Example test [146 marks]

1. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.101

A thermometer and an electrical heater are inserted into small holes in a solid aluminium block.

The heater is turned on at time t = 0. The graph shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block
with time t.

(a.i) On the graph, draw the line of best-fit for the data.
[1] 

Markscheme

smooth curve through all error bars ✔

 Curve can start at t = 0.5 min or before.

Examiners report

Most students scored here easily drawing a curve either from t = 0.5 min or starting the curve at t = 0.
Students who chose to draw a straight line showed in most cases that they interpreted "best fit line"
as straight, as then estimated the initial temperature trying to follow the fit of the curve instead of
their own y-intercept. Smooth correct curves were seen in most cases.

(a.ii) Estimate the initial temperature of the block.

[1] 

Markscheme

17 (±1.5) «°C» ✔

If candidates did not score in a) i) but showed a y-intercept, allow ECF from their graph.

Examiners report

The range accepted was quite generous and specifically did not allow 15ºC, not to award a mark to
those who forced the curve to go through a point that they may have confused with the origin.

(b) Suggest why the temperature of the block approaches a constant value.
[2] 

Markscheme

there are heat losses OR

block radiates/loses thermal energy ✔

at a rate that equals the power of the heater ✔

Do not accept any reference to thermal equilibrium, unless clearly explained as the balance between energy coming in and out of the block.

Examiners report
 Even though about half the students succeeded here and realized that the power was equal to the
rate of heat loss, it was surprising to see a number of students who discussed the melting process,
although the temperature of the aluminium block was 30ºC. It constitutes a good example of
students who seem to try to regurgitate their knowledge (phase changes occur at constant
temperature) instead of carefully reading the question and interpreting the situation.

(c) When the temperature has reached a constant value the heater is turned off. The graph
shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block with time t.

Show that the initial rate of change of the temperature of the block is approximately
−4.0 K min−1. [2] 
 Markscheme

evidence of tangent line at t=0

OR
use of the curve in its initial part of up to 0.75 min ✔

correct slope calculation ✔

Ignore the sign.

For MP2, allow the use of any two points on the curve other than the ones indicated above, for [1] max.

Examiners report

As the cooling curve given was close to straight in its initial section, most students scored full marks
by calculating the gradient using data up to t = 0.75 min, which was allowed in the markscheme
(MS) as it was a method used very often. The strongest students managed to draw the tangent line at
t = 0 and use that line to calculate the initial rate of cooling.

(d) The power of the heater is 52 W. The mass of the block is 0.85 kg. Determine the specific
heat capacity of aluminium. [2] 

Markscheme

52 = 0.85 × c × 4 ✔

Converts to seconds to get

c = «917.6 =» 920 «J kg−1 K−1» ✔

Allow ECF from c)

 Allow [1] max for a calculation as in MP1 using a different but consistent set of values, i.e., a T difference in the heating process that
corresponds to a thermal energy provided for that difference.

Examiners report

A large variety of calculations were seen here. The most common mistake was not to convert to
seconds. Students who did not understand the cooling curve given managed to score one mark by
choosing a temperature heating change consistent with the time used, allowed by the MS to
discriminate from those students who just did not understand the situation at all.

(e) The percentage uncertainty in the rate of change in (c) is 4 %. The percentage
uncertainty in the power of the heater is 3 % and that in the mass of the block is 1 %.

(e.i) Estimate the absolute uncertainty in the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
[2] 

Markscheme

percentage uncertainty in c is 8 % ✔
−1 −1
Δc = 917.6×0.08 = 73 « J kg K »

Allow ECF from d) for MP1, if candidates did not use the rate of cooling, accepting either 8 % or 4 %.
Allow ECF from (d) for MP2.
Allow ECF from MP1.

Examiners report

A majority of students scored the first marking point (MP) by adding the percentage uncertainties,
however a surprising number of students did either algebraic mistakes reaching 7% or applied the
percentage individually to different values. Most students ended up scoring MP2, either correctly or
by error carried forward (ECF).
 (e.ii) Write down the value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium, its uncertainty and its
unit. Give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. [1] 

Markscheme

c = (9.2±0.7)×102 J kg−1 K−1

Accept 1 or 2 significant figures for c with a 1 s.f. uncertainty OR 3 s.f. for c with a 2 s.f. uncertainty, i.e., consistent expressions.
Allow ECF from d) and e) i).
Accept an alternative unit, e.g. in g or in °C.

Examiners report

Students struggled to put all the requirements here together, i.e. correct number of significant figures
for the value with a rounded uncertainty matching the precision of the value. Those who did usually
scored as they did not experience problems communicating the right unit.

2. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.109

A monatomic ideal gas is trapped in a cylinder by a piston. The following data are available.

Initial pressure of gas = 1.00 × 105 Pa

Initial temperature = 712 K
Quantity of gas = 6.00 × 10−4 mol
The gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion to a volume of 8.00 × 10−5 m3.
(a.i) Determine the pressure of the gas after the adiabatic expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme

−4

V= 6.00×10 ×8.31×712
5
«=3.55×10−5 m3 » ✔
1.00×10

quotes p1V15/3=p2V25/3 or pV5/3 = constant with at least one substitution correct ✔

5
5 −5 3
1×10 ×(3.55×10 )
p=« 5
» = 25800 Pa ✔
−5 3
(8×10 )

Award [3] for a BCA

Examiners report

Only the best students succeeded here throughout the whole question. The difficulties appeared at
the beginning, as they needed to use the ideal gas law to determine the initial volume to then apply
the adiabatic expression to get the pressure. Those who succeeded here were then able to move
forward, and a few excellent full answers were seen. However, the question was answered with
different errors and some students managed to score by ECF in certain cases.

(a.ii) Determine the work done by the gas during the expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme
 −5
25800×8×10
T = −4
OR T = 414 «K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

Q=0 OR W=−ΔU ✔

W = « 32 nRΔT = −
3

2
× 6 × 10
−4
× 8. 31 × (414 − 712) = »2. 23 «J» ✔

MP2 seen or implied in MP3.

Ignore sign

Award [3] for a BCA

(b) The gas then undergoes an isobaric compression until its volume is equal to the initial
volume.

(b.i) Calculate the energy removed in this isobaric compression.

[3] 

Markscheme

ALTERNATIVE 1
Q = pΔV +
3

2
pΔV =
5

2
pΔV ✔
Q =
5

2
× 25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10
−5
✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2
−5
25800×3.55×10
T = −4
OR 184 « K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

Q = «W + ΔU = »25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10−5 + 3

2
× 6 × 10
−4
× 8. 31 × (184 − 414)

✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

MP1 seen or implied in MP2.

Ignore sign
 Allow ECF from a) i) and a) ii)

Award [3] for a BCA

(b.ii) The gas returns to its original state in an isovolumetric change. The energy supplied
during this change is 3.9 J. Calculate the efficiency of this cycle. [1] 

Markscheme

3.9−2.87
ef f iciency = « 3.9
= »0. 26 OR 26 % ✔

Allow ECF from (b)(i)

(b.iii) Outline why it is important that engines are designed with high efficiency even though
all engines obey the first law of thermodynamics. [1] 

Markscheme

so that minimum energy is wasted/ejected

OR
useful work as close as possible to energy input
OR
 beneficial for the environment / to the availability of resources
✔

Allow to obtain maximum power possible

3. [Maximum mark: 5] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.110

The diagram shows water coming out of a tap (faucet).

(a) Water leaves the tap at an initial speed of 1.2 m s−1. Calculate the speed of the water
when it has fallen 0.20 m. [2] 

Markscheme

v2 = «√(2gΔh + v12) = »√2 × 9. 8 × 0. 20 + 1. 22 ✔

2.3 «m s−1» ✔

Examiners report

This was a very high scoring question, with most students who attempted it eventually scoring full
marks, particularly in b.
 (b) Explain why the diameter of the water stream decreases.
[3] 

Markscheme

the continuity equation applies / Av = constant ✔

v increases ✔
so area must decrease ✔
«so diameter decreases»

4. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.101

A thermometer and an electrical heater are inserted into small holes in a solid aluminium block.
The heater is turned on at time t = 0. The graph shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block
with time t.

(a.i) On the graph, draw the line of best-fit for the data.
[1] 

Markscheme

smooth curve through all error bars ✔

Curve can start at t = 0.5 min or before.

Examiners report

Most students scored here easily drawing a curve either from t = 0.5 min or starting the curve at t = 0.
Students who chose to draw a straight line showed in most cases that they interpreted "best fit line"
 as straight, as then estimated the initial temperature trying to follow the fit of the curve instead of
their own y-intercept. Smooth correct curves were seen in most cases.

(a.ii) Estimate the initial temperature of the block.

[1] 

Markscheme

17 (±1.5) «°C» ✔

If candidates did not score in a) i) but showed a y-intercept, allow ECF from their graph.

Examiners report

The range accepted was quite generous and specifically did not allow 15ºC, not to award a mark to
those who forced the curve to go through a point that they may have confused with the origin.

(b) Suggest why the temperature of the block approaches a constant value.
[2] 

Markscheme

there are heat losses OR

block radiates/loses thermal energy ✔

at a rate that equals the power of the heater ✔

Do not accept any reference to thermal equilibrium, unless clearly explained as the balance between energy coming in and out of the block.

Examiners report

Even though about half the students succeeded here and realized that the power was equal to the
rate of heat loss, it was surprising to see a number of students who discussed the melting process,
although the temperature of the aluminium block was 30ºC. It constitutes a good example of
students who seem to try to regurgitate their knowledge (phase changes occur at constant
temperature) instead of carefully reading the question and interpreting the situation.
(c) When the temperature has reached a constant value the heater is turned off. The graph
shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block with time t.

Show that the initial rate of change of the temperature of the block is approximately
−4.0 K min−1. [2] 

Markscheme

evidence of tangent line at t=0

OR
use of the curve in its initial part of up to 0.75 min ✔

correct slope calculation ✔

 Ignore the sign.

For MP2, allow the use of any two points on the curve other than the ones indicated above, for [1] max.

Examiners report

As the cooling curve given was close to straight in its initial section, most students scored full marks
by calculating the gradient using data up to t = 0.75 min, which was allowed in the markscheme
(MS) as it was a method used very often. The strongest students managed to draw the tangent line at
t = 0 and use that line to calculate the initial rate of cooling.

(d) The power of the heater is 52 W. The mass of the block is 0.85 kg. Determine the specific
heat capacity of aluminium. [2] 

Markscheme

52 = 0.85 × c × 4 ✔

Converts to seconds to get

c = «917.6 =» 920 «J kg−1 K−1» ✔

Allow ECF from c)

Allow [1] max for a calculation as in MP1 using a different but consistent set of values, i.e., a T difference in the heating process that
corresponds to a thermal energy provided for that difference.

Examiners report

A large variety of calculations were seen here. The most common mistake was not to convert to
seconds. Students who did not understand the cooling curve given managed to score one mark by
 choosing a temperature heating change consistent with the time used, allowed by the MS to
discriminate from those students who just did not understand the situation at all.

(e) The percentage uncertainty in the rate of change in (c) is 4 %. The percentage
uncertainty in the power of the heater is 3 % and that in the mass of the block is 1 %.

(e.i) Estimate the absolute uncertainty in the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
[2] 

Markscheme

percentage uncertainty in c is 8 % ✔
−1 −1
Δc = 917.6×0.08 = 73 « J kg K »

Allow ECF from d) for MP1, if candidates did not use the rate of cooling, accepting either 8 % or 4 %.
Allow ECF from (d) for MP2.
Allow ECF from MP1.

Examiners report

A majority of students scored the first marking point (MP) by adding the percentage uncertainties,
however a surprising number of students did either algebraic mistakes reaching 7% or applied the
percentage individually to different values. Most students ended up scoring MP2, either correctly or
by error carried forward (ECF).
 (e.ii) Write down the value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium, its uncertainty and its
unit. Give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. [1] 

Markscheme

c = (9.2±0.7)×102 J kg−1 K−1

Accept 1 or 2 significant figures for c with a 1 s.f. uncertainty OR 3 s.f. for c with a 2 s.f. uncertainty, i.e., consistent expressions.
Allow ECF from d) and e) i).
Accept an alternative unit, e.g. in g or in °C.

Examiners report

Students struggled to put all the requirements here together, i.e. correct number of significant figures
for the value with a rounded uncertainty matching the precision of the value. Those who did usually
scored as they did not experience problems communicating the right unit.

5. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.109

A monatomic ideal gas is trapped in a cylinder by a piston. The following data are available.

Initial pressure of gas = 1.00 × 105 Pa

Initial temperature = 712 K
Quantity of gas = 6.00 × 10−4 mol
The gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion to a volume of 8.00 × 10−5 m3.
(a.i) Determine the pressure of the gas after the adiabatic expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme

−4

V= 6.00×10 ×8.31×712
5
«=3.55×10−5 m3 » ✔
1.00×10

quotes p1V15/3=p2V25/3 or pV5/3 = constant with at least one substitution correct ✔

5
5 −5 3
1×10 ×(3.55×10 )
p=« 5
» = 25800 Pa ✔
−5 3
(8×10 )

Award [3] for a BCA

Examiners report

Only the best students succeeded here throughout the whole question. The difficulties appeared at
the beginning, as they needed to use the ideal gas law to determine the initial volume to then apply
the adiabatic expression to get the pressure. Those who succeeded here were then able to move
forward, and a few excellent full answers were seen. However, the question was answered with
different errors and some students managed to score by ECF in certain cases.

(a.ii) Determine the work done by the gas during the expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme
 −5
25800×8×10
T = −4
OR T = 414 «K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

Q=0 OR W=−ΔU ✔

W = « 32 nRΔT = −
3

2
× 6 × 10
−4
× 8. 31 × (414 − 712) = »2. 23 «J» ✔

MP2 seen or implied in MP3.

Ignore sign

Award [3] for a BCA

(b) The gas then undergoes an isobaric compression until its volume is equal to the initial
volume.

(b.i) Calculate the energy removed in this isobaric compression.

[3] 

Markscheme

ALTERNATIVE 1
Q = pΔV +
3

2
pΔV =
5

2
pΔV ✔
Q =
5

2
× 25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10
−5
✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2
−5
25800×3.55×10
T = −4
OR 184 « K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

Q = «W + ΔU = »25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10−5 + 3

2
× 6 × 10
−4
× 8. 31 × (184 − 414)

✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

MP1 seen or implied in MP2.

Ignore sign
 Allow ECF from a) i) and a) ii)

Award [3] for a BCA

(b.ii) The gas returns to its original state in an isovolumetric change. The energy supplied
during this change is 3.9 J. Calculate the efficiency of this cycle. [1] 

Markscheme

3.9−2.87
ef f iciency = « 3.9
= »0. 26 OR 26 % ✔

Allow ECF from (b)(i)

(b.iii) Outline why it is important that engines are designed with high efficiency even though
all engines obey the first law of thermodynamics. [1] 

Markscheme

so that minimum energy is wasted/ejected

OR
useful work as close as possible to energy input
OR
 beneficial for the environment / to the availability of resources
✔

Allow to obtain maximum power possible

6. [Maximum mark: 5] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.110

The diagram shows water coming out of a tap (faucet).

(a) Water leaves the tap at an initial speed of 1.2 m s−1. Calculate the speed of the water
when it has fallen 0.20 m. [2] 

Markscheme

v2 = «√(2gΔh + v12) = »√2 × 9. 8 × 0. 20 + 1. 22 ✔

2.3 «m s−1» ✔

Examiners report

This was a very high scoring question, with most students who attempted it eventually scoring full
marks, particularly in b.
 (b) Explain why the diameter of the water stream decreases.
[3] 

Markscheme

the continuity equation applies / Av = constant ✔

v increases ✔
so area must decrease ✔
«so diameter decreases»

7. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.101

A thermometer and an electrical heater are inserted into small holes in a solid aluminium block.
The heater is turned on at time t = 0. The graph shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block
with time t.

(a.i) On the graph, draw the line of best-fit for the data.
[1] 

Markscheme

smooth curve through all error bars ✔

Curve can start at t = 0.5 min or before.

Examiners report

Most students scored here easily drawing a curve either from t = 0.5 min or starting the curve at t = 0.
Students who chose to draw a straight line showed in most cases that they interpreted "best fit line"
 as straight, as then estimated the initial temperature trying to follow the fit of the curve instead of
their own y-intercept. Smooth correct curves were seen in most cases.

(a.ii) Estimate the initial temperature of the block.

[1] 

Markscheme

17 (±1.5) «°C» ✔

If candidates did not score in a) i) but showed a y-intercept, allow ECF from their graph.

Examiners report

The range accepted was quite generous and specifically did not allow 15ºC, not to award a mark to
those who forced the curve to go through a point that they may have confused with the origin.

(b) Suggest why the temperature of the block approaches a constant value.
[2] 

Markscheme

there are heat losses OR

block radiates/loses thermal energy ✔

at a rate that equals the power of the heater ✔

Do not accept any reference to thermal equilibrium, unless clearly explained as the balance between energy coming in and out of the block.

Examiners report

Even though about half the students succeeded here and realized that the power was equal to the
rate of heat loss, it was surprising to see a number of students who discussed the melting process,
although the temperature of the aluminium block was 30ºC. It constitutes a good example of
students who seem to try to regurgitate their knowledge (phase changes occur at constant
temperature) instead of carefully reading the question and interpreting the situation.
(c) When the temperature has reached a constant value the heater is turned off. The graph
shows the variation of the temperature θ of the block with time t.

Show that the initial rate of change of the temperature of the block is approximately
−4.0 K min−1. [2] 

Markscheme

evidence of tangent line at t=0

OR
use of the curve in its initial part of up to 0.75 min ✔

correct slope calculation ✔

 Ignore the sign.

For MP2, allow the use of any two points on the curve other than the ones indicated above, for [1] max.

Examiners report

As the cooling curve given was close to straight in its initial section, most students scored full marks
by calculating the gradient using data up to t = 0.75 min, which was allowed in the markscheme
(MS) as it was a method used very often. The strongest students managed to draw the tangent line at
t = 0 and use that line to calculate the initial rate of cooling.

(d) The power of the heater is 52 W. The mass of the block is 0.85 kg. Determine the specific
heat capacity of aluminium. [2] 

Markscheme

52 = 0.85 × c × 4 ✔

Converts to seconds to get

c = «917.6 =» 920 «J kg−1 K−1» ✔

Allow ECF from c)

Allow [1] max for a calculation as in MP1 using a different but consistent set of values, i.e., a T difference in the heating process that
corresponds to a thermal energy provided for that difference.

Examiners report

A large variety of calculations were seen here. The most common mistake was not to convert to
seconds. Students who did not understand the cooling curve given managed to score one mark by
 choosing a temperature heating change consistent with the time used, allowed by the MS to
discriminate from those students who just did not understand the situation at all.

(e) The percentage uncertainty in the rate of change in (c) is 4 %. The percentage
uncertainty in the power of the heater is 3 % and that in the mass of the block is 1 %.

(e.i) Estimate the absolute uncertainty in the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
[2] 

Markscheme

percentage uncertainty in c is 8 % ✔
−1 −1
Δc = 917.6×0.08 = 73 « J kg K »

Allow ECF from d) for MP1, if candidates did not use the rate of cooling, accepting either 8 % or 4 %.
Allow ECF from (d) for MP2.
Allow ECF from MP1.

Examiners report

A majority of students scored the first marking point (MP) by adding the percentage uncertainties,
however a surprising number of students did either algebraic mistakes reaching 7% or applied the
percentage individually to different values. Most students ended up scoring MP2, either correctly or
by error carried forward (ECF).
 (e.ii) Write down the value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium, its uncertainty and its
unit. Give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. [1] 

Markscheme

c = (9.2±0.7)×102 J kg−1 K−1

Accept 1 or 2 significant figures for c with a 1 s.f. uncertainty OR 3 s.f. for c with a 2 s.f. uncertainty, i.e., consistent expressions.
Allow ECF from d) and e) i).
Accept an alternative unit, e.g. in g or in °C.

Examiners report

Students struggled to put all the requirements here together, i.e. correct number of significant figures
for the value with a rounded uncertainty matching the precision of the value. Those who did usually
scored as they did not experience problems communicating the right unit.

8. [Maximum mark: 4] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.102

The graph shows the variation with time t of the activity A of a sample of protactinium-234.
(a) Suggest why the activity approaches a non-zero constant value. [1]

Markscheme

there is background radiation present

OR

there is a systematic error in the rate counter ✔

Award [1] for an explanation that suggests that other radioactive elements of higher half-life could be present in the sample.

Examiners report

A big misunderstanding showed up here as a majority of students argued along the line of
explaining why a decay rate never reaches zero and therefore will not intercept the x-axis, although
the curve was explicitly mentioned as approaching a non-zero constant value. Only the best
students identified background radiation, and just a few students scored with the alternative
possibility of mentioning a systematic error.

(b) Estimate the half-life of protactinium-234 explaining your work. [3]

Markscheme
 realization that 2 «Bq» is the background activity ✔

calculation, reading or work on graph that shows understanding of half-life ✔

half-life = 70 (±5) «s» ✔

Allow [2] max for a correct calculation of a half-life if MP1 is not scored, range accepted 65 to 85.

Award MP2 for the correct use of any number of half-lives.

For MP3, accept answers in the range 65 «s» to 75 «s»

Examiners report

Most students showed understanding of half-life and managed to score two marks, with only the
best ones who recognized background radiation scoring full marks here.

9. [Maximum mark: 9] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.103

Two muons are moving parallel to each other with the same velocity relative to the ground.
In the frame of reference in which the muons are at rest, the force between them is a repulsive electric
force.
In muon decay experiments, muons produced high in the Earth’s atmosphere move towards the
ground at speeds close to the speed of light. Detectors on the ground record the arrival of
muons. Outline how these experiments provide support for time dilation. [3]

Markscheme

muons decay into electrons / muons have short lifetime ✔

without relativity few muons would reach the ground ✔
experiments show the arrival of more muons than expected ✔
therefore the lifetime of the muons has been increased «in the ground frame» ✔
«so time dilation has occurred»

Accept lifetime / half-life

(a) Explain, for the frame of reference of the ground,

(a.i) why there is an additional magnetic force between the muons. [1]

Markscheme
 a moving muon creates a magnetic field «at the position of the other muon» ✔

Examiners report

Although difficult to make a statistically significant comment due to the small number of students
who answered option A, those who answered clearly showed a weak understanding of this popular
topic in relativity.

(a.ii) whether the electric or the magnetic force has the greater magnitude. [2]

Markscheme

the net force must be repulsive in all frames ✔

hence the electric force is greater than the magnetic force ✔

MP2 requires MP1.

(b) In muon decay experiments, muons produced high in the Earth’s atmosphere move
towards the ground at speeds close to the speed of light. Detectors on the ground record
the arrival of muons. Outline how these experiments provide support for time dilation.
 [3]

Markscheme

muons decay into electrons / muons have short lifetime ✔

without relativity few muons would reach the ground ✔
experiments show the arrival of more muons than expected ✔
therefore the lifetime of the muons has been increased «in the ground frame» ✔
«so time dilation has occurred»

Accept lifetime / half-life

Examiners report

Students showed knowledge and understanding of the muon decay experiment that proved to be a
favourite in the teaching of this option.

10. [Maximum mark: 3] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.104

The diagram shows two clocks, A and B, that have been synchronized. Clock A is at the origin
and clock B is a distance d away in the same inertial reference frame.

Suggest a way by which the clocks were synchronized. [3]

Markscheme
 ALTERNATIVE 1
the clock at a distance d from the origin «is set ahead by an amount equal to »✔
d

a light signal leaves the origin «when the origin clock reads 0» ✔
when the signal arrives at the clock the clock is started ✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
both clocks are set to read zero ✔
a light signal is emitted from the midpoint of the two clocks ✔
when signals arrive at the clocks the clocks are started ✔
ALTERNATIVE 3
both clocks are set to read zero together ✔
one is moved to d ✔
at a very slowly /negligible velocity ✔

Examiners report

Students who answered this question scored at least one mark showing familiarity with methods to
synchronize clocks.

11. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.105

A spacecraft leaves Earth with speed 0.800 c, relative to Earth, on its way to a planet that is 12.0 light years
away according to Earth measurements.

(a) Calculate the time of arrival of the spacecraft at the planet according to the

(a.i) Earth. [1]

Markscheme
 « 0.800 »15. 0« yrs » ✔
12.0
=

Examiners report

Students scored marks here showing a good command of the basic key formulas of relativity.

(a.ii) spacecraft. [2]

Markscheme

1 5
γ = OR γ =
3
✔
√ 1−0.82

t =
15

γ
= 9. 00« yrs »✔

Allow ECF from MP1

(b) On its way to the planet the spacecraft moves past a cargo ship returning to Earth. The
proper length of the cargo ship is 992 m and its speed is 0.600 c relative to Earth.
(b.i) State what is meant by proper length. [1]

Markscheme

the length of an object in the object’s rest frame ✔

Examiners report

Students scored marks here showing a good command of the basic key formulas of relativity.

(b.ii) Show that the speed of the cargo ship relative to the spacecraft is 0.946 c. [1]

Markscheme

−0.800c−0.600c
0.800c×0.600c
✔
1+
2
c

«=0.946c »

Correct substitution
Allow positive values in the numerator

(b.iii) Calculate the length of the cargo ship according to the spacecraft. [2]

Markscheme

γ =
1
OR γ = 3. 08 ✔
√ 1−0.9462

« »322 «m» ✔
992
L = =
γ

Allow ECF from MP1

(c) As the spacecraft approaches the cargo ship a light signal is emitted from the front of the
cargo ship (F) towards the back (B).

This situation is represented in the spacetime diagram that shows the rest frame of the
cargo ship. F and B represent the front and back of the cargo ship when the light signal is
emitted. The scale on the axes is the same.

(c.i) Annotate the spacetime diagram to show the arrival of the light signal at the back of the
cargo ship. Label this event using the letter A. [2]

Markscheme
 45 degree line to the right from F ✔
intersecting vertical line from B ✔

eg:

Examiners report

They were much less successful when having to use spacetime diagrams.

(c.ii) Determine the time it takes the signal to arrive at the back of the cargo ship according to
the spacecraft. [2]

Markscheme

922 0.946×992
Δt′= 3. 08 × ( + )✔
c c

−5
=1.98×10 «s»✔
12. [Maximum mark: 9] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.108
A net torque acts on a horizontal disk of mass 0.20 kg and radius 0.40 m that is initially at rest. The disk
begins to rotate. The graph shows the variation with time t of the angular speed ω of the disk.

The moment of inertia of a disk of mass M and radius R about a vertical axis through its centre is 1

2
MR2.

(a) Show that the angular acceleration of the disk is about 6 rad s−2.
[1] 

Markscheme

α =
12.5

2.0
OR 6.25 «rad s−2» ✔

Allow the use of any point from the graph.

Examiners report
 Students were successful in calculating angular accelerations and torques. They were much less
successful when they had to correctly apply the conservation of angular momentum, particularly
correctly stating the moment of inertia for a small mass. Several students also had problems reading
the question carefully, losing an easy mark by not answering the energy lost as a fraction
(percentages obviously accepted) using differences instead.

(b) Calculate the torque that acts on the disk while it accelerates.
[2] 

Markscheme

ALTERNATIVE 1
1
I =
2
× 0. 2 × 0. 4
2
= «0. 016» ✔
T orque = «lxα = »0.1 « Nm » ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2
1 2
ΔL = × 0. 20 × 0. 40 × 12. 5 = 0. 20 « Js » ✔
2
1 2
×0.20×0.40 ×12.5
ΔL
= 0. 10 « Nm » ✔
2
Γ = =
Δt 2.0

Use of 6 gives an answer of 0.096 Nm.

Allow ECF from MP1

(c) While the disk is rotating at its final constant angular speed, a small object of mass 0.10
kg falls on the disk and sticks to the edge of the disk.
(c.i) Calculate the new angular speed of the disk.
[3] 

Markscheme

initial momentum of block = 0.016 × 12.5 OR 0.20 ✔

moment of inertia of the object is 0.10 × 0.402 ✔

conservation of angular momentum 0. 20 = (

1

2
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
+ 0. 10 × 0. 40 )ω′ so
2

ω′= 6. 25 «rad s
−1» ✔

Allow ECF for MP3

Allow ECF from b)

(c.ii) Determine the fraction of the total energy of the disk that was lost.
[3] 

Markscheme

initial KE is 1

4
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
× 12. 5
2
OR =1.25 « J»✔

final KE is 1

4
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
× 6. 25
2
+
1

2
2
× 0. 10 × 0. 40 × 6. 25
2
= 0. 625 « J»✔

fraction lost is 50 % ✔
 Allow ECF from c) i)
Allow ECF for MP3

13. [Maximum mark: 9] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.108

A net torque acts on a horizontal disk of mass 0.20 kg and radius 0.40 m that is initially at rest. The disk
begins to rotate. The graph shows the variation with time t of the angular speed ω of the disk.
The moment of inertia of a disk of mass M and radius R about a vertical axis through its centre is 1

2
MR2.
(a) Show that the angular acceleration of the disk is about 6 rad s−2.
[1] 

Markscheme

α =
12.5

2.0
OR 6.25 «rad s−2» ✔

Allow the use of any point from the graph.

Examiners report

Students were successful in calculating angular accelerations and torques. They were much less
successful when they had to correctly apply the conservation of angular momentum, particularly
correctly stating the moment of inertia for a small mass. Several students also had problems reading
 the question carefully, losing an easy mark by not answering the energy lost as a fraction
(percentages obviously accepted) using differences instead.

(b) Calculate the torque that acts on the disk while it accelerates.
[2] 

Markscheme

ALTERNATIVE 1
1
I =
2
× 0. 2 × 0. 4
2
= «0. 016» ✔
T orque = «lxα = »0.1 « Nm » ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2
1 2
ΔL = × 0. 20 × 0. 40 × 12. 5 = 0. 20 « Js » ✔
2
1 2
×0.20×0.40 ×12.5
ΔL
= 0. 10 « Nm » ✔
2
Γ = =
Δt 2.0

Use of 6 gives an answer of 0.096 Nm.

Allow ECF from MP1

(c) While the disk is rotating at its final constant angular speed, a small object of mass 0.10
kg falls on the disk and sticks to the edge of the disk.
(c.i) Calculate the new angular speed of the disk.
[3] 

Markscheme

initial momentum of block = 0.016 × 12.5 OR 0.20 ✔

moment of inertia of the object is 0.10 × 0.402 ✔

conservation of angular momentum 0. 20 = (

1

2
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
+ 0. 10 × 0. 40 )ω′ so
2

ω′= 6. 25 «rad s
−1» ✔

Allow ECF for MP3

Allow ECF from b)

(c.ii) Determine the fraction of the total energy of the disk that was lost.
[3] 

Markscheme

initial KE is 1

4
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
× 12. 5
2
OR =1.25 « J»✔

final KE is 1

4
× 0. 20 × 0. 40
2
× 6. 25
2
+
1

2
2
× 0. 10 × 0. 40 × 6. 25
2
= 0. 625 « J»✔

fraction lost is 50 % ✔
 Allow ECF from c) i)
Allow ECF for MP3

14. [Maximum mark: 11] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.109

A monatomic ideal gas is trapped in a cylinder by a piston. The following data are available.

Initial pressure of gas = 1.00 × 105 Pa

Initial temperature = 712 K
Quantity of gas = 6.00 × 10−4 mol

The gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion to a volume of 8.00 × 10−5 m3.

(a.i) Determine the pressure of the gas after the adiabatic expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme

−4

V= 6.00×10 ×8.31×712
5
«=3.55×10−5 m3 » ✔
1.00×10

quotes p1V15/3=p2V25/3 or pV5/3 = constant with at least one substitution correct ✔

5
5 −5 3
1×10 ×(3.55×10 )
p=« 5
» = 25800 Pa ✔
−5 3
(8×10 )

Award [3] for a BCA

Examiners report
 Only the best students succeeded here throughout the whole question. The difficulties appeared at
the beginning, as they needed to use the ideal gas law to determine the initial volume to then apply
the adiabatic expression to get the pressure. Those who succeeded here were then able to move
forward, and a few excellent full answers were seen. However, the question was answered with
different errors and some students managed to score by ECF in certain cases.

(a.ii) Determine the work done by the gas during the expansion.
[3] 

Markscheme

−5

T =
25800×8×10
−4
OR T = 414 «K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

Q=0 OR W=−ΔU ✔

W = « 32 nRΔT = −
3

2
−4
× 6 × 10 × 8. 31 × (414 − 712) = »2. 23 «J» ✔

MP2 seen or implied in MP3.

Ignore sign

Award [3] for a BCA

(b) The gas then undergoes an isobaric compression until its volume is equal to the initial
volume.

(b.i) Calculate the energy removed in this isobaric compression.

[3] 

Markscheme

ALTERNATIVE 1
Q = pΔV +
3

2
pΔV =
5

2
pΔV ✔
Q =
5

2
× 25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10
−5
✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2
−5

T =
25800×3.55×10
−4
OR 184 « K» ✔
6×10 ×8.31

«W »25800 × (3. 55 − 8) × 10
−5 3 −4
Q = + ΔU = + × 6 × 10 × 8. 31 × (184 − 414)
2

✔
Q = −2. 87 «J» ✔

MP1 seen or implied in MP2.

Ignore sign

Allow ECF from a) i) and a) ii)

Award [3] for a BCA

(b.ii) The gas returns to its original state in an isovolumetric change. The energy supplied
during this change is 3.9 J. Calculate the efficiency of this cycle. [1] 

Markscheme

ef f iciency = « 3.9−2.87
3.9
= »0. 26 OR 26 % ✔

Allow ECF from (b)(i)

(b.iii) Outline why it is important that engines are designed with high efficiency even though
all engines obey the first law of thermodynamics. [1] 

Markscheme

so that minimum energy is wasted/ejected

OR
useful work as close as possible to energy input
OR
beneficial for the environment / to the availability of resources
✔
 Allow to obtain maximum power possible

15. [Maximum mark: 5] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.110

The diagram shows water coming out of a tap (faucet).

(a) Water leaves the tap at an initial speed of 1.2 m s−1. Calculate the speed of the water
when it has fallen 0.20 m. [2] 

Markscheme

v2 = «√(2gΔh + v12) = »√2 × 9. 8 × 0. 20 + 1. 22 ✔

2.3 «m s−1» ✔

Examiners report

This was a very high scoring question, with most students who attempted it eventually scoring full
marks, particularly in b.
 (b) Explain why the diameter of the water stream decreases.
[3] 

Markscheme

the continuity equation applies / Av = constant ✔

v increases ✔
so area must decrease ✔
«so diameter decreases»

16. [Maximum mark: 7] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.111

A mass-spring system undergoes damped oscillations with a time period of 5.0 s. At t=0, the system is at
maximum displacement. The graph shows the variation of the total energy of the system with time.
(a) Draw, on the axes, a graph to show how the potential energy of the system varies with
time. [2]

Markscheme

first maximum at t=0, second maximum at t=2.5 and third maximum at t=5 s ✔
maxima must touch the other curve and minima the time axis ✔

Allow [1] for half the cycle drawn over the 5 seconds

(a.i) Calculate the Q factor for the system. [1]

Markscheme

«Q=2π×
10

5
=» 4π ≈ 13 ✔
(a.ii) Draw, on the axes, a graph to show how the potential energy of the system varies with
time. [2]

Markscheme

first maximum at t=0, second maximum at t=2.5 and third maximum at t=5 s ✔
maxima must touch the other curve and minima the time axis ✔

Allow [1] for half the cycle drawn over the 5 seconds

(b) Explain why engineers must consider resonance when designing structures. [2]

Markscheme

because structures will develop large amplitudes / close to the natural frequency ✔
these can lead to collapse of the structure ✔
17. [Maximum mark: 13] 23N.2.HL.TZ2.117
The parallax angle of the star Vega is 0.131 arc seconds.

(a.i) Describe what is meant by parallax angle. [1]

Markscheme

the angle at which the star subtends 1 AU

OR
half the angle between star and Earth measured six months apart ✔

Accept a sketch that identifies the correct angle, i.e., half the angle subtended from star to Earth at both sides of Sun.

Examiners report

Astrophysics was by far the most popular option. In this first question, students showed familiarity
with the concept of parallax angle although many failed to score in a) i) as they did not correctly
identify the angle, with the most common mistake using a definition which actually refers to 2p.
However, even those who failed to gain that mark then moved to score in a) ii), a sub-question that,
quite unusually, had a 100% rate of accuracy in awarding the mark.
(a.ii) Show that the distance to Vega is 25 light years. [1]

Markscheme

d =
1

0.131
x 3. 26 OR d = 24. 9 «ly» ✔

(b) The following information is available for the stars Vega and β Ori.

L⊙ is the luminosity of our Sun.

(b.i) Determine whether Vega or β Ori appears brighter from Earth. [3]

Markscheme

2
bv Lv dβ 54 780 2
= ≪ ( ) =≫ ( ) =
bβ Lβ dβ 40000 25
 OR
calculates one brightness in terms of L⊙ ✔
bv
= 1. 3
bβ

OR
calculates a second brightness in terms of L⊙ ✔

so Vega appears brighter ✔

Award [0] for a bald correct answer.

Examiners report

Part b) was high scoring, with students working by ratios or calculating the values in terms of the
luminosity of the Sun. The MS also accepted the calculation of "relative" values which enabled a
right conclusion to be reached.

(b.ii) Calculate the ratio

radius of β Ori
. [3]
radius of Vega

Markscheme

2
Lβ Rβ 4
=≫ ✔
40000 11000
= = ≪ ( ) ( )
LV 54 RV 9600

Rβ 4
40000 9600

RV
= √
54
(
11000
) ✔

= 21 ✔
(c) Vega is a main-sequence star with a mass of about three solar masses.

(c.i) Vega is a main sequence star. Show that the mass of Vega is about three solar masses. [1]

Markscheme

1
MV MV

M⊙
= 54 3.5
OR M⊙
= 3. 1 ✔

Examiners report

This question was usually very well answered.

(c.i) Discuss whether β Ori is a main sequence star. [2]

Markscheme

luminosity of β Ori is too high AND

temperature is comparable to Vega / mass «if main sequence would be» 20.6 M⊙ ✔
so it cannot be a main sequence star ✔

MP2 requires MP1.

If AND not present, i.e., if only one of the three features is mentioned, with conclusion present, award [1] max.

Examiners report
 Proved to be much more challenging, as students usually used contradictory ideas, obtaining the
mass of the star through the mass-luminosity relationship for main sequence stars but then
concluding that the star was not a main sequence. This right conclusion actually needed to take into
account both the similar temperature and the very different luminosities, but the MS accepted
focusing on only one feature with the right conclusion as this was a very common approach. Only a
minority scored full marks by using the simple comparison of temperatures and luminosities.

(c.ii) Describe the most likely final stage in the evolution of Vega. [2]

Markscheme

Vega is a low mass star / remnant will be lower than Chandrasekhar limit / it will go through red giant
phase ✔
will evolve to become a white dwarf ✔
a very small/dense/hot/dead/low luminosity star ✔

Examiners report

This question showed another example of fitting knowledge instead of reading carefully. The
question was about describing the most likely final stage of Vega. However, it was much more
common to read questions describing the most likely process of evolution. This was accepted by the
MS by the simple path of accepting three MP for a maximum of two marks, enabling typical answers
or red giant-white dwarf but also accepting the expected answer of referring to a white dwarf to
then give any one feature about it.
© International Baccalaureate Organization, 2025