[564001] Calculus II

Lecture 5. Taylor’s Theorem

Yuki CHINO

Department of Applied Mathematics, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University

March 8, 2024
Review: Alternating Series

For an > 0 for all n ∈ N, a series which has the form of

∞
X ∞
X
(−1)n an or (−1)n−1 an
n=1 n=1

is called alternating series.

Theorem (Leibnitz’s Test) 

Let an be a sequence satisfying that

(1) for all n ∈ N, an ≥ an+1
(2) lim an = 0
n→∞
then the alternating series is convergent.
 
Review: Power Series & Radius of Convergence
Ratio/Root test 

For the sequence an , Let

an+1
Ratio test lim =: r
n→∞ an
p
Ratio test lim n |an | =: r
n→∞

If r exists, then
∞
X 1
the radius of convergence for the power series an xn is
n=1
r
 
1 1
* where 0 = ∞ and ∞ = 0.
Contents and Goal
Today’s contents 

• Power Series and Taylor’s Theorem

I Introduction to Taylor’s Theorem
I Mean Value Theorem to Taylor’s Theorem
I Taylor/Maclaurin Series
 
Motivation: Why we study today’s contents 

Can we approximate functions by polynomials?

 
Today’s Goal (Aim) 

 Be able to understand the concept of Taylor’s Theorem

 
Introduction to Taylor’s Theorem
Assume: a function can be expressed by power series 
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n
n=0
= a0 + a1 (x − a) + a2 (x − a)2 + · · · + an (x − a)n + · · ·
 
 Take derivative for f (x)

f 0 (x) = 1 · a1 + 2 · a2 (x − a) + 3 · a3 (x − a)2 + · · ·

 Take derivative again and again

f 00 (x) = |{z}
2 · 1 · a2 + 3 · 2 · a3 (x − a) + 4 · 3 · a4 (x − a)2 + · · ·
= 2!
000
2 · 1} · a3 + 4 · 3 · 2 · a4 (x − a) + 5 · 4 · 3 · a5 (x − a)2 + · · ·
f (x) = |3 ·{z
.. = 3!
.
f (n) (x) = n · (n − 1) · · · 2 · 1 · an + (n + 1) · · · 3 · 2 · an+1 (x − a) + · · ·
| {z }
= n!
Introduction to Taylor’s Theorem
 Substitute x = a

f 0 (a) = 1 · a1 + 2 · a2 (x − a) + 3 · a3 (x − a)2 + · · ·

f 00 (a) = 2! · a2 + 3 · 2 · a3 (a − a) + 4 · 3 · a4 (a − a)2 + · · ·

f 000 (a) = 3! · a3 + 4 · 3 · 2 · a4 (a − a) + 5 · 4 · 3 · a5 (a − a)2 + · · ·

..
.
f (n) (a) = n! · an + (n + 1) · · · 3 · 2 · an+1 (a − a) + · · ·

f 00 (a) f 000 (a) f (n) (a)

a0 = f (a), a1 = f 0 (a), a2 = , a3 = , · · · , an = ,···
2! 3! n!
Introduction to Taylor’s Theorem
Proposition 5.1. 

If the function f (x) can be expressed by a power series centered

at a, then its coefficients are given by

f (n) (a)
an = n ∈ N,
n!
that is, we have the expression for the function
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n .
n=0
n!
 
* In general, we don’t know whether the function can be expressed by a
power series or not.
Mean Value Theorem to Taylor’s Theorem
Review: Mean Value Theorem 

Let f be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on

the open interval (a, b). Then, there exists a constant c ∈ (a, b) such
that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
 
 For h > 0 and θ ∈ (0, 1), take

b=a+h and c = a + θh

Mean Value Theorem 

Let f be continuous and differentiable on an interval I. Then, for

h > 0 and a ∈ I, there exists a constant θ ∈ (0, 1) such that

f (a + h) = f (a) + f 0 (a + θh) · h
 
Mean Value Theorem to Taylor’s Theorem
 Apply Mean Value Theorem

f (a + h) = f (a) + f 0 (a + θ1 h) · h

 For f 0 (a + θ1 h), apply Mean Value Theorem again

f 0 (a + θ1 h) = f 0 (a) + f 00 (a + θ2 (θ1 h)) · (θ1 h)

⇒ f (a + h) = f (a) + f 0 (a) · h + f 00 (a + θ1 θ2 h) · θ1 h2

 For f 0 (a + θ2 θ1 h), apply Mean Value Theorem again

f 00 (a + θ1 θ2 h) = f 00 (a) + f 000 (a + θ3 (θ1 θ2 h)) · (θ1 θ2 h)

⇒ f (a+h) = f (a)+f 0 (a) ·|{z}

1 h+f 00 (a) · θ1 h2 +f 000 (a+θ1 θ2 θ3 h) · θ12 θ2 h3
|{z}
= b1 = b2
Mean Value Theorem to Taylor’s Theorem
 Substitute
x=a+h

 Take a sequence {bn } satisfying

b1 = 1, b2 = θ1 , b3 = θ12 θ2 , ···

f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a) b1 (x − a) + f 00 (a) b2 (x − a)2 + f 000 (a) b3 (x − a)3

| {z } | {z } | {z }
= a1 = a2 = a3

+ · · · + f (n) (a) bn (x − a)n + f (n+1) (a + θh) bn+1 (x − a)n+1

| {z }
an

 Compare Proposition 4.3.

1 1 1 1
b1 = 1, b2 = , b 3 = , b4 = , · · · , b n =
2! 3! 4! n!
Taylor’s Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem 

For n ∈ N, let f be an (n + 1)-times differentiable function in an

interval I. Then, for any x, a ∈ I, there exists a constant θ ∈ (0, 1)
such that
n
X f (k) (a) f (n+1) (ξ)
f (x) = (x − a)k + (x − a)n+1 ,
k! (n + 1)!
k=0

where ξ = a + θ(x − a) ∈ (x, a) or (a, x).

 
* Note that f (0) (a) = f (a) and 0! = 1.
Taylor’s Theorem

n
X f (k) (a) f (n+1) (ξ)
f (x) = (x − a)k + (x − a)n+1
k! (n + 1)!
k=0

n-th Order Taylor Polynomial 

n
X f (k) (a)
P (x) := (x − a)k
k!
k=0
 
Lagrange Form of the Remainder Term 

f (n+1) (ξ)
Rn+1 := (x − a)n+1
(n + 1)!
 
Taylor’s and Maclaurin Series
 If the remainder term lim Rn = 0,
n→∞
Taylor Series 
n
X f (k) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)k
k!
k=0
 

 If a = 0,
 Maclaurin Series 
n
X f (k) (0)
f (x) = xk
k!
k=0
 
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

f (x) = ex

Since (ex )0 = ex ,
f (n) (0) = 1
Therefore,
∞
1 1 1 n X xn
ex = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + x + ··· =
1! 2! n! n=0
n!

Question 4.4. 

Compute Maclaurin series for the following function (with showing

the Lagrange form of remainder goes to zero).
(1) f (x) = sin x
(2) f (x) = cos x
 
Summary and Announcement
Summary: Taylor and Maclaurin Series 

1 How to compute Taylor/Maclaurin series

2 Check the convergence of remainder term
 

I Next lecture: 3/12 (Tue.) 10:10-12:00, @SC106.

I Office Hour: Thursday 16:00-17:30
Of course, you can make an appointment
(email: [email protected])