and it
is believed that the soul of the deceased will pass to any creature or species
of which footprints are seen on the rice flour.38

At Kolhápur it is believed that the soul of a person after death attains that
state to which he aspires at the last moment before his death. Virtuous
persons who die without any desire reach heaven and remain there in the
form of the stars, where they are believed to enjoy the happiness of heaven.
Some of them are sent to this world when they wish to return. Sinners are
said to reach hell in consequence of their misdeeds, but some remain in this
world in the form of Bhuts.39

The people of Achare in the Málwan taluka believe that the souls of persons
who die by accident return to the same caste, and have to remain there till
the expiry of an appointed period.40

The people of Chauk believe that persons dying a sudden or violent death
leave wishes unfulfilled, and are therefore compelled to remain in this
world in the form of Bhuts.41

At Rái in the Sálsette taluka it is believed that the souls of those dying a
sudden or violent death attain salvation according to their deeds in lifetime,
but it is a current belief that those committing suicide take the form of a
ghost, and those who die on battlefields attain eternal salvation.42

At Kolhápur, it is believed that the souls of those who die violent deaths do
not attain salvation, but are turned into ghosts.43

The people of Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka believe that Bhuts do not
possess visible human forms. They can assume any shapes they like, but
there is a common belief that the hands and feet of Bhuts are always turned
backwards.44

The most favourable times for spirits to enter human bodies are midday,
midnight and twilight.45 Women in delivery as well as those in their menses
are most liable to be attacked by spirits.46 It is generally believed that
persons adorned with ornaments are attacked by spirits, especially in cases
of women and children. Again, a common belief prevails in the Konkan that
persons, and particularly ladies, decked with flowers and ornaments are
more liable to be attacked by spirits than others.47 The people of Fonda are
of opinion that spirits generally enter and leave human bodies through the
organ of hearing, while the people of Náringre hold that the hair is the best
way for spirits to enter.48 The residents of Ibrámpur state that the mouth and
the nose are the favourite channels for spirits entering human bodies.49 At
Mithbáv it is believed that spirits attack people in the throat, and generally
only those persons who are uncleanly in their habits are liable to be
attacked. There are no special ways for entering human bodies.50 At Chaul
a belief prevails that spirits enter the body when a person is suffering from
any disease or when he is frightened.51

In the Konkan, people attempt to find good or bad omens in sneezing. It

depends upon the time and the position or standing of the person who
sneezes. If a sick person sneezes it is presumed that he will recover from his
illness within a very short period, but if the sneezing is caused by the use of
tobacco or snuff, no good or bad omens are drawn.52 Sneezing at the time
of conversation or when contemplating any particular task or business is
held to be inauspicious. Hence if anybody sneezes at the beginning of a
task, or at the time of starting out on any such task, the time is
unfavourable. Yawning is said to be caused by a relative or friend
remembering the person who yawns.53 In ancient times happiness and
calamities were foretold by a voice from the sky, and in modern days they
are expressed by sneezing. People have much faith in sneezing, and often
inquire whether it is a good or bad omen to sneeze at the beginning of any
work or undertaking.54

If a man sneezes with his face towards the west, it is considered auspicious.
If a man sneezes while contemplating any task or business, the sneezing is
considered inauspicious. Sneezing at the time of taking food i.e. while at
meals, while sleeping, and while sitting on a praying carpet is considered
auspicious. Sneezing with one’s face turned towards the north, the south,
and the east is also unlucky.55
In the case of Bhagats and exorcists yawning is considered to indicate that
the disease will disappear.56

In the Konkan it is believed that sneezing and yawning indicate the call of
death, and therefore it is customary among the Hindus to snap the thumb
and the middle finger at the time of yawning, and to repeat the words
Shatanjiva i.e. Live for hundred years, at the time of sneezing.57 Sneezing
on a threshold is believed to forebode evil.58

At Kolhápur, people believe that sneezing and yawning forebode evil, and
the practice is to repeat the following words at the time of sneezing and
yawning, viz, Shatanjiva i.e. Live a hundred years, and also to repeat the
name of Rám, while snapping the thumb and finger (chutaki). In the case of
a person suffering from a serious illness, sneezing is supposed to indicate a
cure. If a woman sneezes while a man speaks, it is lucky, and if a man
sneezes it is unlucky. The reverse is the case in respect of females.59

In the Konkan, Rákshasas, or malevolent spirits, are believed to be very

cruel. These evil spirits are held in great fear, and people try to avoid giving
them offence. It is supposed that to cause displeasure to these demons may
bring about death. With a view to propitiate them, offerings of cocks and
goats are made to them every year regularly on fixed days.60 If a woman
gives birth to a child which is extraordinary or horrible in size and
appearance, it is believed to be a demon reborn. Such a child is supposed to
bring bad luck to the family.61 The Konkan people believe that in former
days Rákshasas, or malevolent demons, used to be tall, ugly, black, with
long and loose hair, big teeth, and with their foreheads painted with red
lead, or shendur. They could assume any form they liked, were powerful,
and could fly in the air. They were fond of human flesh.62 The people of
Khopoli believe that Khavis is the ghost of an African Sidhi. This spirit is
very malevolent, and exorcists find it very difficult to bring it under control.
A strong belief prevails in the Konkan districts that those attacked by the
spirits of non-Hindus are beyond cure.63
According to the belief of the people in the Kolhápur District, Brahma
Rákshasa is one of the most powerful spirits. It takes up its abode in the
sacred Pipal tree, and when it attacks a person, little hope is entertained of
his delivery from its grasp.64

The following are the principal malignant spirits of the Konkan.

(1) Vetál, (2) Brahmagraha, (3) Sambandhas, (4) Devachár, (5) Munja, (6)
Khavis, (7) Girha, (8) Chetak, (9) Zoting, (10) Vir, (11) Cheda, (12)
Mhasoba, (13) Jákhin or Alwant, (14) Lávsant, and (15) Hadal.

(1) Vetál is believed to be the King of Spirits.65 Vetál is considered to be a

deity and not an evil spirit. It enters into the body of an exorcist and helps
him to drive away other evil spirits.66

(2) Brahmagraha is the ghost of a Bráhman well versed in the Vedas, but
who is over proud of his education.67

(3) Sambandha is the spirit of a person who dies without an heir, and whose
funeral rites have not been performed by any member of his family. It
troubles the members of the family, but when invoked through a Bhagat it
becomes harmless, and even favourable to the family.68 It is the spirit of a
covetous person or a sanyási who dies with his desires unfulfilled.69 It does
not allow anybody to enjoy his wealth, and takes revenge on an enemy till
death ensues. It haunts trees, wells and unoccupied houses.70

(4) Devachár is the spirit of a Shudra who dies after his marriage.71 These
(Devachár) spirits are said to reside on the four sides of a village. The
spirits which reside in burial or cremation grounds, on river banks, and in
old trees are said to be subordinate to these. Cocoanuts, plantains, sugar,
cocks and goats must be given annually to gain their favour.72

(5) Munja is the spirit of a Bráhman boy who dies immediately after his
thread ceremony, but before the final ceremony called Sod-munj is
complete. It does not greatly affect its victim but simply frightens. When it
attacks, it is difficult to drive out. It is cast out only when the patient makes
a pilgrimage to a holy shrine.73 It resides in a Pipal tree or in a well.

(6) Khavis is the spirit of a Musalmán or a non-Hindu.74 It is also the spirit

of a Mahár or a Máng.75

(7) Girha is the ghost of a person who dies by drowning, or of a murdered

person.76 Girha is not very powerful, and obeys the orders of the exorcists.
It only frightens and troubles people.77 It lives by the water side, and
deceives persons at night by calling them by their names and leading them
into false paths. It often troubles people while crossing rivers or creeks at
night, and leads them to places where the water is very deep. It is said that
the spirit Girha becomes the regular slave of a person who takes possession
of the hair of its head, and gives him anything that he requires. It requests
the person to return its hair, but this should not be given under any
circumstances. For, if the Girha gets back its hair all sorts of misfortunes
will befall the man.78

(8) Chetak is the ghost of a person of the Kunbi or Shudra caste.79 This
spirit is also known as Dáv.

(9) Zoting is the ghost of a man belonging to the Khárvi or Koli caste.80 It
is also said to be the ghost of a Musalmán.81

(10) Vir is the ghost of an unmarried person belonging to the Kshatriya

community.82 It is also said to be the ghost of a Rajput or a Purbhaya
(Pardeshi.)

(11) Cheda is the ghost of an unmarried Mahár. It resides on mountains, in

jungles, and the outskirts of the village.83 Cheda attacks domestic animals.
It haunts fields and farms, and resides at public places where the Holi fires
are annually kindled. To avoid being troubled by it, people offer annual
sacrifices of fowls and goats.84

(12) Mhasoba is the lord of the ghosts, and is equal in might to Vetál.85
(13) Jákhin or Alwant. Jákhin is the ghost of a woman who has a husband
alive. Alwant is believed to be the spirit of a woman dying at childbirth or
during her menses. It resides at burial or cremation grounds. Persons
attacked by this spirit are taken to Narsoba’s Wádi or Gángápur, which are
celebrated as shrines for the removal of malignant spirits.86

(14) Lávsat is the ghost of a widow. It generally resides in burial and

burning grounds, and attacks domestic animals and their calves. It is also
said to tear clothes and eat corpses.87

(15) Hadal or Hedali is the ghost of a woman who dies within ten days of
childbirth or during her menses. It is supposed to be an evil spirit, but it can
be kept in check by the use of a cane. It attacks all sorts of persons, but
leaves them as soon as it is beaten.88

This spirit is also known as Dákan in the Kolhápur district.89 Satavi is the
ghost of a woman. It troubles women in childbirth, and kills their children
on the 5th or 6th day after their birth.90 Shákini is the ghost of an unmarried
girl. Talkhámba is the ghost of an unmarried Shudra or a person from the
low castes.91 The people of Vijayadurg believe that one who hates and
troubles the Bráhmans and speaks ill of their religious duties becomes a
Brahma Sambandha after death.92 At Poládpur in the Kolába District the
ghost Bápa is represented by a stone painted with red lead and oil and
placed at the boundary of a field. It is the guardian of the field, and protects
the owners’ interests. Offerings are made to it annually. If the annual
offerings are neglected, it troubles the owner of the field. It also troubles
others when disturbed.93

The spirits known as Kálkáiche Bhut and Bahirobáche Bhut are not
troublesome. When they favour any person, he enjoys health and happiness
for a period of twelve years. But after that period he is ruined.94 In addition
to the varieties of malignant spirits already described, the following spirits
are known at Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District. They are
—Hirwa, Wághoba, Asarás, Gángud, Saitán and Chaitannadya. The spirit
known as Hirwa requires the offerings of a bow and an arrow, bháng, bájri
bread, and a chatni of garlic. The Wághoba haunts jungles and troubles
domestic animals. Cocoanuts and lamps of ghi are offered to it. Asarás are
the deities that dwell in water. They infest the wells and ponds, and attack
women and children at noon time and in the evening. Red lead, cocoanuts,
flowers, parched rice (láhya) and nádápudi are given to them.95

At Ibrámpur in the Ratnágiri District it is said that the evil spirit Zoting
goes about headless.96

The people of Medhe in the Rohe taluka believe that the spirit known as
Girha, which resides in water, goes about headless.97

At Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka it is believed that the spirit Hirwa goes
about headless. It troubles human beings and animals. The sea and the
jungle are its places of abode. To avoid being troubled by it, bháng,
cocoanuts, fowls are given to it.98

The people of Dahigaon in the Murbád taluka believe that the Bhut known
as Peesa goes about headless.99

Some evil spirits haunt trees such as the Pipal, Bábhul and Adulsa. Some
have their haunts on a public road where three streets meet, or in a dirty
place, some haunt old houses, and the rest prefer to reside in burial and
burning grounds.100

Many spirits dwell in burial or cremation grounds. Among them are Vetál,
Jákhin, Khavis, Kháprya, Zoting, Dáv, Girha, Alavat and Lávsat.101

The spirits Munja and Sambandh are said to reside near houses and old
trees that produce sweet smelling flowers. The spirits Devchár and Chálegat
are said to reside at the four corners or the boundary of a village.102

It is believed that all kinds of spirits assemble at night at the funeral ground
when a body is burnt or buried.103
The evil spirits known as Khavis, Zoting and Kafri are said to dwell on
mountains and in jungles; while the others named Sambandha, Jákhin,
Hadal and Lávsat are said to reside on trees.104

Munja resides in the Pipal tree. Sambandha dwells in the Banyan, Pipal
and Umbar trees. It is supposed to be a guardian of buried treasure.105

At Murbád in the Thána District, it is believed that an evil spirit known as

Hadal infests the tamarind trees.106

In the Kolhápur District it is believed that the ghosts of persons dying on

battlefields infest mountains and jungles, and the evil spirit known as
Sambandh infests trees.107

Generally in the Konkan, and specially in the Ratnágiri District, young

mothers and their children are supposed to be liable to the attacks of the
spirits Satávi, Avagat, Alavant, Jákhin, Devchár and Chálegat.108

At Khopoli in the Kolába District it is believed that a young mother and her
child are generally attacked by the spirit of the dead wife of her husband, or
by a Hadal or Lávsat. The spirit that attacks a woman during her childbirth
is difficult to drive out. The spirits are always afraid of cleanliness, and
therefore, where there is cleanliness, there is very little fear of their
attacks.109

The people of Shirgaon believe that the fiend known as Hedli attacks a
young mother and her child. The Bhutya, or the sorcerer, makes use of his
cane and of the dirty incense known as Nurkya Uda, and compels her to
speak and to ask for what she wants. Sometimes she speaks and asks for the
things required. Boiled rice and curds, and oil with red lead are given to her.
When she leaves the body, the person becomes insensible for a short
time.110

The fiend known as Hadal, and other evil spirits of the female sex,
generally attack a young mother and her child. They are generally attacked
by these fiends on a public cross road where three roads meet, or under a
Bábhul tree, and also at wells.111

At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka it is believed that those who are killed
by tigers or other wild beasts are born as kings in the next generation.112 On
the other hand the people of Bankavli are of opinion that those who suffer
death at the hands of tigers and other wild beasts are turned into spirits. The
spirit of a person killed by a tiger is called Vághvir.113

At Achare it is believed that persons killed by lions and tigers attain

salvation, while those killed by inferior beasts go to hell.114

The people of Ibrámpur believe that unmarried persons killed by tigers or

other wild beasts take the form of a ghost. Males become Girhas and
females become Jákhins and Lávsats.115

At Pendur it is believed that persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts
become Brahma Rákshasa. The same form is assumed by those who die by
accident. A murdered man becomes a Devachár.116

In the District of Kolhápur a belief prevails that the spirits of those killed by
tigers or other wild beasts assume the form of ghosts. It is also believed that
persons who die before they are married do not attain salvation, and
therefore it is considered inauspicious among the Hindus to remain
unmarried. This is the real reason why the majority of the Hindus marry
their children at an early age.117

The ghost of a woman dying in childbirth or during her menses assumes the
form of Alwant. For the purpose of preventing the dead woman turning into
a ghost the following device is adopted. The corpse, instead of being burnt
as usual, is buried underground, and four iron nails are fixed at the four
corners of the spot on which the body is buried, and plants bearing red
flowers are planted thereon.118

At Bankavli it is believed that the ghost of a woman dying in childbirth or

during her menses assumes the form of Jákhin, while the people of the
Kolhápur District believe that it assumes the form of Hadal.119

The special precautions that a father has to take at the birth of a child are:—

To arrange for a suitable place or a room provided with the materials

required for the occasion, and to ensure the correct moment for the birth of
the child. No person other than a midwife is allowed to enter the room for
the first ten days. A pot is kept filled with water and a twig of the nim tree in
the entrance of the house, and all persons entering the house have to wash
their feet with this water.

A knife or some other sharp weapon is kept under the bed of the woman in
order that the mother and her child may not be attacked by a spirit.120

The chief reason for ensuring the correct moment for the birth is that, if the
birth takes place at an unlucky hour, special rites are necessary for averting
the evil effects. These rites consist in the recitation of certain holy mantras
and in giving presents of money, sessamum, jágri, clarified butter, etc., to
the Bráhmans and alms to the poor.121

At Medhe in the Rohe taluka, it is customary for the father to throw a stone
in a well, a pond, or a river at the birth of his son, and then to look at the
face of the child.122

An owl is considered to be a bird of such evil repute that, in all parts of the
Konkan, it is considered necessary to perform expiatory rites when an owl
perches on the roof. If these rites are not performed, it is firmly believed
that some evil will befall the members of the family. Various omens are
drawn from the cries of the bird Pingla, and these cries are known as Kilbil,
Chilbil and Khit Khit.123

If an owl sits on the roof of a house, it is a sure sign of coming death to a

member of the family.124

At Devgad in the Ratnágiri District the sound of a bat or an owl is

considered inauspicious, and indicates the death of a sick person in the
house.125

At Chauk an owl is said to have some connection with spirits. Its sound at
night indicates the approaching death of a sick person in the house. One
variety of the owl called the pingla is supposed to foretell future events by
its movements and cries, while the bat is considered an inauspicious bird,
and its appearance forebodes coming evil.126

At Umbergaon people do not throw stones at an owl. For it is considered

that the owl might sit and rub the stone, and that the person throwing it will
become weak and wasted as the stone wears away.127

The people of Kolhápur do not believe that there is any connection between
the bat or owl and the spirits of the dead, but they believe that, if an owl
cries out in the evening or at night, it indicates the death of a sick person in
the family. This applies also to the sound of a single pingla, but the sound
of a pair of pinglas is considered auspicious.128

It is generally believed that old unoccupied houses are haunted by evil

spirits. Persons who wish to inhabit such houses first perform the Vástu
shánti ceremony, and give a feast to Bráhmans. In former times, in the
districts that were ruled by the Portuguese, religious persecution prevailed.
To escape from these persecutions, people were compelled to leave their
houses unprotected. Before leaving their houses, they used to bury their
treasure in the ground, and on that spot a human being or an animal was
sacrificed in order that the spirit of the dead should hover about the place,
and prevent strangers from coming.129

The evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried treasures and old forts
are known as Mahápurush, Khavis, Brahma Rákshasa and Sambandh.130

If there be any buried treasure in an old unoccupied house, the owner of the
treasure remains there in the form of a ghost. If the treasure be near the
temple of a deity, it is supposed to be under the guardianship of that
deity.131
At Vijayadurg it is believed that a person who builds a house in the days of
his prosperity and does not survive to enjoy it, becomes a Sambandh. He
remains in that house in the form of a ghost, and troubles every one who
comes to stay there, excepting the members of his family. A man who buries
his treasure underground becomes a ghost after death, comes back to watch
his treasure, and troubles those who try to remove it.132

Unoccupied houses are generally haunted by evil spirits. At certain forts in

the Konkan where battles were fought, the souls of those slain in the battles
are said to have assumed the forms of spirits, and to keep a watch over the
forts.133

In the Kolhápur District there is a village Nigve beyond the river Panch
Ganga at a distance of three miles from Kolhápur, where the soul of a
person named Appáji Kulkarni has assumed the form of a Sambandh and
guards the buried treasures in his house. When anybody tries to dig up the
buried money, the ghost enters the body of his daughter-in-law and begins
to dance and cry out loudly, and does not allow any one to touch his
treasure. It is also said that he strikes the ground with his stick at night.
Another similar instance is cited in the case of the village of Latvade in the
Shirol Peta, where Bápujipant Kulkarni continues to guard his house after
death. He does not allow anybody to live in the house, and if any one is
bold enough to sleep there at night, the spirit of Bápuji appears and throws
him out of the house. The house is therefore uninhabited at present. His
wife has adopted a son, but he has to live in another village, Vadange.134

1 School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. ↑

2 School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. ↑
3 School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. ↑
4 School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. ↑
5 School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. ↑
6 School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. ↑
7 School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. ↑
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com