length of object O, is called linear magnification.

It is generally denoted by the letter m and is related

to the distance of image (v) and distance of object (u) for both the convex and concave lens as :

m= length of image (I) / length of object (0) = v / u .

POWER OF A LENS

The deviation of the incident light rays produced by a lens on refraction through it, is a measure of
its power.
Power of lens (in D) = 1 / focal length (in metre)

SPECTRUM
Deviation Produced by a Triangular Prism
• When a ray of light passes from one medium to another medium, it gets deviated from
its path because of the difference in speeds of light in the two media.
• The deviation produced by a triangular prism is shown below

• For the emergent ray RS, the total deviation & with respect to the incident ray PQ is
given as 6 = 61 +62

• Thus, the total angle of deviation & depends on the following three factors:
• Angle of incidence at the first surface
• Angle of the prism (A)
• Refractive index of the material of the prism (u)
Because the refractive index depends on the colour (or wavelength X) of light used, the
angle of deviation depends on the colour of incident light.
Dependence of Deviation on Colour (or Wavelength) of Light
• Light of different colours has different speeds in a medium. The speed of light in a
transparent medium decreases with the decrease in the wavelength of light.
• Therefore, the refractive index of glass increases with decrease in the wavelength of
light, so the deviation increases with decrease in the wavelength.
• Thus, in the visible spectrum, red colour (X = 7000 Å) is deviated the least and violet (λ =
4000 Å) is deviated the most.

Dispersion of White Light through a Prism and Formation of a Spectrum

• Newton allowed the white light from the Sun to enter a darkened room through a small
aperture in a window and placed a glass prism in the path of light rays and found light
emerging with the colours of a rainbow.
• This coloured band is termed a spectrum.
• Starting from the side of the base of the prism, the colours in the spectrum on the
screen are in the following order: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
The order of colours can easily be remembered as VIBGYOR.

• Thus, white light consists of a mixture of seven different colours.

Dispersion and Spectrum

• The phenomenon of splitting of white light by a prism into its constituent colours is
known as dispersion.
• The band of colours obtained on a screen on passing white light through a prism is
called a spectrum.

Cause of Dispersion
• The cause of dispersion is the change in speed of light with wavelength (or frequency).
• Red colour is deviated the least, while violet colour is deviated the most.
• On the second surface of the prism, only refraction occurs (from glass to air), and
different colours are deviated through different angles, i.e. violet is deviated the most and
red the least.
• As a result, the colours get further separated on refraction at the second surface. The
light coming out of the prism thus has different colours that spread out to form a
spectrum.

Recombination of Colours
• The colours of a spectrum of white light combine to reproduce white light.

• The two prisms combined together effectively act like a parallel-sided glass slab.

• This experiment shows that prism P, simply disperses the white light into its constituent
colours and prism P2 recombines these colours to form the white light again. None of the
two prisms produces colours by itself.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The portion of the spectrum between red and violet colours is the visible spectrum, and
it is only a small part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
• The portion of the spectrum just beyond the red end is called the infrared spectrum,
while the portion of the spectrum just before the violet end is called the ultraviolet
spectrum.
•The waves of wavelength longer than the red part of the visible spectrum in increasing
order of wavelength are infrared radiations, microwaves and radio waves, while the waves
of wavelength shorter than the violet part of the visible spectrum in decreasing order are
ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays.
•The speed of these waves is equal to the speed of light, i.e. c = 3 x 108 m s¹,
• The speed, frequency and wavelength of electromagnetic waves are related as C = vλ

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

• These waves do not require any material medium for their propagation.
• They travel with the same speed in vacuum (or air) which is same as the speed of light,
L.e. c = 3 x 108 m s-1.
• They exhibit the properties of reflection and refraction.

• These waves are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.

• These waves are transverse waves.

Properties and Uses of Radiations of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultraviolet Radiations
Properties
• Ultraviolet radiations can pass through quartz, but they are absorbed by glass.
• These radiations travel in a straight line with a speed of 3 x 108 m s-1 in air (or vacuum).

• They are usually scattered by dust particles present in the atmosphere.

• They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
• They strongly affect a photographic plate as they are chemically more active.
• They produce fluorescence on striking a zinc-sulphide screen.
• They cause health hazards such as skin cancer if the body is exposed to them for long.

Uses:
i. For sterilising purposes.
ii. For detecting the purity of gems, eggs, ghee etc.
iii. In producing Vitamin D.
iv. In producing food of plants and animals.

Infrared Radiations
Properties
• They travel in straight lines as light does, with a speed equal to 3 x 108 m s-1 in vacuum
(or air).
• They obey the laws of reflection and refraction. When a source of heat (an infrared lamp)
is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror, a parallel infrared beam is obtained.
• They do not affect an ordinary photographic film. However, they affect a specially
treated photographic film.
• They are absorbed by glass, but they are not absorbed by rock salt.
• They are detected by their heating property using a thermopile or a blackened bulb
thermometer. High doses of infrared radiations may cause skin burns.
• They are scattered in the atmosphere because of their long wavelengths and can even
penetrate fog.

Uses:
i. They are used for therapeutic purposes by doctors.
ii. They are used in photography at night and also in mist and fog because they are not
scattered much, so they can penetrate appreciably through these.
iii. Infrared lamps are used in dark rooms for developing photographs because they do
not affect photographic film chemically, but they provide some visibility.
iv. They are used as signals during war as they are not visible and they are not absorbed
much in the medium.
v. They are used in the remote control of the television and other gadgets.