THEORY AND

DESIGN OF STRUCTURE-I
(ARCH 2121)

By- Meron M.
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CHAPTER -ONE
SCALAR & VECTOR

By- Meron M. 2
 Contents
 Introduction to Mechanics
 Scalar and Vector
 Operation with Vectors
Vector Addition or Composition
 Vector Multiplication: Dot & Cross
Product

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 Introduction to Mechanics
Mechanics:- is a physical science which deals
with the effect of forces on objects that are at
rest or in motion.
Mechanics

Mechanics of Mechanics of Mechanics of

Rigid-body Deformable-body Fluids

Statics Dynamics

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Cont…..
Statics: deals with the equilibrium of bodies
under the action of forces. i.e. those that are
either at rest or move with a constant
velocity.

Dynamics: is concerned with the accelerated

motion of bodies.

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 Fundamentals Concepts
The most basic fundamental concepts are the
basic quantities that we use in mechanics.
Basic Quantities
1. Length: is used to locate a body in space or
describe the size and the geometric properties
of a body.
SI Unit:- Meter (m)

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Cont….
2. Time: is the measure of the succession of
events and is a basic quantity in dynamics.
 It describes how one thing happens
before or after the other and in what
fashion.
Time is not directly involved in the
analysis of statics problems. Because in
statics we are considering structures that
are statically loaded so there is an
instantaneous application of forces which
produce an instantaneous response in
material.
SI Unit:- Second (S) 7
Cont….
3. Mass: is a measure of the amount of material
in a body.
It is a measure of quantity of the inertia of a
body, which is its resistance to a change of
velocity.
The mass of a body affects the gravitational
attraction force between it and other bodies.
SI Unit:- Kilogram (Kg)
4. Force: is the action of one body on another.
 A force tends to move a body in the
direction of its action.
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Cont….
 The action of a force is characterized by its
magnitude, by the direction of its action,
and by its point of application.
 Thus force is a vector quantity.
SI Unit:- Newton (N)

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Cont….
Idealizations
 Idealization means to use scientific models
to represent phenomena so that they can be
simplified to an extent.
1. Particle: is a body with negligible geometry
and dimension in the interest of the study.
In other word, a particle has a mass but no
shape and size.
Size of earth is insignificant compared to
the size of its orbit. Earth can be modeled
as a particle when studying its orbital
motion.
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 Cont….
2. Rigid body: is considered as a combination of
a large number of particles in which all the
particles remain at a fixed distance from one
another, both before and after applying a
load.
 This model is important because the body‟s
shape does not change when a load is
applied, and so we do not have to consider
the type of material from which the body is
made.
 In statics, bodies are considered rigid unless
stated otherwise.
e.g: A span of a bridge
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 Cont….
3. Concentrated force: is the effect of loading
which is assumed to act at point (CG) on a
body.
 A load can be idealized as a concentrated
load provided the area over which the load
is applied is very small compared to the
overall size of the body.
E.g: Contact force between a wheel and
ground.

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 Fundamental Principles
Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. First Law- A particle remains at rest or
continues to move in a straight line with
uniform velocity if there is no unbalanced
force acting on it.

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Cont…..
2. Second Law- A particle acted upon by an
unbalanced force F experiences an
acceleration „a‟ that has the same direction
as the force and a magnitude that is
directly proportional to the force.

F  ma

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Cont…..
3. Third Law- The mutual forces of action
and reaction between two interacting
bodies are equal in magnitude, opposite
in direction, and collinear.

The first and third laws have of great

importance for Statics whereas the
second one is basic for dynamics of
Mechanics. 15
Cont…..
Another important law for mechanics is the
law of gravitation by Newton, as it is usual to
compute the weight of bodies.
Accordingly:

F = mutual force of attraction between two particles

G = universal constant of gravitation
Experiments, G = 6.673x10-11m³/(kg.s²)
m1,m2 = masses of two particles
r = distance between two particles
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Cont…..
Weight of a Body: If a particle is located at or
near the surface of the earth, the only
significant gravitation force is that between the
earth and the particle.
 Weight of a particle having mass m1 = m:
Assuming earth to be a non-rotating sphere of
constant density and having mass m2 = Me
r = distance between the earth’s centre and the
particle

Let g=G Me/r2 = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s² (32.2ft/s²)

 Scalars and Vectors
Definition and Properties
Scalar quantities: are physical quantities that
can be completely described (measured) by
their magnitude alone.
These quantities do not need a direction to
point out their application (Just a value to
quantify their measurability).
They only need the magnitude and the unit
of measurement to fully describe them.
Examples: Time[s], Mass [Kg], Area [m2],
Volume [m3], Density [Kg/m3], Distance [m],
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etc.
 Cont…..
Vector quantities: Like Scalar quantities, Vector
quantities need a magnitude. But in addition,
they have a direction, and sometimes point of
application for their complete description.
Vectors are represented by short arrows on
top of the letters designating them.
Examples: Force [N, Kg.m/s2], Velocity
[m/s], Acceleration [m/s2], Momentum
[N.s, kg.m/s], etc.

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 Representation of Vectors
Vectors can be represented both graphically
and algebraically
A. Graphical representation
 Graphically, a vector is represented by a
directed line segment headed by an
arrow.
 The length of the line segment is equal to
the magnitude of the vector to some
predetermined scale and the arrow
indicates the direction of the vector.
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Cont….
NB: The direction of the vector may be
measured by an angle θ from some known
reference direction.

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Cont….

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Cont….

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Cont….

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 Properties of vectors
Equality of vectors: Two free vectors are said
to be equal if and only if they have the same
magnitude and direction.

The Negative of a vector: is a vector which

has equal magnitude to a given vector but
opposite in direction.

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Properties of vectors
Null vector: is a vector of zero magnitude.
 A null vector has an arbitrary direction.
Unit vector: is any vector whose magnitude
is unity.
 A unit vector along the direction of a
certain vector, say vector A (denoted by
𝒖A) can then be found by dividing vector
A by its magnitude.

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 Operations with Vectors
Scalar quantities are operated in the same
way as numbers are operated. But vectors are
not and should be studied.
i. Vector Addition or Composition of
Vectors
 Composition of vectors is the process of
adding two or more vectors to get a single
vector, called resultant, which has the
same external effect as the combined
effect of individual vectors on the rigid
body they act.
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Cont….
There are different techniques of adding
vectors. Those are:
Graphical Method
The parallelogram law
The Triangle rule
Analytic method
 Trigonometric rules
 Component method

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 A. Graphical Method
I. The parallelogram law
 The law states, “if A and B are two free
vectors drawn on scale, the resultant (the
equivalent vector) of the vectors can be
found by drawing a parallelogram having
sides of these vectors, and the resultant
will be the diagonal starting from the tails
of both vectors and ending at the heads of
both vectors.”

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 Cont….
Steps:
First join the tails of the components at a
point so that it makes concurrent, Fig. (a)
From the head of B, draw a line parallel to
A. Then draw another line from the head
of A that is parallel to B. These two lines
intersect at point P to form the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram.
The diagonal of this parallelogram that
extends to P forms R, which then
represents the resultant vector
R = A + B, Fig. (b). 30
 Cont….
Once the parallelogram is drawn to scale,
 the magnitude of the resultant can be
found by measuring the diagonal and
converting it to magnitude by the
appropriate scale.
 The direction of the resultant with respect
to one of the vectors can be found by
measuring the angle the diagonal makes
with that vector.

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Cont….

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 Cont…..
II. The Triangle rule
 It states “If the two vectors, which are
drawn on scale, are placed tip (head) to
tail, their resultant will be the third side of
the triangle which has tail at the tail of the
first vector and head at the head of the
last.”

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 Cont…..
Steps:
 Draw the first Vector,
 Join the tail of the second vector to the
head of the first vector
 Then join the tail of the third to the tail of
the first force to get the resultant force, R
The Triangle rule can be extended to more than
two vectors as, “If a system of vectors are joined
head to tail, their resultant will be the vector
that completes the polygon so formed, and it
starts from the tail of the first vector and ends at
the head of the last vector.” 34
 Cont….

NB. From the Triangle rule, it can easily be seen

that if a system of vectors when joined head to
tail form a closed polygon, their resultant will
be a null vector.

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B. Analytic Method
 The analytic methods are the direct
applications of the above postulates and
theorems in which the resultant is found
mathematically instead of measuring it
from the drawings as in the graphical
method.
I. Trigonometric rules
The resultant of two vectors can be found
analytically from the parallelogram rule by
applying the cosine and the sine rules.

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 Cont….
Consider the following triangle. And let c be
the angle between the two vectors

From the above equation ‘C’ is called the

magnitude of the resultant of the two vectors.
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Decomposition of vectors

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 Cont….
Tip: To resolve A along the two axes t and n
Start at the head of A and construct lines
parallel to the axes, thereby forming the
parallelogram as shown in fig. b. The sides of
the parallelogram represent the components,
At and An.

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Cont….

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II. Component method of vector addition
 This is the most efficient method of vector
addition, especially when the number of
vectors to be added is large.
 In this method first the components of each
vector along a convenient axis will be
calculated.
 The sum of the components of each vector
along each axis will be equal to the
components of their resultant along the
respective axes. Once the components of the
resultant are found, the resultant can be
found by parallelogram rule as discussed
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above.
Cont….
 To add two or more vectors A, B, C,… by the
component method, follow this procedure:
1. Resolve the initial vectors into components x
and y.
2. Add the components in the x direction to
give Rx and add the components in the y
direction to give Ry .
 That is, the magnitudes of Rx and Ry are
given by, respectively:
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx…
Ry = Ay + By + Cy… 42
Cont….
3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
resultant R from its components by using the
Pythagorean theorem:
 To calculate magnitude of the resultant:

 The direction of the resultant

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Cont….

us

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Cont…..

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 Cont……
There are two types of products of vector
multiplication:
A. Dot Product: gives a scalar result, hence
also called Scalar Product.
B. Cross Product: gives a vector result,
hence also called Vector Product.

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 A. Dot Product: Scalar product
The dot product of two vectors A and B is
defined as the product of the magnitudes of A
and B and the cosine of the angle θ between
them. This is expressed in equation form as,

Properties of Operation:
Commutative Law: A⋅B = B⋅A
Multiplication by a Scalar: a(A⋅B)= (aA)⋅B =
A⋅(aB)
Distributive Law: A⋅(B+D)=(A⋅ B)+(A⋅D)
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 Cont……
 How do we show that
 If two vectors are expressed as their
rectangular form

 Then the Dot Product will be

 But
 Then, carrying out the dot product operation,
the resultant will be
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B. Cross Product: Vector Product

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Cont…..

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Properties of Cross Product

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 Cartesian Vector Formulation

 Those results should not be memorized;

rather it should be clearly understood how
each is obtained by using the right hand
rule and the definition of the cross product.
 The simple scheme shown above is helpful
for obtaining the cross products easily.
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 Cont….
Rule:
If a circle is constructed as shown, then the
vector product of two unit vectors
 Moving in a counterclockwise fashion
around the circle yields the positive third
unit vector
E.g. k x i = j
 Moving clockwise, a negative unit vector is
obtained
E.g. i x k = -j

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Cont…..

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Cont…..
This equation may also be written in a more
compact determinant form as,

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The End

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